THE  LIBRARY 
OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 


Its.  Jefferson  P.  Chandler 


X, 


CLASSICAL  ANTIQUITIES; 


BEING   PART   OF    THE 


"MANUAL  OF  CLASSICAL  LITERATURE," 


FROM   THE   GERMAN   OF 

J.   J.   ESCHENBURG, 

FORMER  PROFESSOR  IN  THE  CAROLINUM  AT  BRUNSWICK. 


EMBRACING    TREATISES    ON    THE    FOLLOWING    SUBJECTS  : 

I.    CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRA-     I       III.    GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

PHY.  I       IV.    GREEK    ANTIQUITIES. 

II.    CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY.  V.    ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 


WITH  IMPORTANT  IMPROVEMENTS  AND  ADDITIONS, 


N.W.  FISKE,  A.  M., 

LATE    PROFESSOR    OF    GREEK    LANGUAGE   AND    LITERATURE    IN    AMHERST    COLLEGE. 


j|nHg  jtOtotttttti 


FOURTEENTH   THOUSAND. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

W.   S.   FORTESCUE  &   CO. 

I  Successors  to  E.  C.  &  J-  Biddle,) 

No.  811  Arch  Street. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1878,  by 

W.  S.  FORTESCUE  &  CO., 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


CAXTON   PRESS   OF  BHEBMAJ?   .V   CO.,   PHILA. 


5*1 
PREEACE. 


For  an  account  of  the  origin  and  design  of  the  Manual  of  Classical 
Literature,  the  reader  is  respectfully  referred  to  the  Preface  to  that 
work.  The  present  volume  is  a  portion  of  the  Manual,  including 
but  three  of  its  Jive  Parts.  These  three,  viz. :  Classical  Geography 
and  Chronology,  Greek  ind  Roman  Mythology,  and  Greek  and  Ho- 
•nan  Antiquities,  are  published  separately,  from  a  regard  to  the 
wishes  of  some  teachers,  especially  in  the  primary  classical  schools. 

The  reasons  for  a  separate  publication  of  these  parts  will  appear, 
when  it  is  considered,  that  the  scholar,  in  the  very  commencement 
of  his  classical  studies,  needs  some  guide  and  help  in  each  of  these 
Dranches,  while  it  is  not  so  essential  that  he  should  attend  particu- 
larly at  first  to  the  branches  with  which  the  two  other  parts  of  the 
Manual  are  occupied.  The  whole  ground  embraced  in  the  Manual, 
the  student  must,  indeed,  go  over  before  completing  his  classical 
course  ;  but  the  Archaeology  of  Literature  and  Art,  and  the  System- 
atic History  and  Criticism  of  the  Classical  Authors,  are  not  often 
included  in  the  studies  at  thp  Academy.  In  consequence  of  sug- 
gestions of  this  kind,  a  thousand  copies  of  the  three  parts  contained 
in  this  volume  were  printed  in  connection  with  the  first  and  second 
editions  of  the  Manual,  and  the  demand  for  them  has  been  such  as 
to  induce  the  publisher  to  issue  another  impression. 

This  new  edition  of  the  volume  styled  Classical  Antiquities  is 
much  more  valuable  than  the  former,  as  it  corresponds  to  the  fourth 
edition  of  the  Manual,  and  is  illustrated  by  numerous  engravings. 

A  peculiarity  of  this  volume,  which  has  greatly  recommended  it 
in  the  estimation  of  teachers,  is  its  comprehensiveness  united  with  a 
fullness  of  detail  sufficient  for  all  the  common  purposes  of  elementary 
instruction.  Ancient  Geography  with  the  Topography  of  Rome 
and  Athens,  Classical  Chronology,  Mythology,  Greek  Antiquities, 
and  Roman  Antiquities,  are  here  presented  within  the  compass  of 
304  pages.  There  is  not  in  the  English  language,  it  is  believed, 
another  work  in  which  these  topics,  all  so  essential  to  the  young 
classical  scholar,  are  brought  into  one  volume  and  thus  adapted  for 
daily  use.  If,  because  the  work  comprehends  so  much,  any  one 
should  be  disposed  to  infer  that  each  part  must  be  defective,  he  is 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

requested  to  examine  and  compare.  The  Epitome  of  Classical 
Geography  will  be  found  to  comprise  every  thing  of  special  import- 
ance in  /ji/lfer's  work  on  the  subject,  with  much  improvement  in 
several  points  of  arrangement,  and  an  account  far  more  complete 
of  the  remains  of  Rome,  Athens,  and  other  cities.  The  Introduction 
to  Chronology  contains  what  is  most  essential  in  the  Treatise  of 
Hegewisch,  with  many  things  of  great  importance  not  found  in  that, 
nor  in  any  of  the  works  on  Antiquities  now  in  use.  The  Treatise 
on  Greek  Antiquities  is  by  no  means  intended  to  exclude  such  a 
work  as  Potter's,  which  is  more  minute  on  some  points ;  but  the 
competent  teacher  will  discover  that  this  condensed  treatise  contains 
important  information  for  which  his  pupil  will  search  in  vain  in 
Potter ;  and  he  will  on  comparison  find  it  as  full  on  every  essential 
point  as  any  other  treatise  used  in  our  country,  while  the  Greek 
Mythology  and  Topography  are  given  separately  and  with  much 
greater  fullness.  In  the  Roman  Antiquities  the  plan  of  the  work 
did  not  allow  that  frequent  citation  of  the  Latin  authors  which  marks 
the  pages  of  Adam;  and  the  treatise  is  not  expected  wholly  to  super- 
sede the  use  of  that  or  some  larger  work  ;  but  a  comparison  of  the 
treatise  in  this  volume  with  any  other  used  in  American  schools,  will 
satisfy  the  teacher  that  it  is  more  full  and  complete,  independently  of 
the  Roman  Mythology,  Geography  and  Topography  introduced 
separately;  and  some  persons  of  experience  in  teaching  have 
expressed  their  conviction,  that  the  scholar  is  likely  to  obtain  from 
the  study  of  a  treatise  like  this,  a  better  general  knowledge  of  Roman 
Antiquities  than  from  the  study  of  such  a  work  as  that  of  Adam;  on 
this  point,  however,  the  translator  ought  perhaps  to  be  silent. 

There  is  another  peculiarity,  which  distinguishes  this  work,  viz.: 
that  it  presents  numerous  references  to  authors  treating  of  the 
genera]  subjects,  and  also,  in  many  cases,  to  works  on  particular 
topics  introduced.  These  references  are  given  in  such  a  manner  as 
not  to  delay  or  embarrass  the  youngest  student,  and  yet  they  may 
help  the  more  advanced  scholar  and  the  teacher  to  find  readily  furthei 
information,  if  they  wish  and  have  the  time  and  means  at  command. 

In  offering  to  American  teachers  and  scholars  this  new  edition 
the  author  may  be  allowed  to  express  his  hope  that  it  may  subservt 
in  some  degree  the  highly  important  cause  of  classical  and  libera 
education;  from  an  ardent  desire  to  promote  which  he  originalli 
prepared  the  Translation  of  Esciienburg's  Manual. 

\mherst  College,  July,  1843. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY    AND    CHRONOLOGY. 


EPITOME    OF    CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Introduction,  p.  3,  4. 

$$  1-5.  =  $  1-3  Portion  of  earth  known 
to  ancients.     $  4,  5  Ancient  divisions. 
I.  Of  Europe,  p.  4-43. 

$$  6-148.  =  §  G,  7  Extent  and  bounda- 
ries. §  8  General  subdivisions.  $  9-15 
Northern  countries  oi  Europe;  Scandina- 
via, Cinibrica,  Sarmatia,  Germania,  &c. 
$  16-26  Middle  countries  of  Europe  ;  Gal- 
lia, Rhaetia,  Noricum,  Pannonia,  Illyri- 
cum,  Mcesia,  Dacia.  $  27-129  South  m 
countries  of  Europe.  $  29-31  Hispania. 
$  32-50  Italia.  $  51-71  Topography  of 
Rome.  $  51,  52  Gales  and  roads.  $  53 
Bridges  and  hills.  $  54  Districts.  Re- 
ferences to  writers  on  the  topography  of 
the  city.  §  55  Carnpi.  $  56  Streets.  $57 
Fora.  $  58-60  Temples  and  groves. 
$61-63  Curiae,  basilica?,  circuses  ;  theatres, 
&c.  $  64  Baihs.  §  65- 67  Schools,  por- 
ticos, columns,  trophies,  &c.  $  68  Aque- 
ducts. Sewers.  $  69  Monuments  to  the 
dead.  $70  Dwellings.  $71  Villas.  Sub- 
urbs. $  72-75  Thracia.  $  76  Four  na- 
tural divisions  of  Graeeia.  $  77-81  Mace- 
donia. $  82-85  Thessalia.  $  86-88  Epirus. 
§  89-103  Hellas.  $  104-116  Topography 
of  Athens.  $  104,  105  Its  situation.  $  106 
The  Acropolis.  $  107  Parthenon  and 
other  buildings  of  the  citadel.  $  108-110 
The  lower  city  and  its  temples.  $  111 
Porches.  Odea.  Ceramicus.  $  112,  113 
Forums.  Aqueducts.  Stadium.  $  114 
Areopagus.  Pnyx.  $  115  Theatres.  Cho- 
ragic  monuments.  $  116  Harbors.  Re- 
ferences to  writers  on  the  topography  of 
Athens.  $  117-125  Peloponnesus.  $126- 
129  Topography  of  Sparta.  $  126  Form 
and  situation.  $  *127  Forum.  $  128  Co- 
lumns and  statues.  $  129  Hippodrome. 
Harbor.  References  to  writers.  $130-148 
European  Islands.  $  130-136  Britannia 
and  adjoining  islands.  $  137  Balearieae. 
Corsica  and  Sardinia.  $  138-140  Sicilia. 
$  141,  142  Ionian  islands.  $  143-148 
jEgean  islands. 

II.  Of  Asia,  p.  43-53. 
$$  149-172.  =  $  149,  150  Extent  and 
general  division  of  Asia.  $  151-155  Coun- 
tries of  the  Eastern  division.  Scythia, 
Sinae,  India.  Persia,  .Media,  Parthia. 
$  156-171  Countries  of  the  Western  divi- 
sion.    $  156  Sarmatia,  Colchis,  Albania, 


a2 


Iberia.  $  157  Armenia.  $  158-165  Asia 
Minor.  $  166  Syria.  Phoenicia.  $  167-169 
Palaestina.  $168b.  Topography  of  Jeru- 
salem. $  170  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia 
and  Assyria.  $  171  Arabia.  $  172  Asia- 
tic islands. 

III.  Of  Africa,  p.  53-57. 
$$  173-183.  =  $  173  Extent  and  divisions 
of  Africa.  $  174-176  Egypt.  $  177  An- 
cient ruins  and  remains  oi  Egypt.  Works 
on  the  subject.  $  178  ^Ethiopia.  $  179 
Libya.  $  180  Africa  Propria.  $  181  Nu- 
midia.  $  182  Mauritania.  $  183  Africa 
Interior.     Atlantis. 

INTRODUCTION    TO    CLASSICAL    CHRONO- 
LOGY. 

Preliminary  "Remarks,    p.  59. 
$  184.  Importance  of  the  subject.     De- 
sign of  present  sketch.     Two  parts. 

I.  Of  measuring  time  and  adjusting  its 
divisions,  p.  59-63. 

$$185-196.  =  $  185  The  three  natural 
divisions  of  time;  day,  month,  and  year. 
$  186,  187  Ancient  customs  as  to  be- 
ginning and  dividing  the  day.  $  188  De- 
vices for  marking  and  making  known  the 
parts  of  the  day.  Dial.  Clepsydra.  $18.9, 
190  The  month.  The  Grecian  system. 
$  191  a,  191  b.  Roman  method  of  reckoning 
the  months,  and  the  days  of  the  month. 
The  week.  Names  of  the  days.  $  192 
The  year.  The  Grecian  ,  Roman ;  Ju- 
lian. The  Gregorian  Calendar.  Old  and 
new  style.  $  193  Cycles.  $  194  The 
lunar  cycle.  $  195  The  solar.  $  196  The 
cycle  of  indiction.     Julian  Period. 

Il.^Of  firing  the  dates  of  historical 
event?  and  arranging  them  in  order, 
p.  63-79. 

$$  197-215.  =  $  197  Topics  noticed  in 
this  part.  $  198-201  Methods  of  asci  rtain- 
ing  dates.  1.  Successive  generations ;  and 
successive  reigns  of  kings.  2.  Celestial 
appearances.  3.  Coins,  inscriptions,  &.c. 
1.  Historical  testimony.  $  202,  203  Epochs 
and  eras.  Bra  of  Olympiads;  of  Koine; 
the  Christian ;  the  Mahometan ;  of  the 
French  Republic  $204-207  Systems  and 
tables.  $  2(U  Claims  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Babylonians.  $  205  The  Hebrew  and 
the  Septuagint  chronology.  Newton's. 
Usher's.     $  206,    207    Various  plans   for 


CONTENTS. 


cYiarts.  The  best.  §  208-215  Act  ualdate. s 
of  most  promineiU  touts.  §208  Common 
complaint  of  students.  Remedy.  §  209 
lutline  of  General  Chronology.  §  210 
Sysn  ms  of  artificial  memory.  §211  Chro- 
nology of  ancient  states ;    eight  principal 


stales  of  Asia  ;  references  to  works  on  ihen 
history  ;  Assyrian  ;  Jewish  ;  Trojan  ;  Ly- 
dkm  ;  Persian;  Syrian;  Parthian.  §212 
Of  the  two  principal  in  Africa  ;  Egyptian  ; 
Carthaginian.  §  213  Of  Greece.  §214, 
215  01  Rome. 


PART  II. 


MYTHOLOGY    OF    THE    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS. 


Introduction,  p.  83-90. 
§§  1-12.  =  §  1  Circumstances  calculated 
to  give  a  fabulous  character  to  early  tradi- 
v  2  Mythology  in  the  Greek,  and 
In  the  modern  sense  of  the  term.  §  3  Dif- 
ferent points  of  view  in  contemplating  my- 
thological fables.  §  4  Changes  and  addi- 
tions in  mythological  stories.  §  5  Different 
sources  of  mythological  fabrications.  §  6 
Advantages  of  an  acquaintance  with  my- 
thology. §  7  Eastern  origin  of  the  Gre- 
cian deities.  §  8  The  Roman  gods  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greeks.  §  9  The  Greek 
and  Roman  system  of  classifying  their  gods. 
§  10  The  four  classes  und'er  which  they 
are  arranged  in  this  work.  §  11  The  no- 
tions of  deity  entertained  by  the  Greeks 
Bud  Romans.  Abode  of  the  gods.  §  12 
References  to  works  treating  on  the  subject. 

I.  Mythological  History  of  the  Superior 
gods,  p.  91-113. 

§§  13-67.  =  §  13  Gods  included  in  this 
class.  §  14-17  Saturn.  §  18  Janus. 
§  19-21  Cybele  or  Rhea.  §  22-25  Jupiter. 
',26-28  Juno.  §  29-31  Neptune.  §32-34 
Pluto.  §  35-37  Apollo.  §  38-40  Diana. 
J  -11-13  Minerva.  §  44-46  Mars.  §  47-50 
Venus-  Cupid.  §  51-54  Vulcan.  §55-56 
Mercury.  §  57-60  Bacchus.  Silenus. 
§  61-64  Ceres.     §  65-67  Vesta. 

II.  Mythological  History  of  the  Inferior 
gods,  p. '11 3-124. 

§§  68-96.  =  §  68  Gods  included  in  this 
class.  §  69, 70  Coelus.  §  71, 72  Sol  or  He- 
73 Luna.  §74,75 Aurora.  §76Nox. 
$  77  Iris.  §  78  jEolus.  §  79,  80  Pan. 
5  81,  82  Latona.  §  83  Themis.  Astnea. 
Nemesis.  §  84  jEsculapius.  §85Plutus. 
J  86  Fortune.     §  87  Fame.     §  88  Deities 


peculiar  to  the  Greeks.  §  89-95  Deities 
peculiar  to  the  Romans.  §  90  Tiber. 
Roma.  §  91.  Terminus.  Priapus.  Ver- 
tumnus.  Flora.  Feronia.  Pales.  §  92 
Gods  presiding  over  various  conditions  or 
pursuits  of  men.  Bellona,  Juturna,  &c 
§  93  Victoria.  §  94  Deified  Roman  em- 
perors. §  95  Virtues  and  Vices.  §  96 
Egyptian  deities  worshiped  among  the 
Romans. 

III.  Mythical  heings,  whose  history  is 
intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  gods, 
p.  124-132. 

§§  97-1 17.  =  §  97  Titans.  §  98  Giants. 
Pygmies.  §  99  Tritons.  §  100  Sirens. 
§  101  Nymphs.  §  102,  103  Muses.  §  104 
Graces.  §  105  Hours.  §106  Fates.  §107 
Furies.  §  108  a.  Harpies.  §  108  b.  Venti 
or  Winds.  §  109  Daemons.  §110  Manes. 
§111  Lares.  §  112  Penates.  §  113  Sleep 
Dreams,  and  Death.  §  114  Satyrs  and 
Fauns.  §115Gorgons.  §  116  Amazons 
§  117  Minotaur,  Chimaera,  and  various 
other  monsters. 

IV.  Mythical  History  of  Heroes,  p. 
132-137. 

§§  118-133.  =  §  118  Three  periods  ot 
Grecian  story.  §  119  General  cause  of  the 
deification  of  heroes.  §  120  Two  classes 
of  venerated  heroes.  §121  Inachns,  Ox- 
gyges,  Cecrops,  and  several  others,  ho- 
nored  specially  among  their  own  people. 
§  122  Perseus.  Atlas.  §  123,  124  Her- 
cules. §  125,  126  Theseus.  §  127,  128 
Jason  and  the  Argonauts.  §  129  Casto? 
and  Pollux.  §  130  Heroes  of  the  Theban 
war.  §  131  Pelops  and  his  descendants. 
§  132  Heroes  of  the  Trojan  war.  §  133 
Deified  Roman  emperors. 


PART  III. 


GREEK    AND    ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 


GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction,  p.  1 10-115. 
"IN  I    ( (rigin    of    the     name 

'  ( lountrii  -  included  under  it. 
*>  3  Most  impoi  tani  I  free  54  Po- 

litical ch  I  it  il  inhal  itants.    §  6 


of  government.  §  8  The  Spartan  system. 
■  9  \thens.  §  10  Causes  of  Grecian  im- 
provement. §11  Utility  of  study  of  An- 
tiquities,  and  of  Grecian  in  particular.  §  12 
<  Original  sources  of  knowledge  on  the  sub- 
ject. 5  13  References  to  authors.  §  14 
Mi  fects  in  the  common  treatises  on  Greek 


Their  eurly  intercourse.    $7  Early  forms    antiquities.    Early  and  later  ages  distinct 


COMENTS. 


vu 


I.  Of  the   Earlier   and  less   cultivated 
Ages,  p.  145-160. 

$  15  The  period  included.     Subject  di- 
vided into  four  branches. 

I.  Religious  Affairs. 
$$  16-32.  =  $  16  First  traces  of  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Greeks.  $  17  Form  and  mode 
of  religious  instruction.  $  18  Influence  of 
the  poets.  $  19  Number  and  character  of 
the  gods.  $  20  Temples  and  sacred  places. 
$  21  Images  and  statues.  $  22  Priests 
and  Priestesses.  $  23  Rites;  ablutions. 
$  24  Prayers.  $  25  Sacrifices  ;  the  ma- 
terials;  the  origin.  $  26  Altars.  $  27 
Sacrifices  ;  the  ceremonies.  $  28  Gifts  and 
offerings.  $  29  Worship  rendered  to  he- 
roes. $  30  Funeral  solemnities.  $  31 
Burning  of  corpse ;  monuments.  $  32 
Oracles  and  divination. 

II.  Civil  Affairs. 
$$  33-41.  =  $  33  Early  rudeness.  $  34 
Power  of  the  kings.  $  35  Their  retinue 
and  councillors.  $  36  Courts  of  justice. 
$  37  Laws  and  punishment.  $  38  The 
Cretan  laws.  $  39  Successive  forms  of 
government  at  Athens.  $  40  At  Sparta. 
$  41  Commerce  and  Navigation. 

III.  Military  Affairs. 
$$  42-51.  =$  42  Early  Greeks  warlike. 
$  43  Their  armies,  how  composed.  $  44 
Weapons;  Defensive.  $  45  Offensive. 
<>  46  The  materials  of  which  made.  $  47 
War-galleys.  $  48  Camps.  $  49  Order 
of  Battle.  $  50  Division  of  Spoils.  Bar- 
barous stripping  of  the  slain.  Combat  of 
chiefs.     $  51  Treaties. 

IV.  Domestic  Affairs. 
$$  52-63  =  $  52  Common  food.  Daily 
meals.  $  53  Social  repasts.  $  54  Dress. 
$  55  Practice  of  bathing.  Cultivation  of 
the  Hair.  §  56  Houses.  $  57  Hospitality. 
$  58  Employments  ;  agriculture  ;  hunting. 
$  59  Employments  of  women.  $  60  Amuse- 
ments. $  61  Marriage.  $  62  Education 
of  children.     §  63  Slaves. 

II.  Of  the  Later  and  more  flourishing 
Ages,  p.  160-223. 

I.  Religious  Affairs. 
$$  64-90.  =  §  64  Number  of  gods  in- 
creased. $65a.  Temples  more  splendid. 
§  65  b.  Altars.  $  66  Sacred  groves.  Asyla. 
$  67  Classes  of  priests.  Purification.  $68 
Sacrifices  and  attendant  ceremonies.  §  69 
Oaths.  Leagues.  $  70  Oracles.  Im- 
posture at  Argos.  §  71  Oracles  of  Jupi- 
ter; atDodona;  in  Crete;  African  desert. 
$  72.  73  Of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  $  74  Of 
Trophonius;  of  .^sculapius,  and  others. 
$75  Arts  and  methods  of  divination.  $  76, 
77  Festivals;  notice  of  the  principal;  of 
Adonis,  of  Bacchus,  of  Ceres,  of  Minerva. 
$  78  Games.  $  79  The  race.  $  80  Leap- 
ing. $  81  Wrestling.  $  82  The  discus. 
$  83  Boxing.     $  84  Four  sacred  games. 


Olympic.  $  85  Pythian.  $  86  Nemean. 
$  87  Isthmian.  $  88  System  of  athletics. 
$  89  Theatres,  and  dramatic  representa- 
tions. Masks.  Chorus.  $  90  Theoric 
money  at  Athens. 

II.  Civil  Affairs. 

$$  91-134.  =  $  91  Athens  and  Sparta 
distinguished  by  peculiarities.  $  92  Diacc 
and  Solon  at  Athens.  $  93  The  tribes  arid 
classes  at  Athens.  $  94  Pisistratus,  and 
his  sons.  $  95  The  thirty  tyrants.  Form 
of  government  after  them  until  death  "t 
Alexander.  $  96  Buildings  of  Athens. 
$  97  The  free  citizens  of  Athens.  $  98 
The  foreign  residents.  $  99  The  slaves 
$  100  Magistrates.  $  101  The  Archons. 
$102  The  Eleven  ;  Orators;  Ambassa- 
dors; Notaries,  &,c.  $  103  Athenian  re- 
venues. $  104  Officers  of  the  revenue  and 
treasury.  Expenditures.  $  105  Amphic- 
tyonic  council.  $  106  Assemblies  of  the 
people.  $  107  Athenian  senate.  $108  Areo- 
pagus. $  109  Athenian  courts  of  justice. 
The  Ephetfe.  $  110  The  Heliaea.  $  111 
The  Forty.  The  Diaetetae.  $  112  Dif- 
ferent kindsof  actions.  $  113  Punishments. 
$114  The  Ostracism.  $  115  Modes  of  in- 
flicting death.  $  116  Public  rewards  and 
honors.  $  117  Attic  laws.  $118  Natural 
situation  of  Sparta.  $119  Spartan  tribes. 
$  120  Treatment  of  children  at  Sparta. 
$  121  Spartan  slaves.  $  122  The  kings  of 
Sparta.  $  123  The  Senate.  Ephori.  $  124 
Nomophulakes  and  other  magistrates. 
$  125  Assemblies  of  the  people.  $  126  Pub 
lie  repasts.  $  127  Judicial  affairs.  $  128 
Punishments.  $  129  Laws  of  Sparta. 
$  130  Cretan  constitution.  $  131  Cre'an 
laws;  public  meals;  slaves.  $  132  Con- 
stitution of  Thebes.  $  133  Constitutions 
of  Corinth  and  Syracuse.  $  134  Of  Argos, 
of  jEtolia,  and  Achaia. 

III.  Military  Affairs. 

$135-160.  =$  135  The  warlike  character 
retained;  especially  by  the  Spartans.  $  136 
Persons  liable  to  military  duty.  Their 
support.  $  137  Classes  of  troops.  The 
infantry.  $  138  Cavalry.  Use  of  Elephants. 
$  139  Armor.  $  140  Various  officers. 
$  141  The  divisions  of  the  army.  $  142 
Forms  of  Battle-array.  Manoeuvres.  $143 
Declaration  of  war.  Treaties.  $  144 
Camps.  $  145  Standards  and  ensigns. 
Signals  for  battle.  $,  146  Art  of  besieging. 
$  147  Military  engines.  $  148  Defence  of 
cities.  $  149  Treatment  of  captured  places. 
$  150  Division  of  spoils.  $  151  Military 
rewards  and  punishments.  $  152  Means 
of  conveying  intelligence.  $  153  Crossing 
of  rivers.  $  154,  155  Ships;  Names  of 
their  principal  parts;  Vesselsof  war.  $156 
Rowers,  sailors  and  marines;  Manner  01 
placing  the  seats  of  rosvers.  $  157  Instru- 
ments employed  in  naval  battle.  $  158 
Naval  officers.  $  159  Manner  oi  navi» 
battle.  $  160  Naval  victories  and  monu 
ments.     Naval  punishments. 


CONTEXTS. 


IV.  Affairs  of  Private  Life. 
§t  _<a  -187.  =  §  161  Food.  Use  of  wines. 
$  162  The  different   meals.     Manner  of 
spending  the  day  at  Athens.     §  163  Enter- 
tainments   or  feasts.     §   164   Customs  at 
Substances  eaten  at  the  prin- 
cipal meal.     §  166  Officers  and  attendants 
ainment.     §167  Drinking  ves- 
sels.    Customs  in  drinking.    Amusements 
accompanying  a  feast.     §168  Customs' oi 
hospitality.  Officers  called  Proxeni.   Inns. 

Dress,  for  the  body,  head,  and  feet. 
Use  of  silk.  Adorning  of  the  person.  §170 
Bathing   and   anointing.      §    171    Houses. 

;  ommerce  and  Agriculture.  §173, 
171  Grecian  money  and  coins.     Ratio  of 

and  silver.  §  175  Greek  system  ot 
notation.  §  176  Grecian  weights.  §  177 
Measures.  §  178  Social  amusements. 
180  Music  and  musical  instruments. 
§  1-1  Condition  of  females.  §  182  Laws 
and  customs  respecting  marriage.  §§  183 
-186  Funeral  rites.  Anniversaries  held  in 
honor  < if  the  dead,  with  orations  and  games. 
'   1  -7  Sepulchral  monuments. 

ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction,  p.  225-229. 
L98.  =  §   188  Origin  of  Rome. 

Principal  events  which  affected  the 
appearance  of  the  city.  Comparative 
splendor  of  ancient   and   modern    Rome. 

Population  of  Rome.  §  191  Extent 
of  the  Roman  empire.  §  192  Proportion 
its  and  other  citizens.  §  193  The 
time  of  the  regal  government.  §  194  Most 
brilliant  era  of  Roman  history.  §  195  Con- 
dition under  the  emperors.  §  196  Utility 
!il  studying  Roman  antiquities.     Original 

s  of  information  on  the  subject.  §197 
References  to  modern  works  and  authors. 
5  L98  Division  of  the  subject. 

I.  Religious  Affairs,  p.  229-248. 
199-239.  ==§199  Use  of  the  term  re- 
200  '  irigin  of  the  religion  of  the 
Romans.     §  201  Its  connection  with  poli- 
i  of  Romulus  and  Numa. 
of  the   Romans.      §  203  Temples. 
s  and  offerings.  Groves.   §205 
:n6  Vessels  employed  in  sacri- 
Beveral  orders  of  priests.   §208 
Pontifices.    §  209  Augurs.     Various  me- 
thods of  augury.    §  210  Haruspices.    §211 
'   Feciales.     §  213  Rex 
'i   Flamines.     5  215  Salii 
ii  rci.     §  217  Galli  and  others, 
tl  virgins.     §  219  FrarresArva- 
3,  and  "tli'  rs.     $  220  <  'ustoms 
in  offering  prayei  I  Sacrifiri 

attendant  riti  Vov  123  De- 

on  of  sacred  building  '.  Expia- 

tions    The  n         !25  Oath 

•  ■:  Lots      9  228  Divisions  of 

I  i  stivals.     '    131  Public 

'  Ludi  <  lircenses.    Nau- 

machia  534    Ludi  Seculares. 

Ludi   Gladiatorii.      $  236  Ludi   Fli 

$  237    Ludi  Megalenses,   Cereales,    and 


others.      §    238    Theatres,    Masks,  &c 
§  239  Amphitheatres. 

II.  Civil  Affairs,  p.  248-270. 
§§  240-274.  =  §  240  Regal  govern  men 
§241  Consuls.  §242  Imperial  government. 
§  243  Praetors.  §  244  jEdiles.  §  245  Tri- 
bunes. §  246  Quaestors.  §  247  Censors. 
§  248,  249  Extraordinary  magistrates- 
Dictator;  Decemviri;  Military  Tribunes; 
Prasfects.  Interrex,  &c.  §  250  Procon- 
suls, and  other  provincial  magistrates.  §25] 
Tribes.  §  252  Six  classes  of  citizens.  Cen- 
turies. §  253  Patricians  and  plebeians. 
§  254  The  populace.  Patrons  and  clients 
§  255  Roman  nobility.  Right  of  images 
C untie  office.  §  256  The  Equites  or 
Knights.  §  257  The  Senate.  §  258,  259 
The  Comitia.  §  260  Right  of  citizenship 
Government  of  conquered  cities  and  na- 
tions. §  261  Judicial  proceedings.  Public 
actions  and  trials.  §  262  Private  actions. 
§  263  Penal  offences.  §  264  Punishments. 
§  265  System  of  laws.  Body  of  Roman 
civil  law.  §  266  Regulations  respecting 
grain.  §  267  Revenue.  Saltworks.  Mines. 
§  268  Various  Pursuits.  Commerce.  Me 
chanicarts.  §  269  Agriculture.  Carriages 
5  270  Money.  Coins.  §  271  System  of 
reckoning  and  notation.  §  272  Modes  oi 
acquiring  property.  §  273  Auctions.  Con- 
fiscations. §  274  Measures  of  extent,  &c. 
Modes  of  determining  the  Roman  foot. 

III.  Affairs  of  War,  p.  270-285. 

§§  275-309.  =  §  275  Authorities  on  the 
subject.  §  276  Military  establishment  of 
the  kings.  §  277  Persons  liable  to  amy. 
Time  of  service.  §  278  Consular  army. 
Exempts.  §  279  System  of  levy.  *>  280 
Classes  of  troops.  §281  Subdivision  into 
maniples,  &c.  §  282  Standards.  Music. 
§283  Weapons.  §  284  Wages.  Rewards. 
§  285  Punishments.  §  286  Order  of  battle. 
§  287  Modes  of  attack.  §  288  Light  troops. 
§  289,  290  Cavalry.  §  291  C<  hurts. 
Auxiliaries.  §  293  Attendants  upon  the 
army.  §294  Orderofmarch.  §  295  Forms 
of  army.  §  296.  297  The  Camp.  §  298 
Watches  Exercises  of  soldiers.  §  299 
Sieges.  Engines.  Mounds  and  rowers. 
Battering  ram  and  other  engines.  §  300 
Modes  id  defence  in  a  siege.  §  301  The 
fleets.  §  502  Method  of  naval  battle.  §303 
Construction  and  parts  of  Roman  ships. 
§  304  Different  kinds  of  vessels.  §  305 
Rewards  of  generals.  §  306  Laws  on  the 
subject.  §  307  The  triumph.  §  308  The 
ovation.  §  309  Military  system  under  the 
emperors. 

IV.  Affairs  of  Private  Life,  p.  285-304. 
§§  310-343.  =§310  The  free-born  and 
the  free-made  discriminated.  §311  System 
of  applying  proper  names.  §  312  Regula- 
tions respecting  marriage.  §  313,  314 
Marriage  contracts.  §315  Nuptial  cere- 
monies. §  316  Divorces.  §317Therighi 
and  power  of  the  father  over  his  children 
§  318  Emancipation  of  sons.     §  319  Adop- 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


tion.  §  320  Legitimation.  $  321  Educa- 
tion of  youth.  $  322  Slaves.  $  323  Slave- 
trade.  $  324  Emancipation  of  slaves. 
§  325  Dwellings.  Parts  and  ornaments  of 
a  Roman  house.  §  326  Country  seats  or 
villas.  §  327  Manner  of  life.  Morals. 
5  328  Daily  routine  of  employment.  Bath- 
ing, v  329  Food  and  meals.  Furniture 
for  eating.  $  330  Different  courses  at 
supper.  Roman  hospitality.  §  331  a. 
Drinking  and  games  at  banquets.  Dice. 
i  3316.  Wines.     $  332  Dress.     The  toea. 


$  333  The  tunic.  Badges.  §  334  1  h6 
stola  and  other  garments  of  women. 
§  335  Various  outer  garments.  Use  of  Bilk. 
§  336  Coverings  for  the  head  and  feet. 
§  337,  338  Dress  of  the  hair,  i'ersonaj 
ornaments.  $  339  Funeral  customs.  Ex- 
posure of  the  corpse.  $  340  Funeral  pro- 
cessions. Eulogy.  $341  Burning. 
of  burial.  Tombs.  Phials  of  tears.  $  34S 
Mourning  for  the  deceased.  Games  and 
sacrifices.  $  343  Consecration,  or  deifica- 
tion of  deceased  emperors. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


I.  Representation  of  the  Oracle  of  Apollo. 
[Facing  title  page.)    Cfi  P.  [II.  $  72,  73 

•_•  Hap  op  \Nrn\i  VfoRLD.  (Page  2.)  The 
Wbr\  ac ling  to  Ptolemy,  as  given  in  Mur- 
ray's  Encyclopaedia  of  Geography.     Cf.   P.   I. 

:i    Plate  I      (Page  14.)    Plans  of  Athens  anil 
See  P.  I.  ti  51-71,  104-116. 

4.  Plate  II.  (Page  16.)  The  Tiber,  and  the 
City  of  Home,  symbolized.  Cf.  P.  II.  $  90;  P.  IV. 
{  226.  1. 

5  Plate  III.  (Page  18.)  The  Pantheon.  Cf. 
P.  I.  »  59. 

6.  Plate:  IV.  (Page  23  )  Plain  and  Acropo- 
lis  ofPhilippi.     Cf.  P.  I.  J  80. 

7.  PlateIVu.  (Page  30.)  Ruins  at  Athens 
■>(  the  Temple  of  Neptune  and  that  of  Minerva 
Pandrosos.    Cf  P.  I.  $  107;  P.  III.  $  96. 

5,  Plate  IVJ.  (Page  35.)  Ruins  at  Corinth. 
Cf.  P.  I    i  120. 

9.  Plate  IV c.  (Page  37.)  Village  of  Mis- 
trii  :  tnear  the  ancient  Sparta.  Cf.  P.  I,  #  126- 
129. 

10.  Plate  V.  (Page  39.)  Cabirian  Temple 
at  Thessalonica.    Cf.  P.  I.  »  80;  P.  II.  $  129.  2. 

II.  Plate  VI.  (Page  42.)  Colossal  Statue 
of  the  Sun.  Cf.  P.  I.  $  147;  P.  II.  $72;  p.  IV. 
i  180.  I. 

1  .'.  Plate  VI  a.  (Page  45.)  Valley  of  the 
ancient  Thebarma.    Cf.  P.  I.  $  154  4. 

13.  Plate  VI  b.  (Page  49.)  View  of  Broosa, 
the  ancient  Brusa.     Cf.  P.  I.  y  160. 

14.  Plate  VII.  (Page  50.)  Temple  of  Janus 
at  Rome,  nod  that  of  the  Sun  at  Heliopolis.  Cf. 
P.  1.  }  166,  {60;   P.  IV.  <?234.  3. 

15.  Plate  VIII.  (Page  55.)  The  Egyptian 
Sphinx,  Sec.    Cf.  P.  I.  y  177 ;  P.  II.  y  1 17,  y  96. 

16.  Plate  Villa.  (Page  58.)  A  Portion  of  the 
Peutingerian  'Table.  Cf.  P.  V.  }  497.  It  is  pre- 
sented here  as  given  in  //.  Murray's  Encyclo- 
pedia of  Geography  (Phil.  1838,  3  vols.  4),  front 
which  is  taken  the  following  explanation  of  the 
figures  and  letters  on  the  Plate;  with  no  change 
except  that  of  adding  in  parentheses  the  com- 
mon Latin  form  of  some  of  the  names. 

North  Part. 

Cities.  Cilia. 

1.  Siscia.  32.  Bononia. 

2.  Sardona.  33.  Clusio  (Clusium). 

3.  Aquinro  (Aqiiincnm).  34.  Volsini  (Vulsinii). 

4.  Bngantic    firegetio).  35.  Aquas-Passans. 

3ii.  Ravenna, 

8.   H-.'i  Imie  tRagondo).  37.  Ariuiinurn. 

7   Sabarie  .  3H.  Graoi  i<  a. 

unto  (Carnuntum),       39.  Centum  Cellas. 

411.  Aquas-Tuari. 

10.  Viudnbona,  41.  Anconc  (Ancona). 

42.  Ca»lrn-Novo(C'aslrumNo. 


4.1.  Aquaa-Apollinuia, 


13.   Ac) 

II.  Soli 


12.  X. 

jilvium). 

15.  Parei,tlo<P.rentium).  45.  Follenlia. 

16,  E   nte  i  umaia.  46.  Reate. 
I"    aquileia.  47.  Cnste]l"Firmani(Castru 
l«.  Ovilia.  Firmanum). 

19.  AI'iiin(Alliniim).  4S.  Ail  Si-ni.  lVlruui. 

2!)    H. gin      -  49.  K 

lentum).  50.  II  ..li.  (iKiia). 

IB   I    ifenila.  61.  Charlaxine  (Carthago). 

23    Aqua  Populonhn.  62.  L'nca  Colonb. 

24.  Flnrenlia  I  uscorurn.  53.  Aqulg. 

1'ilia.  54.  Ippi  ate  n   II 

26    B i  ..  i  aim  ( '»!™ia. 

68    Ad  M 

t,  I   I 

29.    Mu'ina.  I 

1 


tt,  A  Iretio  ( Arretium). 
Riven. 
biua. 

►     llniiuin. 


I, 


'  aMarie. 
hi  vers. 

I'l.il.ro. 

Pallia. 


c.  Savum. 

d.  Arsia. 

e.  Frigido. 
I.  l.uvnua. 
g.  Aitkin. 
h.  Cleiuia. 
i.  Umatia. 
I.  Partus. 

k.  Paala. 
1.  Amnio, 
in.  hex. 


p.  Armenita. 
q.  Mu'\. 
r.  Tiberis. 
s.  Rubicon. 
r.  Nelurum. 
ll.  Malana. 
v.  Miso. 
w.  Flosis. 


South  Part. 

Cities.  Cilia. 

1.  Ad  Pretoruni  (Prsetorium      54.  Febralerie. 

in  Pinnonia).  5d.  Istonuin. 

2.  Servitium.  66.  CorS.no  (Corfinium). 

3.  Ad  Preiorum  (Prxtorium      57.  Marrnbio  (Marrubium). 

in  Uaimatia).  68.  Tres  Tabenia:. 

4.  Mursa  Major.  69.  C.irsulis  (Carseoli?). 

5.  Indenea.  60.  ()siia  lEtemi. 

6.  Tiitoburgo.  61.  Pinna. 

7.  Ragurio.  62.  Castro-Novo  (Castrum  No 

8.  Siclis.  vum.on  the  Hadriatic). 

9.  Salona.  63.  Pra-neste. 
10.  Epelio  (Epetium).  64.  Roma. 

It.  Mirona.  65.  Hostis  lOstia). 

12.  Sirnnum.  66.  (hartagine  (Carthago). 

13.  Narona.  67.  Maxula. 

14.  Tauruno  (Taurunum).  68.  A.I  Aquas. 

15.  Ad  Mairicem.  69.  Misua  Clipeis. 

16.  Singiduna  (Singidunum).  70.  Gurra. 

17.  Epitauro  (Epidaurus).  71.  Ad  Horrea. 

is.  Stanedi.  72.  LepteminusfLeptisM^nof) 

19.  Lissus.  73.  Tbiforo  Col. 

20.  Viminatio.  74.  Ad  Aquas. 

21.  Dyrraiio  (Dvrracliium).  75.  Tr.parura  (Tapnrura). 

22.  Aulnnia  (Apollonia).  76.  T.icape. 

23    Osa  Col.  77.  Drepanis  (Drepanum). 

24.  Sabrala.  78.  Lilvbco  (Lilvbeeum). 

25.  Reiio(RhegiuincrRegiunn).  79.    Agrigent"  (Agrigenlumj. 

26.  Caulon.  SO.  Sn-acusis  (SyracusaO. 

27.  Lao-mum.  81.  .fEtna  Mens. 

28.  Caslra  Minerva.  82.  Messana. 

29.  Vibona  Valentia.  Rivers. 
30    Temsa  (Ti-mpsa).  a.  Danubius. 

31.  Tarenlo  (Tarentum).  b.  Driuum. 

32.  Brindhi  (Bruiidusium).  t.  Savum. 

33.  Gratie.  d.  Margum. 

34.  Nerulns  (Nerulum).  e.  Genesis  (Genusus) 
35    Salerno  (Salernuw).  f.  Hapsuni  (Apsus). 

36.  Nnceria.  g.  Tanno. 

37.  < )[.t  .litis.  h.  Crater. 

38.  Benevento  (Reneventum).  i.  Silarum. 

39.  Venusia.  j.  Color. 

40.  Neapoli  (Neapolis).  k.  Aveldium. 

41.  Capua.  1.  Auftlenus. 

42.  Cnmaa  (Cuniae).  ni.  Larinum. 

43.  Sylla.  n.  Clororia. 

44.  Aeras.  o.  Sannum. 
.Jr..  Pretonium  Laucrianum.  p.  Creniera. 

16.  Si| 1"  (Siponlum).  q.  Nernum. 

47.  Esernie.  r.  Artio. 

49.  Teano  Sredirino(Teanum  a.  Tiberis. 

Snlii  iuuni).  t.  Safo. 

49.  Simiessa.  u.  Vullurnus. 

50.  Miniurnia  (Mintnrns).  v.  Himera. 
.i     Fundis  (Fundi).  w.  Niianus. 

^2.  Terracina.  x.  Ausere. 

53.  Ferentinum.  y.  Gerin. 

18.  Plate  IX.  (Page  62.)  Symbolic  Repre- 
sentations  of  the  Seasons.  Cf.  P.  I.  $  191a;  P. 
IV.  <?  188.  2;  P.  II.  »  105. 

19.  Plate  IX  ,,.  (Page  80.)  View  of  Athens, 
from  the  foot  of  Ml.  Anchesinns  ;  reduced  from 
Hobhonse's  Albania.     Cf.  P.  I.  $  105. 

20.  Plate  X.  (Page  82.)  Mythological  lllus- 
tniiions.— Fig.  1.  Saturn;  if.  P.  II.  <?  11-17. — 
Fig.  2.  Cybele;  cf.  P.  II.  $  19-21.— Fig.  3.  Pluto; 
Cf.  P.  II.  $  32-34—  Fig.  4.  Vulcan  ;  cf.  P.  II. 
J  51-54.— Fig.  5.  Neptune:  cf.  P.  II.  $  29-31.— 
Fig,  6.  Venus,  with  attendants;  cf.  P.  II.  J  47- 
49-  Fig.  7.  Diana;  cf.  P.  II.  $  38-40— Fig.  8. 
Bacchus;  cf,  P.  II  <?  57-60. 

21.  Plate  XI.  (Page  92.)  Mythological  II- 
lurtAlions.— Fig.  1  Juno;  cf.  P.  II  »  "26-28.— 
Fig.  2.  Mercury  ;  cf.  P.  II  i>  55,  56— Fig.  3.  Ju- 
piter;  cf.  P.  II.  i  22-25.—  Fig.  4.  Apollo;  cf.  P 


DESCRIPTION    OF    PLATES. 


XI 


II.  $  35-37.— Fie.  5.  Ceres;  cf.  P.  II.  J  61-61  — 
Fig  6  Minerva;  cf.  P.  II. $41-43.— Fig.  7.  Mars; 

cf  P.  II.  $  44-46  — Fis  8.  Janus  ;  cf.  P.  II.  $  1H. 
—Fig.  9.  Cupid  ;  cf.  P.  II.  $  50— Fig.  19.  Vesta  ; 
cf.  P.  II.  $  65-67. 

22  Plate  XII.  (Page  97.)  {'lie  Hindoo 
Triad.     Cf.  P.  II.  $  25.  4. 

•237  Plate  XIII.  (Page  103.)  The  Avatars 
of  Vishnu.     Cf.  P.  II.  t  25.  4  ;  I)  37.  2. 

24.  Plate  XIII «.  (Page  111.)  Festival  of 
Juggernaut.     Cf.  P.  II.  $  59.  4. 

25.  Plate  XIV.  (Page  121.)  Mythological 
Illustrations.—  Fig.  1.  Sol,  as  represented  on  a 
coin  of  the  Rhodians  ;  cf.  P.  II.  $  71-72  —Fig.  2. 
Nox,  as  represented  on  a  gem  ;  cf.  P.  II.  $  76. 
—Fig.  3.  Luna;  cf.  P.  II.  <?  73— Fig.  4.  Hebe; 
P.  II.  {  27.— Fig.  5.  Flora  ;  cf.  P.  II.  $  90.  4m.- 
Fig  6.  JEsculapius ;  cf.  P.  II.  $  84.— Fig.  7. 
Pan  ;  cf  P.  II.  $  79.— Fig.  8.  Spes,  or  Hope  ; 
cf.  P.  II.  l>  95.— Fig.  9.  Forluna;  cf.  P.  II. 
$  86— Fie.  10.  Victoria  ;  cf.  P.  II.  $  93  —Fig.  11. 
Concordia;  cf.  P.  II.  D  95.— Fig.  12.  Pax,  or 
Peace  ;  cf  P.  II.  $  95. 

26.  Plate  XV.  (Page  124.)  Representations 
from  the  Jsiuc  Table.     Cf.  P.  II.  $  90. 

27.  Plate  XV  a.  (Page  13H.)  Table  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Deities  classified     Cf.  P.  II.  $  9,  10. 

28.  PlateXVL  (Page  140)  Crowns,  Oar- 
lands,  4-r..— Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  Roman  crowns  or 
wreaths,  bestowed  as  military  rewards.  Fie- 
0.  Imperial  crown.  Cf.  P  III.  {284.  1.— Figs. 
7,  8,  9,  10.  Crowns  or  garlands  received  by  vic- 
tors in  the  games;  ct.  P.  III.  $  o4-87,  $  233.— 
Fie.  A.  Plan  of  a  Gymnasium  or  Palaestra  after 
Vilruvius,  as  given  in  Bariltele-ny's  Anachar- 
sis  :  cf.  P.  IV.  $  236.— Fie.  B.  Victorious  cha- 
rioteer; cf.  P.  III.  $  233.-Fig  C.  A  golden 
crown  found  in  Ireland  ;  cf.  1  .  111.  J  34. 

29.  Plate  XVII.  (Page  155.)  Military  Wea- 
pons, §-c.  For  particulars,  see  P.  HI.  $$  45,  137, 
283. 

30.  Plate  XVIII.  (Page  161.)  Tombs  and 
Sepulchral  Remains.— Figs.  1,2,  3.  Tombof  Cy- 
rus, Absalom's  pillar,  and  Pyramid  of  Cestius  ; 
cf.  P.  III.  $  187.  5.— Fig.  4.  Gales  of  a  tomb;  cf. 
P.  III.  $  187.  5.— Figs,  a  and  dd.  Lachrymatory 
and  angiientary  vases ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  341.  7. — 
Fig.  B.  Egyptian  Psychostasy,  or  weighing  of 
the  soul;  cf.  P.  II.  $  34  b.  4.— Fie-  e.  Funeral 
couch  ;  cf.  P.  III.  J  340.  1.— Fig.  hh.  Coffin  and 
urns,  &c. ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  341.6. 

31.  Plate  XIX.  (Page  166.)  Oracle  of  Tro- 
phonius.    Cf.  P.  III.  $  74. 

32.  Plate  XX.  (Page  168.)  Representa- 
tions of  Priests  and  Priestesses  presenting  Liba- 
tions and  Sacrifices.    Cf.  P.  III.  $  24,  $  221. 

33.  Plate  XXI  (Page  179.)  Temples.— 
Fig.  1.  Parthenon;  cf.  P.  III.  $  96,  P.  IV. 
$  234.  3,  P.  I.  $  107.— Fig.  2.  Temple  of  the 
Winds;  cf.  P.  III.  $  96,  P.  I.  $  110.— Fig.  3. 
Temple  of  Theseus;  cf.  P.  III.  $  96,  P.  I.  $  109. 
— Fies.  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f,g,  h,  Ground-plans  of  the 
different  kinds  of  temples;  cf.  P.  IV.  }  234.  2. 

34.  Plate  XXII  (Page  195.)  Various  Arti- 
cles of  Armor. — Figs,  a,  b,  c,  &c.  Helmets;  cf. 
P.  III.  J  45.— Figs,  r,  s.  Mail  and  breastplate; 
cf.  P.  III.  i  45,   139.- Fig.  «.    Greaves;    cf.  P. 

III.  H  44.  45.— Fies.  1,  2,  7.  Grecian  warriors; 
cf.  P.  111.  $  45.— Fig.  3.  Persian  warrior;  cf. 
P.  HI.  $  45— Fig.  4.  Trophy  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  150  — 
Fig.  5.  Warrior  in  mail,  with  an  armor-hearer; 
cf.  P.  HI.  $  283.— Fig.  6.  Egyptian  archer;  cf. 
P.  III.  $  45,  $  288.  1.— Fie.  8.  Soldier  in  com- 
plete mail;  cf.  P.  111.  $283. 

35.  Plate  XXIII.  (Page  201.)  JVaval  Illus- 
trations—Via.  1.  Pinnace  or  light  boat  for  rapid 
mo  Vine;  cf.  P.  HI.  $301.— Fie.  2.  Vessel  from  a 
pointing  at  Pompeii;  cf.  P.  III.  }  304.— Fig.  3. 
Liburnian  galley;  cf.  P.  III.  $  304.— Fig.  I. 
Merchant  vessel;  cf.  P.  III.  $  155.— Fig.  '■<■ 
War-galley;  cf.  P.  HI.  }  155.— Fig.  A.  Hexi- 
reme  as  explained  by  Holwell  ;  cf  P.  HI.  $  155, 
156.— Fig.  B.  Views  of  the  relative  position  of 
the  rowers,  according  to  the  explanations  of 


some ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  156.— Figs,  a,  *,  c.   Different 
forms  of  prows  :  cf.  P.  Ill    $  155   3,  4. 

36.  Plate  XXIV.  (Page  205.)  Pertaining 
to  Household  Affairs. — Fig.  i.  Plan  of  a  Grecian 
house;  cf.  P.  111.  $  171.  I. -lie. 2  •.  (ire.ian 
key;  cf.  P.  III.  ?  171.  3.— Fig.  3.  Young  man 
wearing  the  petasus ;  cf.  P.  III.  169.  :<.  I  il'  i 
A  bride  sitting  with  a  mirror  held  before  her; 
cf.  P.  111.  f  169.  6.  D  171.  2.— Figs.  :>  ami  10 
Grecian  sofas;  cf.  P.  111.  {  171.  2.— Fig.  6.  Pe- 
culiar head-ornament,  worn  in  oriental  coun- 
tries; cf.  P.  III.  $  34.— Fit'.  7.  Grecian  lady, 
from  Boyd's  Potter;  cf.  P.  111.  $  169.  5;  $  171.2. 
-Figs.  8,  9.  Chairs;  cf.  P.  HI.  $  171.  2.  $  52.— 
Figs,  a,  b,  c,  &c.  Various  forms  of  coverings  for 
the  feet ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  169.  2  ;  $  336. 

37.  Plate  XXV.  (Page  211.)  Costume.— 
Fies.  a,  b,  c,  d.  Modern  Egyptian  and  oriental 
dresses;  e, /,  Greek  Bacchantes,  g,  an  Egyp- 
tian spinner;  h,  i,  Grecian  female  timers ;  k, 
Grecian  lady  in  the  more  ancient  costume;  m, 
peculiar  head-dress;  n,  o,  Egyptian  princess 
and  priestess  in  transparent  garments  ;  y,  w, 
veils  and  head-dresses.  See  P.  111.  $  169.  5.— 
Fig.  1.  A  box  worn  on  the  neck;  cf.  P.  HI 
J  337.— Fig.  2.  A  lady's  purse,  from  Egyptiai 
monuments  ;  figs.  3,  4,  toilet-table  and  mirror; 
cf.  P.  III.  }  338. 

38.  Plate  XXV  a.  (Page  215.)  Tabhs  of 
Grecian  Moneys,  Slc.     Cf.  P.  III.  $$  173-177. 

39.  Plate  XXVI.  (Page  219.)  Musieal  In- 
struments.    For  particulars  see  P.  111.  <?  INI. 

40.  Plate  XXVI  a.  (Page  224.)  Tabula 
view  of  Civil  Institutions  of  Athens.  Cf.  P.  III. 
$$  97-116. 

41.  Plate  XXVII.  (Page  231.)  Altars  and 
Sacrificial  Apparatus.— Eigs.  a,  b,  c,  &c.  Various 
articles  as  given  in  Mont  fan  con;  fig.  A.  including 
1,  2,  &c,  articles  drawn  from  sculpture  at  Pom- 
peii ;  fig.  B,  representation  of  a  sacrifice,  from 
the  same  source  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  206. — Fie.  C.  Sa- 
crifice to  Bacchus;  cf.  P.  III.  $  205.  1  ;  $  67.— 
Fig.  D.  Sacred  utensils  from  Egyptian  re- 
mains ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  206.  2.— Figs.  E,  H,  Altars  ; 
cf.  P.  III.  $  205.  1. 

42.  Plate  XXVIII.  (Page  236.)  Priests  and 
Priestesses.  Cf.  P.  III.  $  219;  P.  II.  I)  67  u; 
P.  V.  $  16. 

43.  Plate  XXIX.  (Page  240.)  The  Suove- 
taurilia,  from  an  ancient  bas-relief.  Cf.  P.  III. 
}  221.  2. 

44.  Plate  XXX.  (Page  245.)  Gladiatorial 
Contests.— Via.  1,  two  andabalw  or  horsemen; 
fig  2,  a  horseman  and  footman  (cf.  P.  HI. 
$  283);  figs.  3,  4,  two  gladiators  on  toot ;  fig.  5, 
wounded  hull;  fig.  6,  two  secutures  and  two 
retiarn:  see  P.  III.  $  235.  2,  3— Fig.  7.  Plan  of  an 
amphitheatre  at  Pompeii;  cf.  P.  III.  $  239. — 
Fig.  n.  A  Dacian  horseman  in  scale-armor;  cf. 
P.  III.  $283. 

45.  Plate  XXXI.  (Page  255.)  Pertaining 
to  topics  noticed  under  the  head  of  Roman  Civil 
Affairs.— Figs.  1  and  3.  Roman  fasces,  and 
Egyptian  scepters;  cf.  P.  III.  $240  1.— lies.  2 
and  9.  Roman  official  chairs;  cf.  P.  III.  $255. 
2.— Fies.  4.  5,  6.  Chariots  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  269.  3.— 
Fies.  7  and  8.  Steelyard  and  weight  ;  cf  P.  HI. 
$  270.  1— Fig.  10.  Sedan  ;  cf  P.  111.  $  255.  2.— 
Fie.  A,  a  kind  of  stocks;  fig.  B,  the  Mamerline 
prismi  at  Home;   cf  P.  III.  $  264.  1. 

46.  Plate  XXXII.  (Page  265.)  Pertaining 
to  Household  and  Agricultural  Affairs. — Fig.  f, 
plan  of  a  Roman  house  ;  tics,  a  and  6,  a  key 
and  bolt  from  Pompeii;  cf.  P.  Ill  H  325.  6.— 
Fig.  c,  Egyptian  door;  cf.  P.  IV.  $  231.  1—  Fig. 
d,  Couch;  fig.  E  (including  1,2,  3,  &c),  Lamps; 
cf.  P.  HI.  $  325.  7.— Fig  ii.  Roman  plow;  tie. 
iii.  Syrian  plows;  figs.  iv.  6,  7,  instrument) 
for  threshing  ;  fies.  5,  8,  sickle,  pruning-knife 
&c.    See  P.  III.  t  269.2. 

47.  Plate  XXXlIa.  (Page  269.)  Tobies  of 
Roman  Moneys,  See.    Cf.  P.  III.  t>  271,  }  274. 

48.  Plate  XXXIII  (Page  273.)  Armor,. M,. 
litury  Standards,  «Jj-c— Figs.  1  and  2.  Legionui» 


JCll  DESCRIPTION    OF    PLATES. 

soldiers  with  shield  and  sword,  baggage,  &x.  i  of  a  consular  camp;  R,  sectional  view  of  th« 
ef.  P.  III.  }  283.— Fig.  3.  A  Medo-Persian,  from  logger  and  fossa ;  see  P. III.  $297 1. 
sculptures  at  Persepolis;  bearing  a  sort  of  ham-  :  50.  Plate  XXXV.  (Page  301.)  Pertaining 
mer,  or  battle-ax,  probably  a  token  of  some  \to  Feasts  and  the  use  of  Wine.— Fig.  1.  Plan 
military  rank,  pr-rh:i|is  however  of  some  civil  |  and  view  of  a  triclinium  found  at  Pompeii;  cf 
office  j  the  two  hands  of  another  are  seen  hear-  |  P.  III.  $  329.  2.— Fig.  2,  carriage  and  vessel  foi 
the  same  token;  fig.  4,  another  from  the  !  transporting   wine;   fig.   3,   a  patera,  ns^d   in 


sculptures  al  Persepolis,  with  a  sword  and 
other  accouterments.  Cf.  P.  IV.  $  171—  Figs. 
A,  B,  C,  &c.  A  variety  of  standards  and  Sags; 
cf.  P.  III.  d  282.  I— Fig.  E.  Part  of  the  tri- 
umphal procession  represented  on  the  Arch  of 
Tuns  ;  cf.  P.  IV   }  188.  2. 

19.  PLATE  XXXIV.  (Page  279.)  War-en- 
gines,  Hoiaim  Cum/,,  8rc. — Fig.  1,  testudo  ;  fig.  2, 
vim, i  ;  3,  movable  tower;  4,  5,  10,  battering- 
ram  ;  6,  scorpio  ,•  7.  balista  ;  8.  pluteus;  9,falx 


libations  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  331  b.— Fig.  4.  Two  per- 
sons interchanging  the  pledge  of  hospitality  ; 
cf.  P.  III.  $  330.  3—  Fig.  5,  a  Bacchanal  revel- 
ing  alone,  taken  from  remains  at  Pompeii  ;  fig 
6,  a  wine  press,  from  Egyptian  monuments; 
fig.  7,  two  glass  cups  elegantly  cut  or  cast  ;  figs 
a,  h,  c,  d,  e,  f,  &c,  various  cups  and  vessels  ; 
cf.  P.  III.  $  331  b. 

51.  Plate  XXXVI.     (Page  302.)    Monumen- 
tal Structure,  dedicated  to  the  Vii  Manes;   Re- 


muralis  :  see  P.  III.  }  299.— Figs.  a.  b.     Archer  ;  presentations  cf  Death,  (Sj-c.     Cf.  P.  II.  $$  76,  83 
and  slinger;  cf.  P.  111.  $  288.  1.— Fig.  P,  plan  !  110,  113. 


EXPLANATIONS. 

The  following  statement  will  enable  the  reader  to  know  in  general  what  is  from 
the  author  and  what  from  the  translator.  A  star  annexed  to  the  number  of  a  section 
alwavs  indicates  that  the  section  is  added  by  the  translator.  The  Italic  letter  t  always 
denotes  that  the  section  or  paragraph  to  whose  number  it  may  be  annexed  is  altered 
so  as  to  differ  more  or  less  from  the  original.  All  the  matter  in  the  largest  of  the 
four  sizes  of  type  is  translated  directly  from  Eschenbuvg,  excepting  such  sections  as 
may  have  one  or  the  other  of  those  marks.  All  the  matter  in  the  smaller  type  is  added 
by  the  translator,  with  the  following  exceptions:  (1)  sections  or  paragraphs  having 
the  Italic  letter  u  annexed  to  their  number,  which  are  all  translated  from  Eschen- 
burg;  and  (2)  part  of  the  mere  references  to  books  and  authors,  a  majority  perhaps 
of  which  are  taken  from  him.  As  to  these  references,  it  did  not  seem  of  much  con- 
sequence to  discriminate  carefully  between  those  given  by  the  author  and  those 
introduced  by  the  translator;  if  any  one  should  find  some  of  them  irrelevant  or  un- 
important, he  may  safely  charge  such  upon  the  translator  rather  than  Esehenburg. 

In  using  this  book,  the  student  will  find  that  he  is  frequently  referred  from  one 
place  to  another ;  and  the  division  into  Parts,  sections,  and  sub-sections,  all  sepa- 
rately  numbered,  makes  the  reference  very  easy;  thus,  e.  g.  the  abbreviations  ef.  P.  III. 
§  182.  4.  direct  the  reader  to  the  paragraph  numbered  4,  under  section  182,  in  Part 
III.  Instead  of  the  word  see,  or  the  abbreviation  r.  (for  the  Latin  vide),  the  abbre- 
viation cf.  (for  the  Latin  confer}  is  commonly  used.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  turn- 
ing to  any  passage,  the  number  of  the  Part  is  continued  as  a  sort  of  running  title 
on  the  top  of  the  even  or  right-hand  page ;  in  following  the  reference  above  given, 
e.  g.  the  reader  will  first  turn  to  Part  III.,  denoted  by  P.  III.  seen  at  the  top  of  the 
right-hand  page;  then,  under  that  Part,  will  look  for  §  182;  then,  under  that  sec- 
tion, look  for  the  paragraph  numbered  4.  Whenever  the  section  tit  which  a  reference 
is  made  belongs  to  the  same  Part  with  the  section  in  which  the  reference  is  made, 
the  abbreviation  for  the  Pabt  is  omitted;  thus.  e.  g.  the  abbreviation  if.  §  3,  occurs 
on  p.  40  in  §  136  of  Part  I.,  and  it  directs  the  student  to  §  3  of  the  same  Part  I.  In 
some  instances  i  subsection  is  itself  divide! ;  thus,  ef.  P.  III.  §  208.  4.  (r),  directs  to 
tin-  paragraph  marked  (V),  under  the  subsection  4.  in  §  268,  of  P.  HI.  The  references 
made  to  the  I'lates  need  no  explanation,  except  the  remark  that  the  abbreviation  (Sup. 
always   indicates   one  of  the   Supplemental    Plates,  contained   in  a  separate  volume. 

A  copious  Index  was  essential  to  accomplish  the  design  of  this  book;  and  ill  order 
to  secure  greater  copiousness,  and  at  the  same  time  e;ive  the  student  the  advantage 
of  a  vii  v  obvious  ami  useful  classification,  four  distinct  Indexes  are  furnished  at  the 
close  of  the  work :  an  Index  erf  Greek  Words/  an  Index  of  Latin  Words;  a.  Geo- 
graphical  Index;  and  a  General  Index;  besides  which,  the  Contents  (in  a  systema. 
tic  view  prefixed  to  th«  body  of  the  work)  are  exhibited  so  fully,  that  the  inquirer 
may  easily  ascertain  in  what  section  any  topic  is  noticed.  When  one  seeks  informa- 
tion on  a  particular  point  from  tins  volume,  he  is  requested  not  to  conclude  that  it 
contains  nothing  on  the  subject,  until  he  has  carefully  examined  the  Indexes,  tha 
Statement  of  Contents,  and  the  Description  of  Plates. 


PART    I. 


CLASSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  CHRONOLOGY. 


i     5e- 


K  sill;!??  Eli-! 
r5  5  HOT^^tflflaof  lis 

2 


U  O  t  ?  =  =  "  8      !<|o!<B 


EPITOME  OF  CLASSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

$  1.  The  earlier  Greeks  must  have  been  very  ignorant  of  the  neighboring  coun 
\ries,  for  the  scenes  of  some  of  the  wildest  fictions  of  the  Odyssey  were  within  a  few 
hours  sail  of  Greece.  The  account  of  the  Argonautic  expedition  furnishes  a  still 
Btrongor  proof  of  this,  for  these  adventurers  are  described  as  having  departed  by  the 
Hellespont  and  Euxine  sea,  and  as  having  returned  through  the  straits  of  Hercules ; 
whence  it  manifestly  appears,  that  at  that  time  the  Greeks  believed  that  tnere  was  a 
connection  between  the  Palus  Maeotis  (sea  of  Azof)  and  the  Ocean.  In  those  early 
ages  the  earth  was  supposed  to  be  a  great  plain,  and  the  ocean  an  immense  stream 
which  flowed  around  it  and  thus  returned  back  into  itself  (d^oppoos). 

In  later  times,  however,  the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  Athenians  corrected  these  errors 
Their  ships  sailed  through  the  seas  to  the  east  of  Europe  and  brought  home  such  accurate  infor- 
mation, that  we  find  the  description  of  these  seas  and  the  neighboring  coasts  nearly  as  perfect  in 
ancient  as  in  modern  writers. — The  expedition  of  Clearchus  into  Asia,  related  in  the  Anabasis 
of  Xenophon  (cf.  P.V.  #243),  and  still  more  that  of  Alexander,  gave  the  Greeks  opporl unities  of 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  distant  regions  of  the  east. — The  west  of  Europe  was  visited  and 
described  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  had  penetrated  even  to  the  British  Islands. 

§  2.  All  the  astronomical  and  geographical  knowledge  of  the  ancients  was  embocjea, 
in  the  second  century  after  Christ,  in  two  principal  works  by  Claudius  Ptolemy  ;  one 
styled  McyiiXij  Siiratij,  and  the  other  Ftoiypa^iKii  'Y$fiyT)<ris.  From  the  latter  we  de 
rive  our  chief  information  respecting  the  limits  of  the  ancient  world,  and  the  attain- 
ments of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  geography.  (Cf.  P.  V.  W  206,  207,  216,  218, 
480—483.) 

§  3.  The  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  were  known  by  name  ;  an  imperfect 
sketch  of  India  limits  their  eastward  progress;  the  dry  and  parched  deserts  of  Africa 
prevented  their  advance  to  the  south;  and  the  Atlantic  ocean  limited  the  known 
world  on  the  west.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  all  the  countries  within  these  limits 
were  perfectly  known;  we  find,  that  even  within  these  narrow  boundaries,  there 
were  several  nations,  of  whom  the  ancient  geographers  knew  nothing  but  the  name. 

Let  us  attempt  to  trace  a  line,  which  would  form  a  boundary  including  the  whole  of  the  earth 
that  was  known  in  the  time  of  Piolemy.  We  will  begin  at  Ferro,  one  of  the  Insula  Fortunala 
(Canary  Islands),  which,  because  it  was  the  most  westerly  land  known,  was  taken  by  Ptolemy 
for  his  fixed  meridian.  Our  line  extending  hence  northerly  would  include  the,  British  Isles  and 
the  Shetland  Isles;  the  latter  are  probably  designated  by  the  Thtile  of  the  ancients,  accoiding 
to  d'Anville,  although  some  have  supposed  it  was  applied  to  Iceland.  From  the  Shetland  Isles 
trie  line  would  pass  through  Sweden  and  Norway  probably:  perhaps  around  the  North  Ca|  e,  is 
it  has  been  thought  that  this  must  be  the  Rubeas  Promontorium  of  Ptolemy.  The  line  would,  in 
either  case,  be  continued  to  the  White  Sea  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Dwina,  which  seems  to  be 
described  by  Ptolemy  under  the  name  Carambucis.  Thence  it  would  extend  to  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, which  were  partially  known  by  the  name  of  Hyperborei;  near  which  the  poets  located  a 
people  of  the  same  name  (Virg.  Geo'rg.  i.  240),  said  to  live  in  all  possible  felicity  From  these 
mountains  the  line  would  pass"  along  through  Scythia  to  the  northern  part  of  the  Belur  Tag 
mountains,  ihe  ancient  Imaus.  Crossing  these,  it  enters  the  region  of  fiash/rar  (in  Chinese  Tar- 
tary),  called  by  Ptolemy  Casio  Re<rio  ;  a  region  of  which,  however,  he  evidently  knew  little. 
Our  line  would  be  continued  thence  to  the  place  called  by  the  ancients  Sera;  which  is  most  pro- 
bably the  modern  Kan  or  Kan-Uhenu,  near  the  north-west  corner  of  China  and  the  termination 
of  the  immense  wall  separating  China  and  Tartary.  From  Sera  or  Kan,  it  must  be  carried  over 
a  region,  probably  wholly  unknown  to  the  ancients,  to  a  place  called  Thynm  in  the  country  of 
the  Sine;  this  place  was  on  the  Cotiaris,  a  river  uniting  with  the  Senus,  which  is  supposed  U 
be  the  modem  Gamboge.  On  the  coast,  which  we  now  approach  with  our  line,  the  most  casterU 
point  (that  is  particularly  mentioned)  is  thought  to  be  Paint  Candor,  the  southern  extremity 
of  Cambodia;  this  was  called  the  Promontorium  Satyrorum,  and  some  small  isles  adjacent  Jn 
sulm  Satyrorum,  because  monkeys  were  found  here,  whose  appearance  resembled  the  fabled 
Satyrs.  The  general  ignorance  respecting  this  region  is  obvVms  from  Ihe  fact,  thai  it  was  ima- 
gined, that  beyond  the  Promontory  of  Satyrs  the  coast  turneo  ..rst  to  the  south,  and  then  com- 
pletely to  the  west,  and  thus  proceeded  until  it  joined  Africa  From  the  point  01  cape  JUBl 
named,  the  boundary  we  are  tracing  would  run  around  the  Aarea  Ckersonesus,  <>r  peninsula  ol 
Malaya  or  Malacca,  take  in  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  anciently  called  Jabadii  Insula,  and  pass  »• 
Ttorubana  or  Salice,  the  modem  Ceylon.     Thence  sweeping  around  the  Maldives,  called  '*y  PW 


4  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

lemy  hmila  ante  Tnprtibitnam,  and  crossing  the  equator,  il  would  strike  Africa  at  Cape  Delgrado, 

supposed  i  i  cnrresp 1  lo  ihi   frasum  Promontorium,  being  about  10  degrees  s.  latitude.    Ihe 

boundary  would  exclude  Madagascar,  as  the  ancient  Memuhias  designates,  not  Madagascar  as 
has  been  conjectured,  bui  tnnsi  probably  the  modern  Zanzibar.  It  maybe  impossible  to  trace 
the  line  across  Africa;  of  the  Interior  of  which  the  ancients  knew  more  than  one  would  suppose, 
judging  from  the  ignorance  ol  the  moderns  on  the  subject.  The  line  would  pas.-  south  of  the 
Mountains  of  the  Moon,  Lunm  Monte*,  which  are  mentioned  by  Ptolemy;  and  also,  in  part,  of 
the  river  Niger,  which,  as  d'.QnvilU  remarks,  was  known  even  in  the  time  of  Herodotus.     <>n 

the  Atlantic  coast  the  line  would  c e  out  a  little  south  of  Sierra  Leone  at  Cain-  St  Ann's,  about 

in  degrees  V  latitude:  this  point  answering  to  the  ancient  JWi  Comu,  Southern  Horn,  off 
against  which  lay  the  islands  called  Insula  Hesperiduvu  From  this  cape  nur  line  passes  up  the 
shore  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  Insula  Fmtunata. 

From  ilns  ii  is  obvious,  that  the  portion  of  the  earth  known  to  the  ancients  was  small  in  pro- 
portion to  the  w  hole.  Ii  has  been  said,  with  probable  accuracy,  that  it  was  scarcely  one-third 
of  the  land,  now  known,  which  lias  been  estimated  as  42 or  4  1  millions  of  square  miles ;  and  of 
tin-  155  millions  of  square  miles  of  inner,  covering  the  rest  of  the  globe,  they  knew  almost  no- 
thinir. 

On  tile  knowledge  of  Ihe  ancients  respecting  Ihe  earlh,  Class.  Jourr..  v.  103.  ix.  133. For  Ihe  principal  helps  in  studying  Clas- 

Meal  Geography,  consul!  the  references  given  in  t'.  V.  §  7.  7  (i) ;  see  also  1'.  V.  §j  208-208,  371  ss.—  On  the  history  of  Geography, 
Cf.  t'.  IV.  5  27. 

I.  The  division  of  the  earth  into  the  large  portions,  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  is 
ol  very  ancienl  date;  bui  although  the  names  have  been  preserved,  the  boundariea 
in  sevt  nil  particulars  differed.  Egypt  was  formerly  reckoned  among  the  Asiatic 
kingdoms:  at  present  il  is  esteemed  part  of  Africa :  Sarmatia  was  esteemed  part  of 
Europe:  a  great  pan  oi  ii  now  Ibrms  one  ol  the  divisions  of  Asia. 

$  5.  The  division  of  the  earth  into  zones  has  remained  unaltered  ;  but  the  ancients 
believed  that  ihe  Temperate  alone  were  habitable,  supposing  that  the  extreme  heal 
of  the  Torrid  and  the  extreme  cold  of  (he  Frigid  zones  were  destructive  of  animal  life. 

Another  division,  introduced  by  Hipparchus,  was  that  of  climates.  A  climate  is  a  space  in- 
eliided  between  two  parallels  of  latitude,  so  that  the  longest  days  of  the  inhabitants  at  one 
extremity  exceeds  that  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  by  half  an  hour.  Of  these,  eight  were 
known.  The  parallels  pass  successively  through  Meroe  on  the  Nile,  Sienne,  Alexandria  in 
Egypt,  Carthage,  Alexandria  ill  the  Troas,  the  middle  of  the  Enxine  Sea,  Mount  Caucasus,  and 
the  British  [stands. 

NOTE  —  lu  Studying  this  Epitome,  it  is  indispensable  to  success  that  some  Atlas  should  be  used.  That  of  ElttUr  is  very  suir.-.hls 
for  the  purpose.  The  editor  of  ibis  Manual  has  it  in  contemplation  to  prepare  an  Atlas  adapted  to  the  Epitome  of  Geography  ber« 
presented. —The  student  need  not  commit  to  memory  in  ihe  usual  way.  Lei  him  first  learn  the  genera]  divisions  and  names  ol  lbs 
couu'ries  or  provinces  included  in  Ihe  lesson,  and  next  carefully  read  over  Ihe  whole  lesson,  tracing  every  thins,  as  far  as  possible, 
or.  hit  map*  i'or  recitation,  lei  Ihe  Teacher  question  him  on  the  maps  of  the  Atlas,  or  ou  large  maps  in  mere  outline,  prepared  fol 
Hit  purpose,  which  will  be  far  belter. 


I.  OF  EUROPE. 


$  f>.  Et'rope,  though  ihe  smallest,  is,  and  has  been  for  many  ages,  the  most  import- 
ant division  of  the  earth.  It  has  attained  this  rank  from  the  superiority  in  arts  and 
sciences,  as  well  as  in  governmenl  and  religion,  thai  its  inhabitants  have  long  possessed 
over  degraded  \.sia  and  barbarous  Africa. — It  derives  its  name  from  Europa,  the 
daughtei  of  Vgenor,  a  Phoenician  king,  who  being  earned  away,  according  to  the 
mythological  tales  (P.  II.  $  23),  by  Jupiter  under  the  disguise  of  a  bull,  gave  her 
m i"  this  quarter  of  the  globe. 

$  7.  The  boundaries  ol  ancienl  Europe  were  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  modern 

Europe;  but  we  learn  from  Sallusl  thai  some  geographers  reek 1  Africa  a  part  of 

Europe.  The  northern  ocean,  called  by  the  ancients  the  Icy  or  Satumian,  hounds  it 
on  the  north;  the  north-eastern  pari  of  Europe  joins  Asia,  but  no  boundary  line  is 
traced  by  ancienl  writers;  the  remainder  of  its  eastern  boundaries  are  the  Pains 
Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  Euxine  sea,  Thracian  Bosphorus,  Propontis',  Helles- 
pont, and  .Tvo'.-m  sea;  the  Mediterranean  sea  is  the  southern  and  the  Atlantic  ocean 
the?  western  boundary, 

*  8.  The  countries  of  the  mainland  of  Europe  may  be  arranged,  for  convenience, 
in   the   present    geographical   sketch,  in   three   divisions;    the  northern    middle,  ami 

tout  hern.     The  islands  may  be  considered  m  a  separate  division. The  north  of 

Europe  can  scarcely  be  said  to  hav<  been  known  to  the  ancients  until  the  unwearied 
ambition  til  the  Romans  stimulated  them  to  seek  for  new  conquests  in  lands  previously 
unnoticed,  from  these  countries,  in  after  times,  came  the  barbarian  hordes  who 
overran  Europe  and  punished  severely  the  excesses  ,,f  Roman  ambition.  —  The 
southern  division  contains  the  countries,  which,  in  ancient  limes,  were  the  most  dis 
tinguished  in  Europe  for  their  civilization  and  refinement. 

The  \  >rt  hern  countries,  with  their  ancienl  and  modern  names,  were  the  follow 
rtg     Sc.  wiiixAvtA,  Norway  and  Sweden;  Chersonesus  Cimbrica,  Jutland,  or  Den 


EUROPE.       NORTHERN    COUNTRIES.  Si 

mark;  ^akm.'tu  Russia;  Germania,  Germany. — The  Middle  countries  were 
(lie  following.  (_■  .ma,  France  and  Switzerland;  Vindelicia,  Suabia  ;  Rhjbtia. 
country  oi  // /  (.  whs;  Noricum,  Austria;  Pannonia,  Hungary;  [llyri 
Croatia  and  Ihibi  t, m  ;  .M.v.sia.  Bosnia,  s,rnn,  and  Bulgaria  ;  Dai  ia,  Transylvania 
and  FPa2a>.A.a.  I  j  the  Southern  division  we  include  Hispania,  Spain  and  / 
p-<;/ ;  Itaj  i,  ft'fy;  Thracia,  Macedonia,  and  Grjecia,  all  lately  comprehended 
under  thf  Vun^h  Empire. 

I.   THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE. 

$9.  SjANri' avia,  or  "candia,  by  the  Cells  called    Lochlin,  was  fafselj 

to  be  a  large  island.     The  inhabitants  were  remarkable  lor  their  t ber  and  ferocity 

they  subsisted  chiefly  by  piracy  and  plunder.  From  this  countrj  came  the  Goths, 
the  Heruli,  the  Vano^'a,  and  at  a  later  period,  tin;  Normans,  I  the 

south  of  Europe. 

$  10.     The  Ciu'r.-r'.'sus  Cimbrica,  a  large  peninsula  at  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic, 
was  the  native  conn'//  of  the  Cimbri  and  the  Teutones,  who  after  devastating  Gaul 
invaded  the  nor'n.-r;  part  of  Italy,  and  made  the  Romans  tremble  for  tin1  saiet)  ■■( 
their  capital.     Thf  j  J  ifeated  the  consuls  Manlius  and  Servilius  with  dreadful  sla 
ter,  but  were  r.ve:\'.uu\ly  destroyed  by  Marias. 

§  11.  Sarmatia  included  the  greater  part  of  Russia  and  Poland,  and  is  frequently 
confounded  with  Scythia.  'Phis  immense  territory  was  possessed  hj  several  inde- 
pendent tribes,  who  led  a  wandering  life  like  the  savages  of  North  America.  The 
names  of  the  principal  tribes  were  the  Sauromatse,  near  ihe  mouth  of  the  Tanais, 
and  the  Geloni  and  Agathyrsi,  between  the  Tanais  and  the  Borysthenes.  The  latter 
were  called  Hamaxobii.  from  their  living  in  wagons.  Virgil  gives  them  the  epithet 
pirii,  because  they,  like  the  savages  of  America,  painted  their  bodies  to  give  them- 
selves a  formidable  appearance. — 'From  these  districts  came  the  Huns,  the  Alans  and 
Ro.xolanians,  who  aided  the  barbarians  formerly  mentioned  (§  8)  in  overthrowing  the 
Roman  empire. 

The  peninsula,  now  known  by  the  name  of  the  Crimea,  or  Crim  Tartary,  was 
anciently  called  the  Chersonesus  Taurica.  Its  inhabitants,  called  Tauri,  were 
remarkable  for  their  cruelty  to  strangers,  whom  thev  sacrificed  on  the  altar  of  Diana. 
From  their  cruelty  the  Euxine  sea  received  its  name  ;  it  was  called  Euxini  I  favorable 
to  strangers)  by  antiphrasis,  or  euphemism.  —  The  principal  towns  of  the  Tauric 
Chersonese  were  Panticapaum  (Kerche),  where  Mithridates  the  Great  died;  Saphra 
(Procop),  and  Theodosia  (Kaffa).  —  At  the  south  of  this  peninsula,  was  a  large  pro- 
montory, called  from  its  shape  Criu-Metopon,  or  the  Ram's  Forehead. 

§  12.  Ancient  Germany,  Germania,  is,  in  many  respects,  the  most  singular  and 
interesting  of  the  northern  nations.  In  the  remains  of  its  early  language,  and  the 
accounts  of  its  civil  government,  that  have  been  handed  down  to  us,  the  origin  of  the 
English  language  and  constitution  may  be  distinctly  traced.  The  inhabitants  called 
themselves  rFer-men,  which  in  their  language  signifies  War-men,  and  from  this 
boasting  designation  the  Romans  named  them,  with  a  slight  change.  Ger-men. — — 
The  boundaries  of  ancient  Germany  were  not  accurately  ascertained,  but  the  name  is 
generally  applied  to  the  territories  lying  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Vistula,  the 
Baltic  Sea  and  the  Danube. 

§  13.  These  countries  were^like  Sarmatia,  possessed  by  several  tribes,  ol  whom 
the  principal  were  the  Hermiones  and  Suevi,  who  possessed  the  middle  ot  Germany. 

■ The  tribes  on  the  banks  of  the   Rhine  were  most  known  to  the  Romans.     The 

chief  of  these  were  the  Frisii.  through  whose  country  a  canal  was  cut  by  Drusus, 
which  being  increased  in  the  course  of  time  formed  the  present  Zuyder  Zee;thn 
Cherusci,  who  under  the  command  of  Arminius  destroyed  the  legions  oi  Quintilius 
Varus;  the  Sicambri,  who  were  driven  across  the  Rhine  by  the  Catti,  in  the  time  of 
Augustus;  the  Catti,  the  most  warlike  of  the  German  nations,  and  most  irreconcila 
ble  to  Rome  ;  the  Marcomanni,  who  were  driven  afterwards  into  Bohemia  by  tin. 
Attemanni,  from  which  latter  people  Germany  is,  by  (he  French,  called  Allerti 

Near  the  Elbe  were  the  Amrli  and  Saxones,  progenitors  of  the  English,  and  th< 

Longobardi,  who  founded  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy,  in  the  north  ol  Italy.  The 
nations  on  the  Danube  were  the  Ilermiindurii.  steadfast  allies  of  the  Romans  ;  the  War 
corftanni,  who  retired  hither  after  their  expulsion  from  the  Rhine;  the  N'arisci 
and  Quadi,  who  waged  a  dreadful  war  with  the  Romans  during  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aureli  is.  , 

§  1  f.  The  Hermans  had  no  regular  towns,  and  indeed  a  continuity  of  bouse-;  was 
forbidden  by  their  laws.     The  only  places  of  noie  were,  consequently,  forts  built  by 

the  Romans,  to  repress  the  incursions  "I  the  natives A  great   part  oi  Germany 

was  occupied  bv  the  fferevnian  forest,  which  extended,  as  was  said,  nine  days  jour 
ncy  from  south  to  north,  and  more  than  sixty  from  west  to  east.  A  portion  ot  tin 
Sylva  Hercynia  is  now  called  the  Black  Forest,  which  still  has  its  fabled  ti  rrore. 

§  1")  The  largest  riverin  the  northern  division  of  Europe  was  the  RA/i,  now  Wok?* 
It  was  railed  Atel  or  Etel  bv  the  Byzantine  write:*  .P.  V.  $  ?3?a)   mi  others  m  'hi 


0  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

middle  ages.  It  had  70  mouths  discharging,  and  with  more  water  formerly  than  now 
into  tlje-Mare  Caspium.  It  was  in  part  the  eastern  boundary  of  Europe,  separating 
Sarmatia  trom  Scythia. — rI'he  river  next  in  size  was  the  Borysthenes,  called  in  the 
middle  ages  Danapris,  whence  its  modern  name  Dnieper.  Just  at  its  entrance  into 
the  L'onius  Euxinus,  it  was  joined  by  the  Hypanis,  called  in  the  middle  agesBogus,  and 
now  the  Bog.  The  long  narrow  beach  at  the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes  was  called 
Drowns  Achillfi. — Between  the  Borysthenes  and  the  Rha  was  the  Tatiais,  the 
present  Don,  which  separated  Sarmatia  Europea  from  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  and  flowed 
into  the  Pubis  JIaolis  or  modern  sea  of  Azof ;  near  its  mouth  was  a  city  of  extensive 
commerce,  called  Tanais  Emporium.  The  strait  connci  ting  the  Palus  Maeotis  with 
tin  Euxine  was  called  Bosphorus  Cimmerius. — Another  river  discharging  into  the 
I'm. ins  Euxinus,  was  the  Tyras,  the  modern  Dniester:  it  flowed  between  Sarmatia 
and  Dacia,  and  formed  in  part  the  southern  boundary  of  what  is  included  in  our 
northern  division  of  Europe. — Two  rivers,  from  sources  near  those  of  the  Tyras, 
flowed  in  a  northerly  course  to  the  Baltic,  the  ancient  Sinus  Codanus  ;  they  were  the 
Vistula,  still  so  called,  and  the  Viader  or  Oder.  The  principal  streams  discharging 
into  the  Oceanus  Germanicus  were  the  Albis,  Elbe,  and  the  Rhenus,  Rhine,  which 
tunned  the  western  boundary  of  the  division  of  Eurooe  now  under  notice,  dividing 
Germania  and  Gallia. 

II.       THE    COUNTRIES    OF    THE    MIDDLE    OF    EUROPE. 

%  16.  We  will  begin  with  Gallia,  which  is  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  division 
The  Romans  called  this  extensive  country  Gallia  Transalpine,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  province  of  Gallia  Cisalpina  in  the  north  of  Italy.  The  Greeks  gave  it  the  name 
of  Galatia,  and  subsequently  western  Galatia,  to  distinguish  it  from  Galatia  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  the  Gauls  had  planted  a  colony. 

Ancient  Gaul  comprehended,  in  addition  to  France,  the  territories  of  Flanders,  Hol- 
land, Switzerland,  ahd  part  of  the  south-west  of  Germany.  Its  boundaries  were  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  the  British  sea,  the  Rhine,  the  Alps,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Pyrenees. — The  country, in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  was  possessed  by  three  great 
nations,  divided  into  a  number  of  subordinate  tribes.  Of  these  the  Celtaz  were  the 
must  numerous  and  powerful ;  their  territory  reached  from  the  Sequana,  Seine,  to  the 
Garumna,  Garonne  ;  the  Belgce  lay  between  the  Sequana  and  lower  Rhine,  where 
tin  v  united  with  the  German  tribes;  the  Aquitani.  possessed  the  country  between 
the  Garumna  and  the  Pyrenees. 

%  17.  Augustus  Caesar  divided  Gaul  into  four  provinces;  Gallia  Narbonensis,  Aqui 
tania,  Oallia  Celtica,  and  Btlgira. 

Gallia  Narbonensis,  called  also  the  Roman  province,  extended  along  the  sea 
coast  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Alps  ;  including  the  territory  of  the  modern  provinces, 
Languedoc,  Provence,  Dauphine,  and  Savoy.  It  contained  several  nations,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  were  the  Allobroges,  Salyes,  and  Volcae.  The  principal  cities  were 
Narlo  Marlins,  the  capital,  (Narbonne);  MassiHai  (Marseilles),  founded  by  an  Ionian 
colony,  from  Phocaea,  in  Asia  Minor ;  Forum  Julii  (Frejus) ;  Aqum  Sextice  (Aix) ;  and 
Nemausus  (Nismes),  whose  importance  is  manifest  in  the  grand 3'ir  of  its  still  existing 
remains. 

Among  the  interesting  monuments  at  Nismes  are,  the  Square  House,  and  the  Anna. ;  the  latter  being  an  amphitheatre,  or  circus, 
of  the  Doric  order,  with  walls  composed  of  enormous  masses  of  stone  v.nited  \vith  wonderful  skill,  1200  feet  in  circumference,  capable 
of  holding,  it  is  said,  16,000  or  17,000  persons  j  the  former,  a  temple,  76  feet  Ion?,  38  broad,  and  42  high  ;  adorned  with  30  beautiful 
Corinthian  columns.    (Cf.  Seynej  and  Menard,  cited  P.  IV.  5  243.  S.—Millin,  Voyage  dans  les  Dcpartements  du  Midi.) 

A  q  u  i  t  a  n  i  a  extended  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Ligcr  (Loire).  The  principal 
nations  were  the  Tarbelli,  south  of  the  Garumna,  and  the  Santones,  Pictones,  and 
Lemovices,  north  of  that  river.  The  chief  towns  were  Mediolanum  (Saintes) ; 
Portus  Sanlonum  (Rochelle) ;  and  Uxellodunum. 

Gallia  Celtica,  or  Lugdunensis,  lay  between  the  Liger  and  Sequana. — The 
sountry  along  the  coast  was  called  Armorica,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  very  fierce 
ntul  warlike.— The  principal  nations  were  the  Segusiani,  iEdui,  Mandubii,  Parish,  and 
Rhedones.  The  principal  cities  wore  Lugdunum  (Lyons),  founded  by  Munatius 
Plancus  after  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar;  Bibracte,  called  afterwards  August  odunum 
(Autun) ;  Alexia  (Alise),  the  last  city  of  Gaul  that  resisted  the  arms  of  Cassar;  and 
Porlutt  Brivates  (Brest),  near  the  Promonlorium   Gooaum  (Cape  St.  Malo). 

i.ulitia  Par  isioru  n.  (Paris)  was  built  by  the  Parisii,nn  a  swampy  island,  before  the  time  of  Christ,  but  was  of  no  important 
«mt:l  A.  I).  360,  when  the  Emperor  Julian  went  into  winter  quarters  there,  and  erected  a  palace  for  himself. 

The  remainder  of  Gaul  was  included  in  the  province  Belgica.  This  contained 
a  unai  number  of  powerful  states;  the  llilr>iii  occupying  thai  part  of  modern  Swit- 
zerland included  between  Locus  f.riiin n us  (the  lake  ol  Geneva)  and  Lacus  Briga7itu 
fitia  (the  lake  of  Constance) :  the  Sequani,  possessing  the  present  province  of  Franche 
'omte  :  and  the  Batavi,  who  inhabited  Holland. — 'That  part  ol  Belfric  Gaul  adj  lining 
he  1\  liine  In  I  .w  Helvetia  was  called  Germania,  from  the  number  of  German  tribej 


*•   a.  EUROPE.       MIDDLE    COUNTRIES.  \ 

who  had  settled  there,  and  was  divided  into  Superior  or  Upper,  the  part  nearer  the 
sources  of  the  Rhine,  and  Inferior  or  Lower,  ihe  pari  nearer  us  mouth.  The  principul 
of  these  tribes  were  the  Treveri,  Ubii,  Menapii,  and  Nervii.  In  the  country  of  tnc 
Treveri  was  the  extensive  forest  Arduenna  (Ardennes),  traces  oi  which  siill  remain 

§  18.  The  principal  mountrins  of  Gaul  were  Cebenna  (the  Cevennes),  in  !. 
doc;  Vogesus  (the  Vauge),  in  Lorraine;  and  Alp,*  (the  Alps). — The  Alps 
subdivided  into  Alpes  Maritimce,  joining  the  Etruscan  Bea ;  Cot  lice,  over  which  Han- 
nibal  is  supposed  to  have  passed;  Grcecce,  so  called  from  the  passage  ol  Hercules; 
Penuinre,  so  called  from  the  appearance  of  their  tops  (front  penna,  a  wing) ;  Khtetica, 
joining  Rhaetia;  Noricce,  bordering  Noricutn  ;  Pannonica  ;  and  Julia,  the  eastern 
extremity,  terminating  in  the  Sinus  Flanaticus  'Hay  of  Carnero),  in  Liburnia. 

The  chief  rivers  of  Gaul  were  Rhmus  (the  Rhine);  this  river,  near  its  mouth,  at 
present  divides  itself  into  three  streams,  the  Waal,  the  Leek,  and  the  New  Issel ;  the 
last  was  formed  by  a  great  ditch  cut  by  the  army  of  Drusus  ;  the  ancient  mouth  of 
the  Rhine,  which  passed  by  Leyden,  has  been  choked  up  by  some  concussion  of 
nature  not  mentioned  in  history  ;  Rhodanus  (the  Rhone),  joined  by  the  Arur  (Saone) ; 
Ganimna  (Garonne),  which  united  with  the  Duranius  (Dordogne) ;  Liger  (the  Loire), 
joined  by  the  E/aver  (Allier)  ;  and  Seqnana  (the  Seine). 

The  principal  islands  on  the  coast  of  Gaul  were  Uxantos  (Ushant) ;  Uliarus  (Oleron); 
C&sarra  (Jersey) ;  Sarnia  (Guernsey) ;  and  Riduna  (Alderney)  ;  on  the  south  coast 
were  the  Slcechades  or  Ligustides  insula  (isles  of  Hieras). 

$  19.  The  government  of  ancient  Hani,  previous  to  the  Roman  invasion,  was  aristocratical, 
and  so  great  was  their  hatred  of  royalty,  that  those  who  were  even  suspected  of  aiming  at  sove- 
reign power,  were  instantly  put  to  death.  The  priests  and  nobles,  whom  they  called  Druids 
and  knights,  possessed  the  whole  authority  of  the  state  ;  the  peasantry  were  esteemed  as  slaves  ; 
■n  most  of  the  states  an  annual  magistrate  was  elected  with  powers  similar  to  those  of  the  Ro- 
nan  consul,  but  it  was  ordained  that  both  the  magistrate  and  the  electors  should  be  of  noble  birth.— 
c  person,  the  Gauls  are  said  to  have  been  generally  fair  complexioned,  with  long  and  ruddy 
.air,  whence  their  country  is  sometimes  called  Gallia  Comaia,  or  Hairy  Gaul.  In  disposition 
.hey  are  described  as  irascible,  and  of  ungovernable  fury  when  provoked  ;  their  first  onset  was 
very  impetuous,  but  if  vigorously  resisted  they  did  not  sustain  the  fight  with  equal  steadiness. 

$20.  The  history  of  Gallia  before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans  is  involved  in  obscurity;  we 
only  know  that  it  must  have  been  very  populous  from  the  numerous  hordes  who  at  different  limes 
emigrated  from  Gaul  in  search  of  new  settlements.  They  seized  on  the  north  of  Italy,  which 
was  from  them  called  Cisalpine  Caul ;  they  colonized  part  of  Germany  ;  they  invaded  Greece ; 
and  one  tribe  penetrated  even  to  Asia,  where,  mingling  with  the  Greeks,  they  seized  on  a  pro- 
vince, from  thence  called  Galatia  or  Gallo-Graecia.— Another  body  of  Gauls,  under  the  command 
of  Brennus,  seized  and  burned  Rome  itself;  and  though  they  were  subsequently  routed  by  Camil- 
\us,  the  Romans  ever  looked  on  the  Gauls  as  their  most  formidable  opponents,  and  designated  a 
Gallic  war  by  the  word  Tumullus,  implying  that  it  was  as  dangerous  as  a  civil  war. 

J  21.  The  alliance  between  the  people  of  Massilia?  (Marseilles)  and  the  Romans  furnished  the 
latter  people  with  a  pretext  for  intermeddling  in  the  affairs  of  Gaul,  which  they  eagerly  embraced. 
The  first  nation  whom  they  attacked  was  the  Salyes,  who  had  refused  them  a  passage  into  Spain; 
the  Salves  were  subdued  by  Caius  Sextius,  who  planted  a  colony  called  after  his  name,  Aqua: 
Sextiae";  about  four  years  after,  the  greater  part  of  Gallia  Narhonensis  was  subdued  by  Quintus 
Martins  Rex.  who  founded  the  colonv  Narbo  Martins,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  —After  the  subjugation  of  Gallia  Narhonensis,  the  Gauls  remained  unmolested  until 
the  time  of  Cajsar,  who  after  innumerable  difficulties  conquered  the  entire  country,  and  annexed 
it  to  the  Roman  dominions. 

Though  grievously  oppressed  by  the  Roman  governors,  the  Gauls  under  the  emperors  made  rapid  advances  in  civilization  ;  they 
are  particularly  noticed  for  their  success  in  eloquence  and  law.  A  curious  circumstance  of  the  mode  in  which  these  studies  were 
pursued  is  recorded  by  many  historians;  an  annual  contest  in  eloquence  took  place  at  I.ugJunum, and  the  vanquished  weie  com- 
pelled to  blot  out  their  own  compositions,  and  write  new  orations  in  praise  of  the  victors,  or  else  be  whipped  and  plunged  into  the 
Arar.— See  Thierry,  Histoire  desGaulois.     Par.  1828.  3  vols.  8. 

$22.  The  country  called  V  in  de  li  cia  was  situated  between  the  sources  of  the 
Rhenus  (Rhine),  and  the  Danubius  or  Ister  (Danube).  Its  chief  town  was  Augusta 
Vindelicorum  (Augsburg,  celebrated  for  the  confession  of  the  protestant  faith,  pre- 
sented by  Melancthon  to  the  Diet  assembled  there  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Reformation). — Between  Vindelicia  and  the  Alps  was  Rh.t.tia,  containing  rather 
more  than  the  present  territory  of  the  Grisons.  Its  chief  towns  were  Curia  (Coire), 
and  Tridentum  (Trent),  where  the  last  general  council  was  assembled. — Vindelicia 
and  Rhaetia  were  originally  colonized  by  the  Tuscans,  and  for  a  long  time  bravely 
maintained  their  independence.  They  were  eventually  subdued  during  the  reign  ol 
Augustus  Caesar,  by  Drusus  the  brother  of  Tiberius. 

§  23.  Noricum  lay  to  the  east  of  Vindelicia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  'be  rive 
JEnns  (Inn).  Its  savage  inhabitants  made  frequent  incursions  upon  the  Roman  tern 
tories.  and  were,  after  a  severe  struggle,  reduced  by  Tiberius  Caesar.  The  iron  ot 
Noricum  was  very  celebrated,  and  swords  made  in  thai  country  were  highly  valued. 
— East  of  Noricum  was  Paxxoxia.  also  subdued  by  Tiberius.  It  was  divided  into 
Superior,  the  chief  town  of  which  was  Vindobona  (Vienna;;  and  Inferior,  whose 
eapi.al  was  Sirmium,  a  town  of  great  importance  in  the  later  ages  of  the  empire. 
Noricum  is  now  called  Austria,  and  Pannonia.  Hungary. 

$  24.  The  boundaries  of  Illyricum  have  no*  been  orecisely  ascertained ;  .t  occu 


8  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

|iied  the  north-eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  and  was  subdivided  into  the  thre. 
provinces  of  Japydia,  Liburnia,  and  Dalmatia.  It  included  the  modern  provinces, 
Croatia,  Bosnia,  and  Sclavonia. — The  chief  towns  were  Salona,  near  Spalatro,  where 
the  emperor  Dioclesian  retired  after  his  resignation  of  the  imperial  power;  Epidaurus 
or  Dioclea  (Ragusi  Vecchio),  and  Ragusci. 

The  Illyrians  were  infamous  for  their  piracy  and  the  cruelty  with  which  they  treated  the.r 
captives  •  they  possessed  great  skill  in  ship-building,  and  the  light  galleys  of  the  Liburnians  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  Augustus's  victory  at  Actium. — The  Romans  declared  war  against  the 
Illyrians,  in  consequence  of  the  murder  of  their  ambassadors,  who  had  been  basely  massacred  by 
Teuta,  queen  of  that  country.  The  Illyrians  were  obliged  to  beg  a  peace  on  the  most  humiliating 
conditions,  but  having  again  attempted  to  recover  their  former  power,  they  were  finally  subdued 
by  the  praetor  Anicius,  who  slew  their  kingGentius,  and  made  the  country  a  Roman  province. 

§  25.  Mcesia  lay  between  Mount  Hcemus  (the  Balkan)  and  the  Danube,  which  after  its 
junction  with  the  Savus  was  usually  called  lster.  It  was  divided  into  Superior,  the 
present  province  of  Servia,  and  Inferior,  now  called  Bulgaria.  Part  of  Mcesia  Supe- 
rior was  possessed  by  the  Scordisci,  a  Thracian  tribe  ;  next  to  which  was  a  district 
called  Dardania ;  that  part  ef  Mcesia  Inferior  near  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  was 
called  Pontus,  which  is  frequently  confounded  with  Pontus,  a  division  of  Asia  Minor. 
— The  principal  cities  in  Mcesia  Superior  were  Singidunum  (Belgrade),  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Save  and  Danube  ;  Nicopolis,  built  by  Trajan  to  commemorate  his  victory 
over  the  Dacians;  and  Naissus  (Nissa),  the  birthplace  of  Constantine  the  Great. — 
In  Mcesia  Inferior  were  Marcianopolis,  the  capital ;  Torni,  the  place  of  Ovid's  banish- 
ment ;  Odessus,  south  of  Tomi,  and  JEgissus,  near  which  was  the  bridge  built  by 
Darius  in  his  expedition  against  the  Scythians. 

$  26.  Dacia  lay  between  the  Danube  and  the  Carpateg,  or  AJpen  Bastarnicas  (Carpa- 
thian or  Krapack  mountains) ;  including  the  territory  of  the  modern  provinces,  Tran- 
sylvania, Moldavia,  and  Wallachia.  The  celebrated  Hercynian  Forest,  Sylva  Hercynia 
(of.  §  14),  stretched  over  the  north  and  west  part  of  it.  Dacia  was  inhabited  by  two 
Scythian  tribes,  the  Daci  and  Gelce,  who  for  a  long  time  resisted  every  effort  to  deprive 
them  of  their  freedem  ;  they  were  at  length  subdued  by  Trajan. 

After  having  conquered  the  country,  Trajan  joined  it  to  Mcesia  by  a  magnificent  bridge  over  the  Danube,  traces  of  which  stilt 
eiist.  His  successor,  Adrian,  influenced  either  by  jealousy  of  his  predecessor's  glory,  or  believing  it  more  expedient  to  contract  than 
to  extend  the  bounds  of  the  empire,  broke  down  the  bridge,  and  left  Dacia  to  its  fate. — This  country  was  of  considerable  importance 
to  the  Romans  on  account  of  its  gold  and  silver  mines.  In  IS07,  an  interesting  monument  of  Roman  writing  was  found  in  one  of 
these  m.nes.     (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  118.3.) 

A  people  has  been  found  among  the  Wallachians,  that  now  speak  a  language  very  similar  to  the  Latin,  and  are  therefore  supposed 
to  be  descended  from  the  Roman  colonists.— Mr.  Brewer  says  he  found  so  many  words  common  to  the  Latin  and  the  Wallicbian, 
that  I  y  means  of  the  Latin  he  could  converse  on  common  subjects  with  a  Wallachian  merchant  at  Constantinople.— J.  Brewer,  Resi- 
dence at  Constantinople  in  1827,  &c    New  Haven,  1830.  12.— Cf.  Walsh's  Journey  from  Constantinople, 

III.       THE  COUNTRIES  INCLUDED  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  DIVISION  OF  EUROPE. 

$  27.  In  treating  of  this  division  we  will  also  commence  with  the  most  western 
country,  which  was  Hispania.  This  name  included  the  modern  kingdoms  of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  The  country  was  also  called  Iberia,  Hesperia,  and  (to  distinguish  it 
from  Italy,  sometimes  termed  Hesperia,  from  its  western  situation,)  Hesperia  Ultima. 
The  Romans  at  first  divided  it  into  Hispania  Citerior,  or  Spain  at  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Iberus,  and  Hispania  Ulterior,  at  the  western  side;  but  by  Augustus  Ca:sar,  the 
country  was  divided  into  three  provinces;  Tarraconesis,  Bmtica,  and  Lusitania.  Like 
the  provinces  of  Gaul,  these  were  inhabited  by  several  distinct  tribes. 

$28.  Tarraconensis  exceeded  the  other  two  provinces  together,  both  in  size  and 
importance.  It  extended  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  mouth  of  the  Durius,  on  the  Atlantic, 
and  to  the  Orospeda  Mons  separating  it  from  Baetica,  on  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  re- 
ceived its  name  from  its  capital,  Tarraco  (Tarragona),  in  the  district  of  the  Cosetani. 

The  other  principal  towns  were  Sagunh/m,  on  the  Mediterranean,  whose  siege  by 
Hannibal  caused  the  second  Punic  war;  some  remains  of  this  city  still  exist,  and  are 
called  Murviedro,  a  corruption  of  Muri  veteres  (old  trails);  Carthago  IW>tY/(Carthagena), 
liuili  hy  Asdrubal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal,  also  on  the  Mediterranean  :  in  the  interior, 
north-east  of  the  capital,  Ilerda  (Lerida) ,  the  capital  of  the  Ilergetes,  where  Caesar 
defeated  Pompey's  lieutenants,  Afranius  and  Petreius;  Numantia,  near  the  sources  of 
'he  Durius.  whose  inhabitants  made  a  desperate  resistance  to  the  Roman  invaders,  and, 
when  unable  to  hold  out  longer,  burned  themselves  and  the  city  sooner  than  yield  to 
:he  conquerors;  Bill/ilis,  the  birthplace  of  Martial,  among  the  Celtiheri;  Cvsarea 
Augusta  (Saragossa),  capital  of  the  Edetani:  Toletum  (Toledo);  Complutum  (Alcala), 
nnil  Kilioni  (Talavcra) ,  in  the  same  district  ;  Calagurris,  in  the  territory  of  the  Vascones, 
whose  inhabitants  suffered  dreadfully  from  famine  in  the  Sertorian  war,  being  reduced 
to  such  straits,  that  the  inhabitants  (as  Juvenal  says)  actually  devoured  each  other. 
War  the  modem  town  of  Segovia,  retaining  the  name  and  site  of  Segovia  among  the 
Arevac'.,  are  the  remains  of  a  splendid  aqueduct,  built  by  Trajan.  Calle  (Oporto),  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Durius,  was  also  called  Portus  Gallorum,  from  some  Gauls  who 
""itled  'h'-re,  and  hence  the  name  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Portugal The  north 


P-  !■  EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       ITALIA.  9 

of  Tarraconensis  was  possessed  by  the  Cantabri,  a  fierce  tribe,  who  for  a  long  time 
resisted  the  inmost  efforts  ol  the  Romans;  their  territory  is  the  modern  provinct  ol 
Biscay. 

$  29.  The  southern  pari  of  Spain,  between  the  Anas  and  Mediterranean,  was  called 
Bastica,  from  the  river  Baetis.  Its  chiel  towns  were  Corduba  (Cordova),  at  first 
called  Co/onia  Patricia,  the  birthplace  ol  the  two  Senecas,  and  thi  in  j   ip 

this  town  are  the  remains  of  a  splendid  mosque,  built  by  the  Moorish  king,  llmanzor; 
it  is  more  than  500  feet  long,  and  400  wide;  the  rooi  is  richly  ornamentei  iported 

by  800  columns  of  alabaster,  jasper,  and  black  marble:  Hispalis  (Seville);  Italicc,  the 
native  city  oi  Trajan,  Adrian,  and  the  poet  Silius  Italicus;  Cuslulo,  called  also  Parnassia, 
because  it  was  founded  by  a  Phocian  colony ;  all  on  the  Baetis.— The  south-western 
extremity  of  P.aetica  was  possessed  by  a  Phoenician  colony,  called  the  Bastuli  Poem,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  Libyan  Pceni,  or  Carthaginians;  their  capital  was  Gadet 
(Cadi:'.),  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Baetis;  mar  n  were  the  little  island  Tories- 
sus,  now  part  of  the  continent,  and  Jutionis  Promontorium  (Cape  Trafalgar).— At 
the  entrance  of  the  straits  of  Hercules  or  Gades,  stood  Carteia,  on  mount  Calpe,  which 
is  now  .ailed  Gibraltar,  a  corruption  of  Gebel  Tank.  i.  e.  the  mountain  of  Tank,  the 
first  Moorish  invader  of  Spain.  Mount  Calpe  and  mount  Abyla  (on  the  opposite  coast 
of  Africa)  were  named  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  and  supposed  to  have  been  linda- 

nes of  that  hero's  western  conquests.  North  of  this  was  Munda,  when  Caesar  fought 
his  last  battle  with  Labienus,  and  the  sons  of  Pompey. 

Lusitania,  which  occupied  the  greatest  part  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Portugal, 
contained  but  few  placesofnote;  the  most  remarkable  were  Augusta  Emerila  (Meriaa) 
and  Olisippo  (Lisbon),  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Ulysses. 

$30.  The  principal  Spanish  rivers  were,  Iberus  (Ebro) ;  Tagus  (Tajo);  Darius 
(Douro);  Bcetis  (Guadalquiver) ;  Anas  (Guadiana). —  The  promontory  at  the  north- 
western extremity  of-  the  peninsula  was  named  Artabrum  or  Celticum  (Finisterre);  that 
at  the  south-western.  Sacrum,  because  the  chariot  of  the  sun  was  supposed  to  rest  there; 
it  is  now  calb  d  C  ipe  St.  Vincent. 

#  31.  Spain  was  first  made  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  conquests  of  Hercules.  In  later  limes 
the  Carthaginians  became  masters  of  the  greater  par:  of  the  country  ;  they  wen-  m  ilnir  mm 
expelled  by  the  Romans,  who  kept  possession  of  ilie  peninsula  for  seveial  centuries.— Dur- 
ing the  civil  wars  of  Rome,  Spain  was  frequently  devastated  by  the  contending  parties.  Here. 
Seriorius,  after  the  death  nf  Marias,  assembled  ilie  fugitives  of  the  popular  parly,  and  for  a  long 
time  resisted  the  arms  of  Svlla  :  here,  Afranius  and  Petreius,  the  lieutenants  of  Pompey,  made 
a  gallant  stand  against  Julius  Caesar;  and  here,  after  the  death  of  Pompey,  his  sen-  madi  a 
fruitless  effort  to  vindicate  their  own  rights,  and  avenge  their  father's  misfortunes. — Upon  the 
overthrow  of  the  Roman«empire,  Spain  w  is  conquered  by  the  Vandals,  who  gave  to  one  of  the 
provinces  the  name  Vandalusia,  n.»w  corrupted  into  Andalusia. 


§  32.  Italy,  It\t,ta,  has  justly  been  denominated  the  garden  of  Europe  both  by 
ancient  at  I  modern  writers,  from  the  beauty  of  its  climate  and  the  fertility  of  its  sod. 
The  Italian  boundaries,  like  those  of  Spain,  have  remained  unaltered  ;  on  the  north  are 
tb  '  Alps,  on  the  east  the  Adriatic,  or  upper  sea,  on  the  South  the  Sicilian  strait,  and 
on  the  west  the  Tuscan,  or  lower  sea.  By  the  poets  the  country  was  called  Saturnia, 
Ausonia.  and  (Enotria;  by  the  Greeks  it  was  named  Hesperia,  because  it  lay  to  the 
wesl  of  their  country. 

Italy  has  always  been  subdivided  into  a  number  nf  petty  states,  more  or  less  independent  of 
each  other.  We  shall  treat  it  as  comprehended  in  two  parts,  denominated  the  northern  and 
southern  and  as  the  chief  city  and  capital  of  the  country  is  of  such  celebrity,  shall  enter  into  a 
more  particular  description  of  Rome ;  adopting  the  following  arrangement;  1.  The  Geography 
nfthe  northern  portion  of  Italy  ;  2  The  Geography  of  the  southern  portion;  3.  The  Topography 
o,  the  city  of  Rome. 

$33.  (1)  Geography  of  the  Northern  portion  of  It alia.     The  principal  ancient  divi 

sions  of  tiiis  pari,  were  Gallia  Cisalpina,  Etruria,  I'mbria,  Picenum,  and  Latium. 

Gallia  Cisalpina,  called  also  Togata,  from  the  inhabitants  adopting,  after  me 
Social  war,  the  toga,  or  distinctive  dress  of  the  Romans,  lay  between  the  Alps  and  the 
river  Rubicon.  It  was  divided  by  the  river  Eridanus,  or  Padus,  into  Transpadana,  at 
the  north  side  of  'he  river,  and  Cispadana  at  the  south  ;  these  were  subdivided  iinc 
several  smaller  districts. 

North  of  the  Padus,  or  Po,  was  the  territory  of  the  Taurini,  whose  chief  town, 
Augusta  Taurinorum,  is  now  called  Turin;  next  to  these  were  the  Insubres,  whose 
I  ,ii  cipal  towns  were  Mediolanum  (Milan);  and  Tie'mum  (Pavia),  on  the  river  Ticinns, 
•vher.:  Hannibal  first  defeated  the  Romans,  alter  his  passage  over  the  Alps;  the  duo 
inanni,  possessing  the  towns  of  Bri.riu  (Brescia);  Cremona;  and  Mantua,  the  birtb 
place  of  Virgil;  and  the  Euganei,  whose  chief  towns  were  Tridentum  (Trent; j  and 
Verona,  the  birthplace  of  Catullus. — Next  to  these  were  the  Vencii  and  Carni  lht:I 
thief  towns  were  Patavium  (Padua) ,  the  birthplace  of  Livy,  built  by  the  1 
/tor,  after  the  destruction  of  Troy;   and  Aquiieia,  retaining  its  former  "erne  '•>».  not 


10  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

former  consequence ;  it  is  celebrated  for  its  desperate  resistance  to  Attila  king  oi  tha 
Huns.  Next  to  these  was  the  province  Histria,  or  Istria  chief  town,  Tergeste 
'Trieste). 

South  of  the  Po  where  the  territories  of  the  Ligures;  chief  fawns,  Genua  (Genoa), 
on  the  Si/iu.<  Ligusticus  (Gulf  of  Genoa);  Pur  us  Herculis  Monaici  (Moi.aco),  and 
iXicua  (Nice);  The  territory  of  the  Boii,  containing  Bononia  (Bologna);  MuUna 
(Modena),  where  Brutus  was  besieged  by  Antony;  Parma,  and  Placentia;  and  the 
country  of  the  Lingones,  whose  chict  town  was  Ravi  una,  where  the  emperors  of  the  west 
held  their  court,  when  Rome  was  possessed  by  the  barbarians. 

§  34.  Cisalpine  Gaul  contained  the  beautiful  lakes  Verbanus  (Maggiore);  Benacus 
(Di  (lardi),  and  Larius,  the  celebrated  lake  of  Como,  deriving  its  modern  name  from 
the  village  Comum,  near  Pliny's  villa. 

The  rivers  of  'bis  province  were  the  Eridanus  or  Padus  (Po),  called  by  Virgil  the 
king  of  rivers,  which  rises  in  the  Cottian  Alps,  and  receiving  several  tributary  streams, 
especially  the  Ticinus  (Tesino)  and  Mincius  (Mincio),  falls  into  the  Adriatic;  the 
Athesis  \iIi_t I,  rising  in  the  Rhaetian  Alps;  and  the  Rubicon  (Rugone),  deriving  its 
source  from  the  Apennines,  and  falling  into  the  Adriatic. 

J  3/j.  The  inhabitants  of  Cisalpine  ttaul  were,  of  all  the  Italian  states,  the  most  hostile  to  the 
power  of  Rome;  they  joined  Hannibal  with  alacrity  when  he  invaded  Italy,  and  in  the  Social 
war  ttiey  were  the  most  inveterate  of  the  allied  states  in  their  hostility.— When  the  empire  of 
the  west  fell  before  the  northern  tribes,  this  province  was  seized  by  the  Longohardi.  from  whom 
the  greater  part  of  it  is  now  called  Lombardy.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  divided  into  a  number 
of  independent  republics,  which  preserved  some  sparks  of  liberty,  when  freedom  was  banished 
from  j he  rest  of  Europe. 

§  36.  E  t  r  uri  a  extended  along  the  coast  of  the  lowe)  or  Tuscan  sea,  from  the  small 
river  Macra,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber. 

The  most  remarkable  towns  and  places  in  Etruria  were:  the  town  and  port  of  Luna, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Macra;  Pisa  (Pisa);  Florentia  (Florence);  Portus  Herculis 
Leburni  (.Leghorn);  Pistoria,  near  which  Catiline  was  defeated  ;  Perusia,  near  the 
lake  Thrasymene,  where  Hannibal  obtained  his  third  victory  over  the  Romans;  Clusium, 
the  city  ot  Porsenna;  Volsinii  (Bolsena),  where  Sejanus,  the  infamous  minister  of 
Tiberius,  was  born  ;  Falerii  (Palari),  near  mount  Soracte,  the  capital  of  the  Falisci, 
memorable  for  the  generous  conduct  ot  Camillus  while  besieging  it;  Veil,  the  ancient 
rival  of  Rome,  captured  by  Camillus  after  a. siege  of  ten  years;  Care,  or  Agylla  (Cer 
Veteri),  whose  inhabitants  hospitably  received  the  Vestal  virgins,  when  they  tied  from 
the  Gauls,  in  reward  for  which  they  were  made  Roman  citizens,  but  not  allowed  the 
privilege  of  voting,  whence,  any  Roman  citizen  who  lost  the  privilege  of  voting  waa 
said  to  be  enrolled  among  the  Cariles;  Centum  Cello?  (Civita  Vecchia),  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tiber,  the  port  of  modern  Rome. 

§  37-  The  principal  rivers  of  Etruria  were  the  Arnus  (Arno) ,  rising  in  the  Apennines 
and  falling  into  the  sea  near  Pisa;  and  the  Titttr,  which  issuing  from  the  Umbrian 
Apennines,  and  joined  by  the  Nar  (Nera)  and  Anio  (Teverone">,  running  in  a  south- 
westerly direction,  falls  into  the  sea  below  Rome. 

The  Etrurians  were  palled  by  the  Greeks,  Tyrrlieni;  they  are  said  to  have  come  originally 
from  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor,  and  to  have  preserved  traces  of  their  eastern  origin,  to  a  very  late 
period,  from  them  the  Romans  borrowed  their  ensigns  of  regal  dignity,  and  many  of  tbeii 
superstitious  observances,  for  this  people  were  remarkably  addicted  to  auguries  and  soothsaying, 
They  attained  distinguished  excellence  in  art  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  109,  110;;  interesting  monuments  of 
which  still  exist  (cf.  P.  IV.  }  173). 

§  38.  Umbria  was  situated  east  of  Etruria,  and  south  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  from  which 
it  was  separated  by  the  Rubicon.  The  principal  river  of  Umbria  was  the  Metaurus 
(Metro) ,  where  Asdrubal  was  cut  off  by  the  consuls  Livitis  and  Nero  while  advancing 
to  tin  support  oi  Ins  brother  Hannibal.     Its  chief  towns;  Ariminum (Rimini) ,  the  first 

town  taken  by  Caesar,  at   the  c mencemeni  of  the  civil  war;   Pesanrum  (Pesaro) 

Senna  Gallica  (Senigaglia),  built  by  the  Galli  Senones;  Camerinum;  Spolelium  (Spo 
let  to),  win  re   Hannibal  was  repulsed  after  his  victory  at  Thrasymene. 

The  memory  of  this  repulse  is  still  preserved  in  >n  inscription  over  out  of  the  gates,  thence  called  Porta  di  Fuga.  "Here  also  ii 
>  beautiful  aqueduct  tarried  across  a  valley,  three  hundred  feet  high."    W.  Fisht,  p.  343,  as  cited  P.  IV.  $  ISC  6. 

§  39.  Picenum  lay  to  the  east  of  I  Imbria,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic.  Its  principal 
towns  '.\ere,  Asculum  .Asreli),  the  capital  of  the  province,  which  must  not  be  confound- 
ed with  Asculum  in  Ape.lia,  near  which  Pyrrhus  was  defeated ;  Corfinium  (San  Ferino). 
the  chiei  town  of  the  Peligni  ;  Sulmo,  the  birthplace  of  Ovid ;  and  Ancona,  retaining  hn 
iinrie  n  name,  founded  by  a  Grecian  colony. 

Close  lo  the  hartior  of  Ancona  is  a  beautiful  triumphal  arch  erected  in  honor  of  Trajan ;  the  pillars  are  of  Parian  marble,  and  stil. 
retain  their  purl  (quiaite  polish,  u  il  fresh  from  the  workmen's  hands.    The  celebrated  chapel  of  Loretto  is  neal 

A  icons. 

South  ot  Picenum  and  Umbria.  were  the  territories  of  the  Marsi  and  Sabini.  The  for 
mer  were  a  rude  and  wai  like  people;  their  capital  was  Marruhium,  on  the  Locus  Fucinus. 
This  lake  Julius  Caesar  vainly  attempted  to  drain.  It  was  afterwards  partially  effected 
t>y  Claudius  Caesar,  who  employed  thirty  thousand  men  for  eleven  years,  in  Cutting  a 

«sas>c  to:  the  waters  through  the  mountain*   from  the  lake  to  the  river  Liris ;  whet; 


P.I.  EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       ITALIA.  11 

every  thing  was  prepared  for  letting  off  the  waters,  lie  exhibited  several  splendid  nava, 
games,  shows,  &,c;  but  the  work  did  not  answer  his  expectations,  and  the  canal,  being 
neglected,  was  soon  choked  up,  and  the  lake  recovered  its  ancient  dimensions — The 
Sabine  towns  were  Cures,  whence  the  name  Quirites  is  by  some  derivi  I 
Reate,  near  which  Vespasian  was  born;  Amitemum,  the  birthplace  ol  Sallust;  Crut- 
tumerium.  and  Fidente.  Mons  Sacer,  whiiherthc  plebeians  ol  Rome  retired  in  theit 
contest  with  ihe  patricians,  was  in  the  territory  of  the  Sabines.  In  these  countries  were 
the  first  enemies  of  the  Romans,  I > n t  about  the  time  of  Camillus  the  several  small  sti 
in  this  part  of  Italy  were  subjugated. 

§  40.  Latium,  the  most  important  division  of  Italy,  lay  on  the  coast  of  the  Tuscan 
sea,  between  the  river  'fiber  and  Liris ;  it  was  called  Latium,  Irom  laiin,  lo  lie  hid, 
because  Saturn  is  said  to  have  concealed  himself  there,  when  dethroned  by  Jupiter. 

The  chief  town  was  Rome  (see  <j>  51  ss).  Above  Rome  on  the  Tiber,  stood  Tihur 
(Tivoli),  built  by  an  Argive  colony,  a  favorite  summer  residence  of  the  Roman 
nobility,  near  which  was  Horace's  favorite  country  seat  (P.  III.  §  326) :  south  of  Rome, 
Tusculum  (Frescati),  remarkable  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  for  the  salubrity 
of  the  air  and  beauty  of  the  surrounding  scenery  ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Tele- 
gonus.  the  son  of  Ulysses;  near  it  was  Cicero's  celebrated  Tusculan  villa:  cast  of 
Tusculum,  Prcp.neste  (Palestrina),  a  place  of  great  strength  both  by  nature  and  art, 
where  the  younger  Marius  perished  in  a  subterranean  passage,  while  attempting  to 
escape,  when  the  town  was  besieged  by  Sylla:  south  of  Tusculum  Longa  Alba,  the 
parent  of  Rome,  and  near  it  the  small  towns  Algidum,  Paedum,aml  Uabii,  betrayed  to 
the  Romans  by  the  well-known  artifice  of  the  younger  Tarquin. — On  the  coast,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tiber,  stood  Ostia,  the  port  of  ancient  Rome,  built  by  Ancus  Martius; 
south  of  this  were  Laurentum,  Laviuium  (built  by  jEneas  and  called  after  his  wife  La- 
vinia),  and  Ardea,  the  capital  of  the  Rutuli,  where  Camillus  resided  during  his  exile. 
South  of  these  were  the  territories  of  the  Volsci,  early  opponents  of  the  Romans;  their 
chief  cities  were  Antium,  where  there  was  a  celebrated  temple  of  Fortune  ;  Sucssa 
Pometia,  the  capital  of  the  Volsci,  totally  destroyed  by  the  Romans;  and  Corioli,  from 
the  capture  of  which  Cains  Marcius  was  named  Coriolanus. 

South  of  the  Volsci.  were  the  town  and  promontory  of  Circeii,  the  fabled  residence 
of  Circe  ;  Anxur  (Terracina),  on  the  Appian  Way;  the  town  and  promontory  Caieta, 
deriving  its  name  from  the  nurse  of  jEneas,  who  was  there  interred  ;  Formice,  near 
which  Cicero  was  assassinated  by  command  of  Antony;  and,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Liris,  Mint  unite,  near  which  are  the  Pontine  or  Pomptine  Marshes,  in  which  the  elder 
Marius  endeavored  to  conceal  himself  when  pursued  by  his  enemies.  The  Pontine 
Marshes  extended  through  a  great  part  of  Latium,  and  several  ineffectual  efforts  have 
jeen  made  to  drain  them.  The  exhalations  from  the  stagnant  water  have  always  made 
.he  surrounding  country  very  unhealthy. — On  the  confines  of  Campania  were  Arpinum, 
.he  birthplace  of  Marius  and  Cicero,  the  rude  soldier  and  the  polished  statesman 
Aquinum,  the  birthplace  of  Juvenal;  and  Sinuessa,  celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters, 
originally  called  Sinope. 

$  41.  The  principal  rivers  of  Latium  were  the  Anio  (Teverone) ;  the  Allia,  on  tho 
banks  of  which  the  Gauls  defeated  the  Romans  with  dreadful  slaughter;  and  the 
Cremera,  where  the  family  of  the  Fabii,  to  the  number  of  three  hundred,  wire  de- 
stroyed by  an  ambuscade,  while  carrying  on  war  at  their  own  expense  against  the 
Veientes;  these  three  rivers  fall  into  the  Tiber ;  the  Liris  (Garigliano),  which  divided 
Latium  from  Campania,  falls  into  the  Tuscan  sea. — The  principal  lakes  were  named 
Lacus  Alhubis  (Solfatara),  remarkable  for  its  sulphurous  exhalations,  and  the  adjoin- 
ing grove  and  oracle  of  F annus ;  Lacus  Uegillus,  near  which  Posthumius  defeated 
the  Latins,  by  the  assistance  of  Castor  and  Pollux  as  the  Romans  believed  ;  and  La- 
cus Albanus.  near  which  was  Mount  Albanus  where  the  solemn  sacrifices  called 
Ferias  Laiinas  were  celebrated. 

The  capital  of  Latium,  in  the  reign  of  King  Latinus,  was  Laurentum  ;  in  the  reign  of  .fineas, 
Lavinium;  In  the  reign  of  Ascanius,  Longa  Alba;  hut  all  these  wn'  eclipsed  by  the  superior 
grandeur  of  Rome.  The  several  independent  states  were  subdued  by  the  Romans  in  the  earliei 
ages  of  the  republic. 

§  42.  (2)  Geography  of  the  Southern,  portion  of  Italia.  The  southern  part  of  Ita.y 
was  named  Manna  Gratia,  from  the  number  of  Greek  colonies  that  at  different  periods 
settled  there.  It  was  divided  into  Campania,  Samnium,  Apulia,  Calabria,  LucaiiMi 
and  Bruttium. 

Campania,  the  richest  and  most  fertile  of  the  divisions  of  Italy,  extended  along 
the  shores  of  the  Tuscan  sea,  from  the  river  Liris  to  the  river  Silarus,  winch  dividi  d 
st  from  Lucania.  . 

The  chief  city  was  Capua,  so  named  from  its  founder  Capys,  celebrated  for  us  rices 
nnd  luxury,  by  Which  the  veteran  soldiers  of  Hannibal  were  enervated  and  corrupted. 
North  of  it  were  Tea  num.  celebrated  f>r  the  mineral  waters  in  its  vicinity,  and  .'''""• 
frum,  famous  for  olives. — South  of  Capua  was  Casuinum,  where  n  garrison  ol  Pre- 
nestines,  after  having  made  a  most  gallant  resistance,  and  protracted  the  siege  til 
they  had  endured  the  utmost  extremity  of  famine,  were  at  last  compelled  to  surrender 


VI  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

next  to  this  was  Liternum,  at  the  mouth  of  the  little  river  Clanius,  where  Seipio  Afri- 
canus  for  a  long  time  lived  in  voluntary  exile. — Farther  south  was  Cumce,  founded  by 
a  colony  from  Chalcis  in  Eubcea,  the  residence  of  the  celebrated  Cumean  Sibyl,  anc 
near  it  the  town  and  promontory  Mist  num,  .so  named  from  Misenus,  the  trumpeter  of 
^Eneas,  who  was  buried  there. — Below  the  cape  were  Baite,  famous  for  its  minera 
waters  ;  Puteoli  (Puzzoli) ,  near  which  were  the  Phlegraei-campi,  where  Jupiter  is  said 
to  have  vanquished  the  giants;  Cimmerium,  whose  early  inhabitants  are  said,  by  Ho- 
mer, to  have  lived  in  caves.  After  these  we  come  to  Parlheitope  or  Neapolis  (Naples). 
This  beautiful  city  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Cumae,  and  for  a  long  time  retained 
the  traces  ol  a  Grecian  original ;  it  was  called  Parthenope  from  one  of  the  Sirens  said 
to  have  been  buried  there.  Close  to  the  town  is  the  mountain  Pausilypus  (Pausilirvpo), 
through  which  a  subterranean  passage  has  been  cut,  halt  a  mile  in  length  and  twenty - 
•  wo  feet  wide  ;  neither  the  time  of  making  nor  the  maker  is  known  ;  a  tomb,  said  to 
">e  i bat  of  Virgil,  is  shown  onThe  hill  Pausilippo  ;  here  also  are  ruins  called  the  villa 
■>/"  Lucullus. — At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Sinus  Puleolonus  (bay  of  Naples), 
were  Sialics,  remarkable  tor  its  mineral  waters,  and  Surrentum,  celebrated  tor  its 
wines:  near  the  latter  was  the  Promontorium  Surrenlinum  or  Athenasum  (Capo  della 
.Minerva);  east  of  Naples  was  Nola,  where  Hannibal  was  hist  defeated,  and  where 
Augustus  died.  In  the  south  of  Campania  was  Sulemum  (Salerno),  the  capital  ol  the 
Piccntini. — Between  Naples  and  Mount  Vesuvius  were  Herculantum  and  Pumpeii, 
destroyed  by  a  tremendous  eruption  of  that  volcano,  A.  D.  7'j. 

The  remains  of  these  towns  were  accidentally  discovered  in  the  beginning  ot  the  last  century,  and  the  numerous  and  valuable 
remains  of  antiquity  give  us  a  greater  sight  into  the  domestic  habits  of  the  Romans  (ban  could  previously  be  nbl  uned.  ''Above  thirty 
streets  of  Pompeii  are  now  ( I S40)  restored  to  light.  The  walls  which  formed  its  ancient  enclosures  have  been  recognized  ;  a  mag- 
nificent amphitheatre,  a  theatre,  a  forum,  the  temple  of  Isis,  that  of  Venus,  and  a  number  of  oilier  buildings,  have  been  cleared." 
Huiisis,  stei|is,  cellars,  with  all  their  various  furniture,  are  found  just  as  they  "ere  when  buried  under  the  volcanic  mass. — See  the 
works  on  BercutSneum  and  Pompeii  cited  P.  IV.  §  243.  2  — Cf.  P.  III.  §  329. 

§43.  The  principal  Campanian  rivers  were  the  Vultumvs  (Vulturno) ;  Sibethus 
;Sel><'to).  now  an  inconsiderable  stream,  its  springs  being  dried  up  by  the  eruptions  of 
Mount  Vesuvius;  and  the  Sarnus  (Sarno). — The  principal  lakes  were  the  Luvrinus, 
which  by  a  violent  earthquake,  A.  D.  1538,  was  changed  into  a  muddy  marsh,  with 
a  volcanic  mountain,  Monte  Nuovo  de  Cinere,  in  the  centre ;  and  the  Avernus,  near 
which  is  a  cave  represented  by  Virgil  as  the  entrance  of  the  internal  regions.  It  was 
said  that  no  birds  could  pass  over  this  lake  on  account  of  the  poisonous  exhalations; 
whence  its  name,  from  a  (not)  and  6'pt/tc  (a  bird). 

Upon  the  invasion  of  the  northern  nations,  Campania  became  the  alternate  prey  of  different 
barbarous  tribes  ;  at  length  it  was  seized  by  the  Saracens  in  the  tenth  century.  These  were  ex- 
pelled by  the  Normans,  tinder  Tancred,  who  founded  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

§  44.  East  of  Latiuin  and  Campania  was  S  a  m  n  i  u  m,  including  the  country  of  the 
Hirpini. — The  chief  towns  were  Samnis,  the  capital;  Benevetitum  (Benevento),  at 
lirst  called  Maleventum,  from  the  severity  of  the  winds,  but  when  the  Romans  sent 
a  colony  here  they  changed  the  name,  from  motives  of  superstition  ;  near  this  town 
Pyrrhus,  kino;  oi  Epirtts,  who  had  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  Samnites,  was  totally 
defeated  by  the  Roman  army,  commanded  by  Curius  Dentatus  ;  Caudium,  near  which 
are  the  CaudiiUB  Fiirriihr.  (Forchra  d'Arpaia).  a  narrow  and  dangerous  defile,  in  which 
the  Roman  army,  being  blocked  up  by  the  Samnite  general,  Pontius,  were  obliged  to 
surrender  on  disgraceful  conditions;  and  AlfenicB,  remarkable  for  its  manufactory 
o!  earthenware — Among  the  Hirpini,  were  Equotuticum,  whose  unpoetical  name  is 
celebrated  by  Horace  ;  Tricicum  and  Herdonia  (i  Irdonia),  on  the  borders  of  Apulia. — 
Near  Herdonia  was  the  celebrated  valley  of  Amsanctus,  surrounded  by  hills,  and  re- 
markable for  its  sulphurous  exhalations  and  mineral  springs;  on  a  neighboring  hill 
stood  the  temple  ot  Mephitis,  the  goddess  who  presided  over  noxious  vapors,  whence 
the  valley  is  now  called   Moffeta. 

§  45.  The  principal  rivers  of  Samnium  were  the  Saba  tug  (Sabato),  and  Calor  (Ca- 
lore),  both  tributary  to  the  Vulturnus. 

The  Samnites  were  descended  from  the  same  parent  stock  as  the  Sabines,  an/1  for  many  years 
contended  wilh  I  he  Romans  for  the  empire  of  Italy  ;  at  length,  afier  a  war  of  more  than  seventy 
vars.  during  which  the  Romans  were  frequently  reduced  to  great  extremities,  the  fortune  of 
Rome  prevailed,  and  the  Samnites  were  almost  totally  extirpated,  B.  C.  272. 

§  'Hi.  A  pul  in,  called  also  I'annia  and  Japygia,  but  now  La  Puglia,  occupied  the 
greater  pan  of  the  east  of  Italy,  extending  from  the  river  Frento  to  the  Bay  of  Ta- 
rentum. 

Its  chirl  towns:  Teanum,  named  Apiilum  to  distinguish1  it  from  a  town  of  the  same 
name  in  Campania;  Arpi  said  to  have  been  built  by  Diomede,  after  his  return  from 
the  Trojan  war:  north  oi  Arpi  is  .Mount  Gargawus  (Saint  A  ngelo),  in  the  spur  "of  the 
boot  to  which  Italy  is  commonly  compared  :  east  of  Arpi  were  Uria,  which  gave  the 
ancient  name  tothe  Sinus  JJrius,  ami  Sipontum  (Manfredbnia,  which  cave  to  the  Sinus 
Urius  its  modern  name,  Cull  of  Manfredonia) ;  on  the  borders  of  Samnium  stood 
baceri-i,  celebrated  for  its  wool;  Salapia  (Salpe);  and  Asculum,  called  Apulum.  to 
hsuuuuiish  it  from  a  town  of  the  same  name  in  Picenum. — Near  the  river  Autidus 


P.I.  EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       ITALIA.  13 

3tood  the  village  of  Cannes,  where  Hannibal  almost  annihilated  the  power  of  Rome; 
through  the  fields  of  Cannae  runs  the  small  stream    Vergellus,  whii  have 

been  so  choked  with  the  carcasses  of  the  Romans,  that  the  dead  bodies  81 
bridge  to  Hannibal  and  his  soldiers;  Conusium,  a  Greek  colony,  where  m,  n  mains  of 
the  Roman  army  were  received  after  their  defeat. —  Penjisia  (Venosa),  near  Mount 
Vultur,  the  birthplace  of  Horace;  Bnniua  (Bari),  where  excellent  fish  wi  re  caught  in 
jreat  abundance  ;  and  Egnatia,  on  the  Matinian  shore,  tamous  for  bad  water  and  good 
honey. 

'1'he  principal  Apulian  rivers  were  Cerbalus  (Cerbaro),  and  Aufdus  (< Ifanto),  remark- 
able for  the  rapidity  of  its  waters;  both  falling  into  the  Adriatic. 

§4?.  Calabria,  called  also  Messapia,  lay  to  the  south  of  Apulia,  forming  what  is 

called  the  heel  oi  the  boot. Its  chief  towns  on  the  eastern  or  Adriatic  side,  were 

Brundusium  (Brindisi),  once  remarkable  for  its  excellent  harbor,  which  was  destroyed 
in  the  fifteenth  century;  from  iliis  the  Italians  who  wished  to  pass  into  Greece  gene- 
rally sailed  ;  Hydrunlum  (Otranto),  where  Italy  makes  the  nearest  approach  to  Greece  : 
Castrum  Blinervos  (Castro),  near  which  is  the  celebrated  Japygian  cape,  now  called 
Capo  Sa/iia  ]\[aria  de  Luca.  On  the  west  side  of  Calabria  were  Tarentum  (Tarento), 
built  by  the  Spartan  Phalanthus,  which  gives  name  to  the  Tarentine  bay  ;  RudicB,  the 
birthplace  of  the  poet  Ennius ;  and  Callipolis  (Callipoli),  built  on  an  island  and  joined 
to  the  continent  by  a  splendid  causeway. 

The  principal  river  of  Calabria  was  the  Galesus  (Galeso),- which  falls  into  the  bay  of 
Tarentum. 

§48.  Lucania  lay  south  of  Campania,  extending  from  the  Tuscan  sea  to  the  bay  of 
Tarentum ;  in  the  middle  ages  the  northern  part  was  named  Basilicata,  from  the  empe- 
ror Basil;  and  the  southern  part  was  called  Calabria-citra  by  the  Greek  emperors,  to 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  ancient  Calabria,  which  they  had  lost. 

The  principal  towns  on  the  Mare  Tyrrhenian  (Tuscan  sea),  were,  Laus,  on  the 
river  of  the  same  name  flowing  into  the  Sinus  Lans  (Gulf  of  Policastro) ;  Buxentum, 
called  by  the  Greeks  Pyxus,  on  the  Lausine  bay  ;  Velia  or  Elea,  the  birthplace  oi  Zeno, 
the  inventor  of  logic,  founded  by  a  division  of  the  Asiatic  colony,  that  built  Marseilles 
(cf.  §  11):  in  the  vicinity  of  Elea,  near  Mount  AJburnus  (Postiglione,  or  Albumo), 
Pcsstum,  called  by  the  Greeks  Posidonia,  celebrated  in  ancient  time  tor  its  roses,  in 
modern  for  its  beautiful  ruins. 

On  the  ruins  of  Pxslum,  cf.  Eustace,  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  190.  1.— WimMmann,  Histoire,  be,  vol.  iii.  ai  cited  P.  IV.  §  32.  4.-De 
lagardette,  Les  Ruines  de  Pajstum,  cited  P.  IV.  §  243.  I. 

In  the  interior  of  Lucania,  were  Atinum,  on  the  Tenagrus  ;  Afemi/m,  on  the  Silarus  : 
Grumentum,  on  the  Aciris ;  and  Lagaria,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Epeus,  the 
framer  of  the  Trojan  horse. — On  the  shore  of  the  Sinus  Tarentinus  (Tarentine  bay), 
were  Metapontum,  the  residence  of  Pythagoras  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and 
the  head-quarters  of  Hannibal  for  several  winters ;  Heraclea,  where  the  congress  of 
the  Italo-Grecian  states  used  to  assemble  ;  Sybaris,  on  a  small  peninsula,  infamous  tor 
its  luxury  ;  and  Thurium,  at  a  little  distance,  whither  the  Sybarites  retired  when  their  ow  » 
city  was  destroyed  by  the  people  of  Crotona  The  plains  where  these,  once  nourishing 
cities  stood  are  now  desolate  ;  the  rivers  constantly  overflow  their  banks,  and  leave 
behind  them  muddy  pools  and  unwholesome  swamps,  while  the  few  architectural  re- 
mains contribute  to  the  melancholy  of  the  scene,  by  recalling  to  memory  the  days  of 
former  greatness. 

The  principal  rivers  uf  Lucania  were  the  Tanagrus  (Negri),  which,  after  sinking 
in  the  earth,  breaks  forth  near  the  beautiful  valley  of  Alburnus,  and  uniting  with 
the  Silarus  falls  into  the  Sinus  Past  anus  (Gulf  of  Salerno);  Melpus  (Melfa),  which 
empties  itself  into  the  Lnus  Sinus  (Gulf  of  Policastro,  so  called  from  the  number  of 
ruins  on  its  shores);  the  Bradanus,  dividing  Lucania  from  Calabria,  and  falling  into 
the  Tarentine  bay;  the  Aciris  (Agri),  and  the  Sybaris  (Coscile),  small  streams  on  the 
Tarentine  coast. 

§  49.  The  south-west  of  Italy,  below  the  Sybaris,  was  named  Bruttia-tellus  or 
B  r  u  1 1  i  u  m,  but  is  now  called  Calabria-ultra. — The  principal  cities  of  the  Bruttii,  on 
.he  Tuscan  sea,  were  Pandosia,  where  Alexander,  kiiiu  of  Epirus,  who  waged  war  in 
Italy  while  his  relative  and  namesake  was  subduing  Asia,  died  ;  Consentia  (Cosenza), 
the  capital  of  the  Bruttii;  Terina,  on  the  Sinus  Terinaus  (Gulf  of  St.  Qupbemia); 
and  Vibo,  or  Hippo,  called  by  the  Romans  Yalentia  (Monte  Leone).— On  the  Sicilian 
fc.rait,  were  the  town  and  promontory  Scyllaum  (Scylla),  whose  dangerous  rocks  gave 
rise  to  the  fable  of  the  sea-monster  Scylla  (cf.  P.  II.  %  117);  opposite  to  the  celebrated 
whirlpool  Charybdis  on  the  coast  of  Sicily  :  Rhegium  (Reggio).  so  named  by  the  Greeks, 
because  they  believed  that,  at  some  very  remote  period,  Sicily  was  joined  to  Italy,  ana 
broken  off  here  by  some  violent  natural  concussion  ;  it  was  founded  by  a  colony  from 
Chalcis,  in  the  island  of  Eubcea,  and  the  surrounding  country  was  celebrated  lor  its 
fertility  ;  not  far  from  Rhegium  were  the  village  and  cape  Leucopetra,  so  named  from 
the  whiteness  of  its  rocks,  now  Capo  dell'  Arnai. 

On  the  Tarentine  bay  were  Petilia,  the  city  of  Philoctetep  CroUtna.  founded  h* 
some  Aohaeans  on  their  return  from  the  Trojan  war,  where  Pythagoi-v*  or.<.aoh?he<J  ** 


PLATE     I. 


12  3*5  /O 

PLAN    OF    ANCIENT    ATHENS. 
(According  to  that  given  in  Barthelemy's  Anacharsis.) 


9.  Aqua  (latin 

lit.  Amia  Appia 

II.  Aqua  M.ir.  la. 

li.  Aqua  Julia. 

14.  Aqua  Virgo. 


8'ju  iciar-  llrulg' 


h.  Temple  of  Jupiter  C« 

pitolinut. 
i.    Capitol, 
k    Temple  of  Apnllo. 
1.  Temple  of  Diana. 
m.  Forum  Rnarium 


Forum  Angutti. 
Forum  Trajaui. 


PLAN    OF    ANCIENT    ROME. 

'As  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge.) 


'•  E  IT  ROPE.       ITALIA.       TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ROME.  1 

celebrated  school  of  philosophy  ;  the  people  were  so  famous  for  their  skill  in  nthleiu 
exerciser,  thai  ii  was  commonly  said  "the  last  ol  the  Crotoniates is  the  first  ol  the 
Greeks";    south  ol  this  was  the   Promontorium  Lacinium,  where  a  verj 
temple  of  Juno  stood,  whence  she  is  frequently  called  the   Latin 
remains  oi  this  temple,  the  promontory  is  now  railed  Capo  della  (  alonne  ;  Scylact 
(Squillace),  founded  by  an  Athenian  colony  on  a  bay  to  which  it  le;   Caulon 

(I  08  el  Vetere),  an  Acheean  colony,  almost  destroyed  in  the  wars  with  Pyrrhus  ;  south 
oi  it,  Neryx  (Gerace),  near  the  Promontorium  Zephyrium  (Burzai  ol   the 

Locrians,  who  at  a  very  early  period  settled   in  this  |mrt  of  Italy. — The  cape  at  the 
rn  extremity  of  Italy  was  named  Promontorium  Herculis,  now  Spartivi 
The  principal  rivers  of  the  Brut  tit  were  the  Cratkes  (<  rani,  and  V,,.  ikesiNev),  which 
ed  its  name  from  the  Achaean    women  having  burned  their  husbands'  ships  to 
prevent  their  proceeding  further  in  search  of  a  settlement. 

A  great  proportion  of  the  Greeks  who  colonized  the  south  of  Italy,  wen'  generals,  who 
"a  their  return  from  the  Trojan  wars,  found  that  they  had  been  forgotten  by  their  subject* 
and  that  tlieir  thrones  were  occupied  by  others.  The  intestine  wars  that  almost  continually 
devastated  Greece,  increased  the  number  of  exiles,  who  at  different  times,  and  under  various 

leaders,  sought  to  obtain,  in  a  foreign  country,  that  tranquillity  and  liberty  that  had  n  de d 

them  at  home.— These  different  states  were   internal!)   regulated   by   their  own  laws ;  but  an 
(l I   congress  similar  to  the  Amphictyonic  council   of  Greece,  assembled  at    Heraclea,  and 
united  the  Beveral  communities  in  one  great  confederacy. 

Sybaris  seems  to  have  tieeu,  at  first,  the  leading  state,  hut  after  a  bloody  war,  it  was  destroyed 
by  the ji  alousy  of  the  people  of  Crotona;  the  Sybarites  did  not  yield  to  despair;  five  limes  they 
rebu  li  their  city,  but  at  length  it  was  leveled  to  the  ground,  and' its  wretched  inhabitants,  forced 
to  relinquish  their  native  place,  built  a  new  town  at  Thurium. — The  Crotoniates  did  not  long 

eserve  their  supremacy,  for  the  vices  of  the  Sybarites  were  introduced  into  their  city,  and 
they  consequently  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  Locrians. — To  secure  their  superiority,  the  Locrians 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  kings  of  Syracuse,  who  by  this  means  obtained  considerable 
influence  in  the  south  of  Italy,  until  the  attempt  ol  the  elder  Dion  y  si  us  to  secure  10  himself  a  part 
of  the  country  by  building  a  wall  from  the  Terinjean  eulf  to  the  Ionian  sea,  and  still  more  the  in- 
gratitude of  the  younger  Dinnysius,  gave  them  a  distaste  for  the  connection. —  After  breaking 
off  their  alljance  with  the  Sicilians-,  the  Locrians  united  themselves  to  the  Romans  ;  during  the 
war  with  Pyrrhus,  they  adhered  to  the  fortunes  of  Rome  with  the  most  unshaken  fidelity; 
Imi  aflei  wards  becoming  justly  alarmed  at  the  restless  ambition  of  their  allies,  they  readily  joined 
Hannibal. — It  is  remarkable,  that  in  all  the  other  Italo-Grecian  states  the  people  embraced  the 
Carthaginian  side,  while  the  nobles  sided  with  the  Romans,  but  among  the  Locrians  the  division 
of  parties  was  directly  the. contrary. 

The  Tii'  tines  ruled  the  shores  of  the  Tarentine  bay,  but  being  enervated  by  riches  and 
luxury,  they  were  obliged  to  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  to 
secure  their  city  from  the  Romans.  After  the  disgraceful  termination  of  Pyrrhus's  Italian 
campaign,  that  monarch  returned  home,  leaving  a  garrison  in  Tarentum,  under  the  command 
of  MilO,  who  betrayed  the  city  to  the  Romans. 

After  the  termination  of  ttie  second  Punic  war,  these  states,  though  acknowledging  the  su- 
periority of  Home,  retained  their  own  laws  and  private  jurisdiction,  even  to  the  latest  periods 
of  the  Roman  empire. 

v  51.  (3)  The  Topography  of  Rome.  This  city  was  originally,  it  is  stated,  nearly  in 
the  form  of  a  square,  and  its  whole  perimeter  was  scarcely  one  mile.  In  the  time  of 
Pliny  tin1  .vails  were  said  to  have  been  nearly  20  miles  in  circuit.  The  wall  built  by 
Belisarius  to  resist  the  Goths,  still  remaining,  is  about  14  miles  in  circumference. — The 
Gales  {Porta)  of  Rome  were  originally  four;  in  the  time  of  the  elder  Pliny,  there  were 
thirty-si  en:  in  the  reign  of  Justinian  only  fourteen.  The  following  were  the  most 
noted;   Porta   Carmentalis,  Collina,   Tiburtina,   Coelimontana,  Latina,  Cape7ia,  Fla- 

llli  -in       0   til  iisis. 
For  a  fi'ar.  of  ancient  Rome,  see  our  Plate  I.,  from  which  the  reader  may  learn  the  position  of  many  o   the  important  objects 

tbi    I  to    e  noticed. 

$  52.  Thirty-one  great  'Roads  centered  in  Rome.  Some  of  lite  principal  were  Via 
Sacra,  Appia,  JEmilia,  Valeria,  F/aminia.  These  public  roads  "issuing  from  the 
Forum  traversed  Italy,  pervaded  the  provinces,  and  were  terminated  only  by  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  empire."  Augustus  erected  a  gilt  pillar  in  the  middle  of  the  forum,  called 
Milliarium  aurevm\Tac.  Hist.  i.  27),  from  which  distances  on  the  various  roads  were 
oned.     "  This  curious  monument  was  discovered  in  1823."     BulFr's  Geogr.  (  lase 

p     I! 

"They  usually  were  raised  some  height  above  the  ground  which  they  traversed,  and  procecaeu 

in  as  Btraighl  a  line  as   possible,  running  oyer  hill  and  valley  with  a  sovereign  contempt  foi  all 

the  print  i  lies  of  engineering.     They  consisted  of  three  distinct  layers  of  materials  ;   the  low  est, 

Stones,  mixed  with  cement,  statumen ;  the  middle,  gravel  or  small  stones,  rudtra,  to  prepares 

:..,    i  and  mi  i  '  Iding  surface  to  receive  the  upper  and  most  important  structure,  which  consisted 

es  accurately  tilted    together.     These  roads,  especially  in   the  neighborhood  '•: 

had,  on  both  sides,  raised  foot-ways,  margmes,  protected  by  curb-stones.  \\  Inch  define! 

.  ml  nf  the  central  part,  agger,  for  carriages.     The  latter  was  barrelled,  that  no  water 

i    ion  it."— "The  public  roads  were  accurately  divided  by  mile-stones.      I  in  \  united 

the  subjects  of  the  most  distant  provinces  by  an  easy  intercourse;  but  their  primary  object  had 

been  tot'..,  ilitate  tin   march  of  the  legions.     The  advantage  of  receiving  the  earliest  intelligence, 

an.!  of  convt     ing  their  order-  with  celerity,  induced  the  emperors  to  estahli>h,  throughout  their 

extensive  dominions,  the  regular  institution  of  posts.     Houses  were  every  where  "ecied  ->niy 

at   the  disl  tnce  of  flve  or  sin   miles;  each  of  them  was  constantly  provided  with  fortj  norses, 

and  by  l  te  h  dp  of  these  relays,  it  vv«s  easy  to  travel  a  hundred  miles  in  a  day  along  the  Komai 

4 


16  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY 

roads  The  use  of  the  posts  was  allowed  to  those  who  claimed  it  ty  an  imperial  mandlte  ;  bu> 
though  originally  intended  for  the  public  service,  ii  was  sometimes  indulged  to  the  business  01 
convenient}*  of  private  citizens." — Dr.  Robinson  noticed  three  Roman  mile-stones  on  his  route 
(in  18H8)  from  Tyre  in  Beirut  in  Syria;  one  of  them,  "a  large  column  with  a  Latin  inscription 
containing  ihe  names  of  Septimius  Severus  and  I'ertiiiax."  Traces  still  exist  of  a  Roman 
road  leading  from  Damascus  to  Petra,  and  thence  even  to  Ailah.  The  most  ancient  and  cele- 
brated of  all  ihe  Roman  Vire  was  the  Appian  way,  called  Retina  Fiarum,  the  Queen  of  Roads 
It  was  constructed  by  the  censor,  Appius  Claudius,  in  the  year  of  the  city  441,  and  extended 
from  Rome  to  Capua.  Afterwards  it  was  continued  to  Brtindusium,  360  miles.  At  Sinnessa  it 
threw  off  a  branch  called  the  Domitian  way,  which  ran  along  the  coast  to  Baiaj,  Neapn  is,  iler- 
culaneum,  and  Pompeii. 

A'.  Bergier,  Hist.  Jps  gramls  chemins  des  Ronnins.  Par.  1792.  2  vote.  4.—D\inville,  on  the  extent  of  ancient  Rome  anc.  the  grand 
roads  leading  from  it,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxx.  p.  193.— E.  Robmson,  Biol.  Res.  vol.  iii.  p.  415,  432 ;  vol.  ii.  p.  562,  as 
cited  §  117. 

§  53.  There  were  eight  principal  bridges  over  the  Tiber,  which  flowed  through  tht 
city  from  the  north  ;  Pons  Milvius ;  JElius,  still  standing ;  Fabricius ;  Cestius  ;  Pa- 
lalinus  or  Senatorius,  some  arches  of  it  still  remaining  ;  Sublicius  or  JEmilius  ;  J  arti- 
cular is,  still  existing;   Triumphalis  or  Vaticanus. 

Rome  was  called  Septicollis,  from  having  been  built  on  seven  mountains  or  hills. 
These  were  Mons  Palatinus,  Cupitolinus,  Esquilinus,  Ccelius,  Aventinus,  Quirinalis, 
Viminalis. 

The  foundation  or  commencement  of  the  city  was  made,  according  to  the  common  accounts, 
on  the  Muns  Palatinus  or  Palatium.  Here  Romulus  had  his  residence.  Here  the  emperors 
usually  abode,  and  hence  the  term  Palatium,  palace,  applied  to  designate  a  royal  or  princely 
dwelling.  The  hill  first  added  was  probably  Ihe  Quirinalis,  on  which  it  has  been  supposed  was 
a  Sabine  settlement  called  Quiriiiw  ;  this  addition  being  made  when  the  union  was  formed  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  Sabines,  before  the  death  of  Romulus,  anil  the  Romans  took  Ihe  name 
of  Quiriies.  The  double  Janus  on  the  earliest  coins  is  by  some  supposed  to  refer  to  this  union. 
Next  was  added  the  hill  Ca:liits,  on  which  a  Tuscan  settlement  is  supposed  to  have  been  planted. 
The  other  four  hills  were  successively  added,  at  least  before  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Servius 
Tullius.  sixth  king  of  Rome.  Two  hills  on  the  north  of  the  Tiber  were  also  connected  with  the 
city.  The  Janiculum  was  fortified  by  Ancus  Martins,  fourth  king  of  Rome,  as  a  sort  of  nut-post, 
and  joined  to  the  city  by  a  bridge.  The  other,  the  Vaticanus,  so  called  perhaps  from  the  predic- 
tions ultered  there  by  soothsayers,  vales,  was  added  at  a  later  period  ;  it  was  rather  disliked  by 
the  ancients,  but  is  now  the  principal  place  in  Rome,  being  the  seat  of  the  Pope's  palace,  St. 
Peter's  church,  and  the  celebrated  Vatican  library.  A  tenth  hill,  Collis  hortulorum,  called  also 
Pincius,  was  taken  into  the  city  by  Aurelian. 

On  the  side  of  the  Capilolinc  hill  towards  Ihe  Tiber  was  the  Tarpeian  Rack.  Johnson  says,  (in  his  Philos.  of  Travel,  cited  P.  IV 
§  190)  "of  all  ihal  tremendous  precipice,  painted  in  such  terrific  colors  by  Seneca,  immeusm  altitudinit  aspectta,  only  thirty  fee 
of  its  summit  now  overlook  the  consolidated  dust  of  ancient  temples  and  Ihe  accumulated  fillh  of  modern  hovels.'' — The  srot  vva 
visited  in  IS29  by  two  American  gentlemen,  eminent  scholars,  one  of  whom  writes,  ••  after  very  cautious  estimates  we  both  ju<  gel 
the  original  height  to  have  been  about  &0  feet,  of  which  about  twenty  may  be  filled  up,  leaving  about  60  for  its  present  altitude." 

$  54.  Rome  was  originally  divided  into  four  districts.  From  the  time  of  Augustus 
there  were  fourteen.  The  last  division  is  followed  by  most  topographers,  and  affords 
the  most  convenient  order  for  mentioning  the  objects  worthy  of  notice  in  the  city.  The 
names  of  the  districts  were  as  follows;  1.  Porta  Capena;  2.  Ccelimontium ;  3.  his  and 
Serapis  or  Monet  a  ;  4.  Tvmplum  Pads  or  Via  Surra  ;  5.  Esquilina  citm  turri  et  colle 
Vimiiia/i ;  6.  Alta  Semita  ;  7.  Via  Lata;  8.  Forum  Eomanum  ;  9.  Circus  Flamiuius  ; 
10.  Palatium;  11.  Circus  Maximus  ;  12.  Piscina  Publico;  13.  Aventinus  ;  14.  Trans 
Tiberim.  To  describe  only  the  most  remarkableobjectsin  each  region  or  district  would 
trespass  on  our  designed  limits,  and  we  must  be  content  with  merely  naming  some  of 
them. 

A  tabular  statement  of  the  objects  included  in  Ihe  fourteen  regions  is  given  in  KenneWs  Antiquities,  ch.  ii.  as  cited  P.  III.  §  197.  2. 

See  O.  C.  Jtdler's  ausf-lrliche  Beschreibung  der  Stadt  Rom.     Altona,  178!.  4.   with  engravings.     The  basis,  mainly,  is  Ihe 

Irrangement  of  Sextos  Rufus  and  Publius  Victor  with  the  additions  of  Nardini  and  others.  fCf.  Grmoii  Thesaurus,  vols.  3  and  4., 
Minimi's  Italian  original  was  published  anew  by  A.  Nil/by,  Rome,  1820,  4  vols.  8.  with  plates— Descrizione  di  Roma  Antica  forma 
novamente  con  le  Autnrila  di  Bart,  Marliani,  OnoJ.  Panvinio,  kc.  with  plates.  Rom.  1697.  2  vols.  4.— C.  Fea,  Nuova  descriziom 
ji  Roma  antica  e  moderns  Rom-  1820.  3  vols  8.  with  plates.— C.  Burton,  Monuments  and  Curiosities  of  Rome.  Oxf.  1821.  Transl 
Into  German  by  Sickler,  Weim.  1823.  8.—  Venuti,  Descrizione  topografiadelle  antichita  di  Roma.  ed.  by  Visconti,  1803,  with  Piali't 
Notes.  Rom.  1824.  2  vols.  4.—  Burgess,  Topography  and  Antiquities  of  Rome.  Loud.  1831.  2  vols.  8— Ficoroni,  Vestigia  di  Romi 
—Plainer,  Bunsen,  Oerhard  and  R.stell,  Beschreibung  der  Stadt  Rom.     Tubing,  and  Stuttg.  If  29-37.  3  vols,  with  a  Bilderhe/l  (01 

Number  of  plates).—  F  Blumr,  Iter  Italicum.    Halle,  IKJ6.  4  vols   8.- On  the  remaining  monuments  of  ancient  Rome,  cf.  P.  17. 

^  186,  I8S,  191,  226,  243.    Rome  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  N.  Yk.  1827.  2  vols.  12. 

$  55.  There  were  large  open  places  in  the  citv.  designed  for  assemblies  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  for  martial  exercises,  and  also  for  games,  termed  Campi.  Of  (he  nineteen 
which  are  mentioned,  the  Campus  Martins  was  the  largest  and  most  famous.  It  was 
near  ihe  Tiber;  thence  called  sometimes  Tiberinus,  but  usually  Martins,  as  conse- 
crated to  Mars.  It  was  originally  the  property  of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  and  confiscated 
after  his  expulsion.    In  the  later  ages  it  was  surrounded  by  several  magnificent  struc- 

•res;  and  porticos  were  erected,  under  which  the  citizens  could  exercise  in  rainy 
weather.  It  was  also  adorned  with  statues  and  arches.  Comitia  were  held  here; 
tnd  there  were  Septa  or  Ovilia  (P.  III.  §  259),  constructed  for  the  purpose. 

§  56.  The  main  streets  of  the  city  were  termed  vice.     On  each  side  were  connected 

Mocks  «*  house;:'  and  buildings;  these  being  separated  by  intervening  streets  and  by 


Hi 


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e:.i: 

is 

111 

: 

13  Cl 

V<  ^il  -ji     ."1:  .  ■',■ 

:>!: 

iillj;: 

'!■'■.   ' 

?     1.  EUROPE.        ITALIA.        TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ROME.  17 

lanes  or  alleys,  would  form  separate  divisions,  or  a  son  <>l  squares  ;  the  portions  occu 
pied  by  buildings  and  thus  separated  were  calli  .1  Fid;  of  these  thi  re  wen 
424.     They  had  particular  names;  e.g.  Vn  i  s<Obus,jugarius,  lanarins,  Tibertinut, 
Jii/ionis,  Mine  "oa  .  &  c 

5  57.  The  ni  me  ol   Fora  was  given  to  places  where  the  pi    ,  rnbled  for  the 

transaction  of  business.     Although  at  first  business  oi  everj  Bon  wa  rans- 

acted  in  the  same  place,  vei  with  the  increase  of  wealth,  il  bream.'  convenient  to 
make  a  separation;  and  the  Fora  vere  divided  into  two  sorts,  Civilia  and  Fen* 
The  Roman  Fora  were  nol  like  the  ayopai  m  the  Greeks,  nearly  square,  bul  ob 
(he  breadth  not  more  than  two-thirds  ol  the  length;  the  difference  between  theli 
ami  breadth  of  the  chiel  Forum  discoveied  al  Pompeii  is  greater. 

Until  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  there  was  but  one  Forum  oi  the  fust  mentioned 
class;  that  generally  called  Forum  Roman  urn,  or  Forum  simply,  by  way  ol  emine 
This  gave  name  to  the  8th  region  ($54),  and  was  between  the  <  apitoline  and  Palatine 
hills;  it  was  800  feet  wide,  built  by  Romulus,  and  adorned  on  all  sides,  bj  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  with  porticos,  shops,  and  other  buildings.  On  the  public  buildfings  around 
the  Forum  meat  sums  were  expended  in  the  architecture  and  ornaments,  so  that  it 
presented  a  very  splendid  and  imposing  spectacle:  here  were  the  Basilica,  <  it  rice, 
and  Tubule ria  ;  temples,  prisons,  and  public  granaries:  here  too  were  placed  nume- 
rous statues  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  182.  2),  with  other  monuments.  In  the  centre  of  the  Forum 
was  the  place  called  the  Curtian  Lake,  where  Curtius  is  said  to  have  plunged  into  a 
mysterious  gulph  or  chasm,  and  to  have  thus  caused  it  to  be  closed  up.  <  In  one  side 
were  the  elevated  seats  (or  suggestus,  a  sort  of  pulpits),  from  which  magistrates  and 
orators  addressed  the  people;  usually  called  the  Rostra,  because  adorned  with  the 
beaks  of  ships,  taken  in  a  sea-fight  from  the  inhabitants  of  Antium.  Near  by  was  the 
part  of  the  Forum  called  the  Comit  urn,  where  some  of  the  legislative  assemblies  were 
held,  particularly  the  Comitia  Curiata.  In  or  near  the  Comitium  was  the  Puteal 
Attii ;  a  puteal  was  a  little  space  surrounded  by  a  wall  in  the  form  of  a  square,  and 
roofed  over:  such  a  structure  was  usually  erected  on  a  spot  which  had  been  struck 
with  lightning.  Not  far  from  the  Puteal  Attii  was  the  Praetor's  Tribunal,  for  hold- 
ing courts.  There  was  in  the  Forum,  near  the  Fabian  arch,  another  structure 
marking  a  place  struck  with  lightning,  the  Puteal  Libonis,  near  which  usurers  and 
bankers  were  accustomed  to  meet  {Hor.  Sat.  ii.  vi.  35).  The  milliarium  in  the  Forum 
has  already  been  mentioned  (§  52). 

Besides  t liis  ancient  Forum,  there  were  four  others  built  by  different  emperors,  and  designed 
for  civil  purposes  ;  the  Forum  Jnliiim,  limit  by  Julius  Cesar  with  spoils  taken  in  tlie  Gallic  war; 
the  Fur  ii  in  .tiuinisti,  by  Augustus,  adorned  with  the  statues  of  the  kings  of  Latium  nn  one  side  and 
the  kings  of  Rome  on  the  other;  the  Forum  Ncrme,  begun  by  Domitian  and  finished  by  Nerva, 
having  statues  of  all  the  emperors;  and  the  Forum  Trajani,  by  Trajan,  the  most  splendid  of  all. 

The  Font  Venalia  were  fourteen  in  number;  among  them  the  Fortjm  Boarium,  o.x 
and  cow  market,  adorned  with  a  brazen  bull;  Piscarium,  fish  market;  Olitorium, 
vegetable  market  ;   Suarium,  swine  market,  &c. 

§58.  In  speaking  of  the  temples  of  Rome,  the  first  place  be  ongs  to  the  Capitolium, 
The  Capitol  was  one  of  the  oldest,  largest,  and  most  grand  edifices  in  the  city.  It 
was  .first  founded  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  afterwards  from  time  to  time  enlarged 
and  embellished.  Its  gates  were  brass,  audit  was  adorned  with  costly  gilding; 
hence  the  epithets  aurea  and  fulgens,  applied  to  it.  It  was  on  the  Capitoline  hill,  in 
the  highest  part  of  the  city,  and  was  sometimes  called  an.  The  ascent  from  the 
forum  to  it  was  by  100  steps.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a  square,  extending  about  200 
feet  on  each  side.  Its  front  was  decorated  with  three  rows  of  pillars,  the  other  sides 
with  two. — Three  temples  were  included  in  this  structure;  that  of  Jupiter  Capitolinua 
in  the  centre,  one  sacred  to  Minerva  on  the  right,  and  one  to  Juno  on  the  left.  The 
Capitol  also  comprehended  some  minor  temples  or  chapels,  and  the  Casa  Romuli,  or 
cottage  of  Romulus,  covered  with  straw.  Near  the  ascent  to  the  Capitol  was  also 
the  asylum,  or  place  of  refuge. 

This  celebrated  structure  was  destroyed,  or  nearly  so,  by  fire,  three  times;  first,  in  the  Marian 
war,  B  C.  83.  but  rebuilt  by  Sylla  ;  secondly,  in  the  Vitellian  war,  A  I).  70,  ami  rebuilt  by  Ves- 
pasian; thirdly,  about  the  time  of  Vespasian's  death,  after  which  it  was  rebuilt  by  Domilinn 
with  greater  magnificence  than  ever.  A  few  vestiges  only  now  remain  ;  respecting  which  there 
has  been  much  discussion. 
See  Smilh'l  Diet,  of  Antiquities,  art.  Capitolium,  and  works  lliere  cited. 

$  59.  The  temple  next  in  rank  was  the  Pantheon,  built  by  Marcus  Agrippa,  son-in 
law  of  Augustus,  and  consecrated  to  Jupiter  Fltor.  or,  as  its  name  imports,  to  oil  tkt 
go/Is  (iravnTw  9st5v).  It  is  circular  in  form,  and  said  to  be  150  feel  high,  and  ol  aboul 
the  same  breadth  within  the  walls,  which  are  16  feel  thick.  The  walls  on  the  inside 
are  either  solid  marble  or  incrusted.  The  front  on  the  outside  was  covered  with 
brazen  plates  gilt,  and  the  top  with  silver  plates;  but  now  it  is  covered  with  lead. 
The  gate  was  of  brass,  of  extraordinary  size  and  work.  It  has  no  windows,  but  only 
an  openinrr  in  the  top.  of  about  25  feet  in  diameter,  to  admit  the  light.  The  root  i* 
curiously  vaulted,  void   eoaces   being  left  here  tnd   •hero  ror  the  greater  strength 


[g  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

"  The  vestibule  is  supported  by  sixteen  Corinthian  columns,  fourteen  ieet  in  circum- 
ference. :iiicl  tliirt  v-iiiiic  feet  iii  height,  each  shaft  being  an  entire  block  of  red  oriental 
wranite,  having  bases  and  capitals  of  white  marble."  The  Pantheon  is  one  of  the 
most  perfect  of  the  ancient  edifices  remaining  at  Rome.  It  is  now  called  the  Rotunda, 
having  been  consecrated  by  Pope  Boniface  4th,  A.  D.  607,  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and 

all  tli,    Saint*. 

Dr.  Adam,  in  his  account  of  the  Pantheon,  says,  "they  used  to  ascend  to  it  by  12  sleps,  hut 
now  Ihey  go  down  ;is  many."  On  this  point  the  gentleman  mentioned  in  $  53,  writes,  "the 
statement  that  it  was  originally  entered  by  seven  step*  is  doubtless  correct.  At  present  one 
aaeends  two  Steps  to  enter  it.  The  statement  of  twelve,  steps  nf  descent  can  only  have  been  true 
four  centuries  ago,  before  the  place  anterior  to  the  Pantheon  was  cleansed.  This  took  place 
under  Pope  Eugene  IV.,  who  was  elected  in  1431."— For  a  view  of  the  Pantheon,  see  Plate  111. 

%  60.  There  were  many  other  temples  in  ancient  Rome  (cf.  P.  III.  §  203),  which 
(•annul  here  be  described.  The  temple  ot  Saturn,  was  famous  particularly  as  serving 
for  the  public  treasury;  perhaps  thus  used  because  one  of  the  Strongest  places  in  the 
city  ;  although  some  ascribed  it  to  the  tradition,  that  in  the  golden  age.  under  Saturn, 
fraud  was  unknown.  In  this  temple  were  also  kept  the  public  registers  and  records, 
among  them  the  Libri  Elepkantini,  or  ivory  tablets  containing  lists  of  the  tribes. 

The  temple  of  Janus  was  built,  or  finished  at  lens:,  by  Numa;  a  square  edifice, 
with  two  gates  of  brass,  one  on  each  side  ;  which  were  to  be  kept  open  in  time  of 
war,  and  shut  in  time  of  peace. 

So  continually  was  the  city  engaged  in  wars,  that  the  jrates  nf  Janus  were  seldom  shut ;  first, 
in  the  reign  of  Numa;  secondly,  at  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  I?.  C.  241 ;  three  times  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus;  the  last  time  near  the  epoch  of  Christ's  birth  ;  and  tbr-je  times  afterwards, 
once  under  .Nero,  once  under  Vespasian,  and  lastly,  under  C'onstantius,  about  A.  I).  350.  The 
gates  were  opened  with  formal  ceremony  iVirg.  Mil.  vti.  707) — For  a  view  of  the  temple  of  Ja- 
nus, see  Plate  VII. 
Sainte  Croix,  Sur  la  cloture  du  temple  de  Janus,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  laser,  vol.  xlix.  p.  3S5. 

The  temple  of  Apollo  on  the  Palatine  hill  was  celebrated  on  account  of  its  library, 
(P.  IV.  §  126). — The  temple  of  Vesta  yet  exists  in  a  small  circular  church,  on  the  side 
of  the  Palatine  hill  towards  the  Tiber. — Besides  these,  we  may  name  the  temple  of 
Concord  ;  of  the  goddess  of  Peace  (Pad  mterna)  ;  of  Castor  and  Pollux;  of  Valor, 
built  by  Marcellus. 

The  Romans  were  accustomed,  like  other  ancient  nations,  to  consecrate  groves 
and  woods  to  the  gods.  As  many  as  230  sacred  groves  [luci)  are  enumerated,  chiefly 
within  the  city  of  Rome. 

$61.  The  Curia  were  public  edifices,  or  parts  of  public  edilices.  and  appropriated, 
some  of  them  for  assemblies  of  the  senate  and  civil  councils,  others  for  meetings  of 
the  priests  and  religious  orders  for  the  regulation  of  religious  rites.  To  the  former 
class  the  Senacula  seem  to  have  belonged.  The  following  were  among  the  Curiae; 
viz.  Curia  Romano,   Vetus,  Hostilia,   Vallensis,  Pompeii,  &-c. 

The  tern.  Curio,  as  designating  an  edifice  or  apartment,  seems  to  h  we  been  originally  applied  to  the  halls  or  places  where  the 
eitizens  of  the  respective  Curia:  (cf.  F.  III.  §  219  a.  §  2'il)  assembled  for  religious  and  other  purposes;  each  of  the  thirty  had  its  com 
awn  hall  or  place  of  meeting. 

The  Basilica-  were  buildings  of  great  splendor,  devoted  to  meetings  of  the  senate, 
and  to  judicial  purposes.  Here  counsellors  received  their  clients,  and  here  bankers 
also  had  rooms  for  transacting  their  business.  There  were  fourteen  (according  to 
some,  twenty  or  twenty-one)  of  these  buildings;  among  them,  Basilica  vetus,  Con- 
stanliniana,  Siciniana,  Julia,  &c. — Both  the  Basilicse  and  the  Curiae  were  chiefly 
around  the  Forum. 

It  should  tie  remarked  that  the  term  Btuilica  was  applied  to  many  of  the  ancient  Christian  churches,  because  they  so  much 
resembled  the  Banlirst  just  described.  The  earliest  churches  bearing  this  name  were  erected  under  Coustanline.  He  gave  his  own 
palace  on  the  Ccelian  hill  to  construct  on  its  site  a  church,  which  is  recognized  as  the  most  ancient  Christian  Basilica.  Next  was 
that  of  St.  Peter  on  the  Vatican  hill,  erected  A.  1)  321.  on  the  site  and  with  the  ruins  of  the  temples  nf  Apollo  an  I  Mars  ;  it  stood 
»bout  twelve  centuries,  and  was  then  pulled  down  by  Pope  Julius  2d,  and  on  its  site  has  arisen  the  modern  church  of  the  same  name. 
—On  the  structure  of  the  early  Christian  churches,  see  L.  Coleman,  Antiquities  pi   In- Christian  Church.    And.  IS4I.  8.  chap  ix. 

$62.  The  Circi  were  structures  appropriated  to  public  spectacles,  to  races,  and  to 
fighting  with  wild  beasts.  They  were  generally  oblong,  having  one  end  at  riLrht 
angles  with  the  sides,  anil  the  other  curved,  and  so  forming  nearly  the  shape  of  an 
ox-bow.  A  wall  extended  quite  round,  with  ranges  of  seats  tor  the  spectators.  There 
were  eighl  of  these  buildings,  besides  the  < 'ircus  \Iaximus,  described  in  another  place 
situated  in  tin  vicinity  of  the  forum,     for  an  accounl  of  these,  see  P   III.  $232. 

The  Stadia  were  structures  of  a  similar  form,  designed  lor  contests  in  racing,  but 
tess  in  size  and  cosl  (cf.  P.  IV.  5  23  I.) — Tfippodromi  were  of  the  same  character,  and 
seem  to  have  been  sometimes  built  tor  private  use. 

$63.  \  1 1  <  •  i .  •  1 1 1  Rome  had  also  a  number  of  large  edifices  constructed  for  the  purpose 
of  dramatic  exhibitions,  and  tor  gladiatorial  shows.  Those  for  the  former  use  were 
termed  theatra  (cf.  P.  III.  5  238).  The  first,  permanent,  was  that  erected  by  Pom- 
pey,  of  hewn  stone,  capable  of  accomodating  10,000  persons ;  near  this,  in  the  vici- 
nity oi  the  river,  were  two  others,  that  of  Marcellus  and  that  of  Balbus     h»ic*"  .ne 


S3 


P.  I.  EUROPE.       ITALIA.       TOPOGRAPH"-    OF    ROME.  IS 

phrase  applied  to  them,  tria  theatra. — The  structures  designed  for  the  gladiatorial  shows 
were  termed  Amphitheatra  (P.  111.  $239),  of  which  i he  most  remarkable  was  the 
( 'oliseum.  still  remaining,  a  most  stupendous  ruin. — The  Odm  were  buildings  irircu  ar 
in  form,  and  ornamented  with  numerous  seals,  pillars,  ami  statues,  wlun  trials  ol 
musical  skill  were  held,  and  poetical  and  other  literary  compositions  wi  re  exhibited, 
after  the  manner  of  the  Greeks  (P.  IV.  §65).  Those  established  by  Domitian  and 
Trajan  were  the  most  celebrated. 

64.  The  buildings  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  bathing  (balnea)  were  very 
numerous;  such  as  were  of  a  more  public  character  were  called  Ih  an,,- .  I 
of  i he  republic,  the  baths  were  usually  cold.  Maecenas  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  erect  warm  and  hot  ones  for  public  use.  '1  hey  were  men  called  thermae,  and 
placed  under  the  direction  of  the  tediles.  Agrippa,  while  he  was  sedile,  increased  the 
number  of  thermal  to  170.  and  in  the  course  ol  iwo  centuries  there  ..  than 

BOO  in  imperial  Rome.  The  thermce Diocletiani  were  especially  distinguished  for  their 
extent  and  magnificence  (cf.  P.  IV".  §  241.  b).  Those  of  Aero,  litus,  Domitian,  and 
especially  Caracalla,  were  also  ol  celebrated  splendor. 

$65.  The  name  of  Ludi  or  schools  was  given  to  those  structures  in  which  the 

various  athletic  exercises  were  taught  and  practiced;  those  most  freqt y  mentioned 

are  the  Lv.du.*  Magnus,  Satutinus,  Dacicus,  and  JEmilius.  There-  were  also  several 
structures  tor  exhibiting  naval  engagements,  called  Naumackus ;  as  Naumachia  Au- 
zitsti,  Domiliani.    (Cf.  P.  III.  §233.) 

Finally,  there  were  large  edifices  sacred  to  the  nymphs,  and  called  Nympha-a;  one 
particularly  noted,  which  contained  artificial  fountains  and  water-falls,  and  was  adorned 
with  numerous  statues  of  these  imaginary  beings.    Cf.  P.  II.  §  101. 

$66.  The  Porticos  or  Piazzas  {porticus)  were  very  numerous.  These  were  covered 
colonnades,  adorned  with  statues,  and  designed  as  places  for  meeting  and  walking  tor 
pleasure.  They  were  sometimes  separate  structures  ;  sometimes  connected  with  other 
large  buildings,  such  as  basilicas,  theatres,  and  the  like.  The  most  splendid  was  that 
of  Apollo's  temple,  on  Mount  Palatine;  and  the  largest,  the  one  called  Milliaria  or 
Milliarensis  (i.e.  of  the  1000  columns).  Courts  were  sometimes  held  in  porticos; 
and  woods  also  of  some  kinds  were  exposed  tor  sale  in  them.    Cf.  P.  IV.  §  237. 

The  city  was  adorned  with  Triumphal  arches  (arms  triumphales),  to  the  number  ol 
36,  having  statues  and  various  ornaments  in  bas-relief  (P.  IV.  §  188).  Some  of  them 
were  very  magnificent  ;  as  e.  g.  those  of  Nero,  Titus,  Trajan,  Septimius  Severus, 
and  Constantine.  These  were  of  the  finest  marble,  and  of  a  square  figure,  with  a 
large  arched  gate  in  the  middle,  and  a  small  one  at  the  sides. 

§  67.  There  were  single  pillars  or  columns,  columncs,  also  erected  to  commemorate 
particular  victories,  e.  g.  those  of  Duillius,  Trajan,  and  Antoninus.  Ruins  of  the 
first,  as  has  been  supposed,  were  discovered  in  1560  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  133.  1).  The  last 
two  are  still  standing,  and  are  reckoned  among  the  most  precious  remains  of  anti 
quity  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  188.  2). — With  great  labor,  obelisks  were  removed  from  Egypt, 
of  which  those  still  existing,  having  been  conveyed  there  by  Augustus,  Caligula,  and 
Constantius  the  second,  are  the  most  remarkable. 

Innumerable  also  were  the  statues,  which  were  found  not  only  in  the  temples,  but 
also  in  many  public  places,  in  and  upon  large  edifices.  More  than  eighty  of  a  colossal 
size  are  mentioned. 

There  were  likewise  erected  at  Rome  a  few  trophies,  tropepu  These  were  trunks 
of  marble,  sometimes  of  wood,  on  which  were  hung  the  spoils  taken  from  the  enemy, 
especially  the  weapons  of  war.  There  are  two  trunks  of  marble  decorated  like  tro- 
phies still  remaining  at  Rome,  and  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by  Marius  for  his 
victories  over  Ju2iiriha.  and  over  the  Cimbri. 

§  68.  Among  the  memorable  things  of  Rome,  the  Aqueducts,  aquaductus,  should 
be  mentioned.  Their  design  was  to  furnish  the  city  with  a  constant  supply  of  water, 
and  oreat  expense  was  laid  out  in  constructing  and  adorning  them.  There  were  14  of 
the  larger  sort,  besides  others  of  less  importance;  the  A  <y  //  a  Appia,  Marcia,  Vira«. 
Claudia,  Stjilimia,  and  Alsietina,  are  the  most  known.  The  smaller  reservoirs  {locus) 
were  commonly  ornamented  with  statues  and  carver's  work. 

Some  of  the  aqueducts  brought  water  more  than  (iO  miles,  through  rocks  and  mountain*, 
and  over  vallevs,  supported  on  arches,  sometimes  above  100  feet  Inch.  The.  care  of  these  nrigi- 
nallv  belonged  to  the  adiles;  under  the  emperors,  particular  officers  were  appointed  for  it,  called 
riiralnres  aijitarum. 

!i.  Fahrelli. tie  Aqusductibug  reteris  Rnnoe.  Rnm.  16«0.  4.—/.  Rrmdelet,  French  Translation  of  Fmntinus  on  Ihe  Aqueduct  ol 
Rome.     Cf.  P.  V.§  491.— F.  B.  Touxr,  The  Crolon  Aqueduct ;  with  an  Account  of  similar  Works  Ancient  and  Modern.    NY.  1843. 

The  Cloaca  were  also  works  of  great  cost  and  of  very  durable  structure.  They  were  a  sort  of 
§ewers  or  drains,  some  of  them  very  large,  parsons  under  the  whole  city,  and  discharging  it* 
various  impurities  into  the  Tiber.  Many  private  houses  stood  directly  upon  the  cloacst.  These; 
were  under  the  charge  of  officers  styled  curatores  rlmrarum.  The  principal  was  the  Clnasa 
Maxima,  built  by  Tarqninius  Priscus,  cleansed  and  repaired  by  M  Agrippa  ;  it  was  16  feci  broad 
and  30  feel  high,  formed  of  blocks  of  hewn  stone.    The  Pantheon  ($  59)  was  over  it. 

See  Sluarl'j  Did.  of  Architecture,  cited  P.  IV.  $  138.  3,—NUlmhrU  Hist,  of  Rome,  Eng.  Trans!.     Phil.  1835.  vol.  i   p.  299. 

%  69.  Splendid  tombs  and  monuments  to  the  dead  were  sometimes  erected  (cf.  P.  Ill 


20  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

$  341).  We  may  name  here  particularly  the  Mausoleum  of  Augustus,  of  a  pyramidica 
form.  385  feei  high,  wilfa  two  ohelisks  standing  near  it;  the  Moles  Hadriani ;  and  the 
Tomb  or  Pyramid  of  Ceslius  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  226,  P.  III.  <&  187.  4). 

§  70.  The  number  of  private  buildings  amounted,  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  tu 
48,382,  including  the  domus  and  the  insula;  the  former  of  which  classes  comprised, 
according  to  Gibbon,  the  "  great  houses,"  and  the  latter  the  "plebeian  habitations"  (cf. 
P.  III.  v  325).  Among  these  buildings  were  some  of  great  splendor,  partly  of  marble, 
and  adorned  with  statues  and  colonnades. 

1.  The  more  celebrated  were  Ihe  palaces  of  Julius  Caaar,  Mamurra,  Junius  Verus,  Cicero,  and  Augustus,  the  golden  house  of  Nero, 
tin-  ]  ;il  ice  of  Licinius  Crassus,  Aquilius,  Calulus,  JEmilius  Scaurus.  Trajan,  Hadrian,  &•.—•'  The  Imperial  palace  [Palativm)  wa. 

It  was  built  by  Augustus  upon  the  Palatine  hill,  and  gave  name  to  the  tenth  region  of  the  city.  The  fron 
was  on  the  Via  Sacra,  and  before  it  were  planted  oaks.  Within  the  palace  lay  the  temple  of  Vesta,  and  also  that  of  Apollo,  which 
Augustus  endeavored  to  make  the  chief  temple  in  Rome.  The  succeeding  emperors  extended  and  beautified  this  palace.  Nero  "jural 
it,  but  rebuili  it  (if  such  entent  that  it  not  only  embraced  all  the  Palatine  hill,  but  also  the  plain  between  that  and  the  Ccelian  and 
Esquiline,  and  even  a  part  of  these  hills,  in  its  limits.  He  ornamented  it  so  richly  with  precious  stones,  gold,  silver,  statues,  paint- 
ings, and  treasures  of  every  description,  that  it  received  the  r.ame  of  domus  aurm.  The  following  emperors  stripped  it  of  its  orna- 
ments ;  Vespasian  and  Titus  caused  some  parts  of  it  to  be  pulled  down.  Domitian  afterwards  destroyed  the  main  building.  In  the 
reisn  of  Commodus,  a  great  part  of  it  was  burnt ;  but  it  was  restored  by  him  and  his  successors.  In  the  time  of  Theodoric  it  needed 
■till  further  repairs  ;  but  this  huge  edifice  subsequently  became  a  ruin,  and  on  its  site  now  stand  the  Famese  palace  and  gardens,  and 
the  Villa  Spada." 

2.  Before  the  conflagration  of  the  city  under  Nero,  the  streets  were  narrow  and  irregular,  and  the  private  houses  were  incom- 
modious, and  some  even  dangerous  from  their  imperfect  architecture  and  the  height  of  three  lofty  stories  In  the  time  of  Nero, 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  city  was  burnt.  Of  the  fourteen  districts,  only  four  remained  entire.  The  city  was  rebuilt  with  more 
regularity,  with  streets  broader  and  less  crooked  (cf.  Tac  Ann.  lv.  43)  j  the  areas  for  houses  were  measured  out,  aud  Ihe  height 
restricted  to  seventy  feet. 

J  71.  The  suburbs  of  ancient  Rome  were  so  extensive  that  its  neighborhood  was  almost  one 
immense  village  ;  but  at  present,  the  vicinity  of  Rome  called  Cnmpapva  di  Howa,  is  a  complete 
desert.  Modern  Rmiie  is  built  chiefly  on  the  ancient  Campus  Marlins.  The  accumulation  of  ruina 
has  raised  very  sensibly  the  soil  of  the  city,  as  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  respecting  the 
entrance  of  the  Pantheon  ($  59),  and  the  height  of  the  Tarpeian  rock  ($53). 

For  notices  of  Modern  Rome,  see  Piranesi,  Vedute  di  Roma,  2  vols.  fol.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  243.  2  )— Rome,  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
—  IV.  Fish,  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  186.  6.—  Encyclop.  Americana,  under  Mod.  Rome,  aud  under  Travels  in  Italy  •  and  the  worts  there 
cited 


$  72.  We  proceed  now  to  what  remains  to  be  described  in  the  south  of  Europe  (cf. 
$27);  and  we  might  include  the  whole  under  the  term  Graicia,  taken  in  a  very  com- 
prehensive sense,  in  which  it  has  sometimes  been  used.  For  it  has  been  made  to  cover 
nol  only  ihe  Peloponnesus  and  Greece  Proper,  but  also  Epirus,  Thessalia,  Macedonia, 
and  even  Thracia.  The  victories  of  Philip  having  procured  him  a  vote  in  the  Amphic- 
tyonic  council,  his  Thessalian  and  Macedonian  dominions  were  consequently  ranked 
among  the  Grecian  states.  The  valor  and  policy  of  the  Epirote  kings  procured  the 
same  honor  for  Epirus  not  lone:  after;  and  finally,  Thrace  was  raised  to  the  same  dig- 
nity, when  it  became  the  habitation  of  the  Roman  emperors.  But  Graecia  is  rarely 
used  in  so  large  a  sense :  and  we  shall  first  consider  ancient  Thrace  separately,  and 
include  the  other  countries  under  Gracia. 

Thracia  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  chain  of  mount  Hsemus,  which  separated 
it  from  Mcesia;  on  the  east  by  the  Euxine  sea,  Thracian  Bosphorus,  and  Hellespont, 
which  divided  it  from  Asia  ;  on  the  south  by  the  jEgean  sea  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the 
river  Strymon,  dividing  it  from  Macedon.  In  consequence  of  the  conquests  of  Philip, 
the  river  Nessus  became  the  mutual  boundary  of  Thrace  and  Macedon,  the  interme- 
diate districl  being  annexed  to  the  latter  country. — The  peninsula  contained  between 
the  Bay  of  Melas  and  the  Hellespont  was  called  Thracics  Chersonesus  ;  celebrated  in 
the  wins  between  Philip  and  the  Athenians. 

$73.  The  capita]  of  Thrace,  and  at  one  time  of  the  civilized  world,  was  Byzailium, 
or  Constantinopolis,  built  on  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  Chersonese,  called  from 
its  beauty  Chrysoceras,  or  the  golden  horn.  By  whom  this  city  was  founded  is  a  mat- 
ter nt  dispute;  but  ii  was  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified  by  Constantine  the  Great. 
who.  in  the  fourth  century  of  ihe  Christian  era.  transferred  the  seat  of  government 
hither  from  Rome.  <  >n  the  division  of  the  Roman  empire,  this  city  became  the  capital 
of  the  Greek  or  eastern  pari  ;  ii  retained  this  distinction  for  many  years,  until  from 
ib<-  vices  "t  ihe  inhabitants,  and  ihe  imbecility  of  their  rulers,  it  was  captured  by  the 
Turks  on  ihe  29th  of  May,  A.  D.  1453. 

fin  the  topography  of  Ryzantium  and  the  changes  made  by  Constantine.  see  Ducansrc,  Histor.  Byzantina.  Par.  1680.  fol. — G.  Co- 
irrnu,  lie  A  ii' ii]  in 'V.t. ii.  ConttADtlnop,  Par.  1655  —An-  Bnnrtttri,  Imper.  Orient,  sen  Antiipiita'es  Constantinopolilanae.  Par.  1711. 
I  vo!«.  fol.-  Theee  ivorki  ire  included  in  the  Cnrpui  of  Bytantint  Binary,  noticed  P  V.  i>  239  a  — Cf.  Gibbon,  ch.  xvii.— Jama 
Dallawny,  Conittntinople.  indent  and  modem.— Loaf.  1797.  4.  North  Jtmer,  Reo.  16th  vol.  or  7lh  of  New  Series,  p.  43S. 

The  other  principal  towns  were.  Salmydessus  (Midijeh),  celebrated  for  shipwrecks; 
'Hiynia,  :i  town  and  promontory,  whence  came  the  Thyni.  who  colonized  Bithynia  in 
\sia  Minor ;  Apollonia,  called  afterwards  Sizopolis  (Sizeboli),  and  Mesembr>a,  built  I  ) 


1.  I  EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       GRjECIA.  21 

ft  colony  of  Megarensians;  all  on  the  Euxine  sea. — Selymbria  (Selibria),  and  Fennthut, 
or  Heraclea  (Erekli),  on  the  Propontis. —  Callipolis  (Gallipoli),  at  the  junction  of  tlio 
Propontis  and  Hellespont;  the  small  towns  Madytos  and  Cissa,  near  where  the  little 
river  JEgo«  Poiumos  joins  the  Hellespont,  the  scene  of  the  battle  in  which  Lysander  de- 
stroyed the  naval  power  of  the  Athenians;  and  Seslos  (Zenunie),  where  Xerxes  built 
his  bridge  of  boats  across  the  Hellespont. — Sestos  and  Abydos  on  the  Asiatic  side  are 
also  celebrated  for  the  loves  of  Hero  and  Leander. 

The  possibility  of  swimming  across  ihe  Hrlle^iont  «as  tor  a  kus  time  doubted,  but  it  wa9  performed  by  the  late  Lord  Byron.— 
On  the  doubts  here  alluded  to,  see  De  la  Name,  aod  MahuM,  as  cite^  P.  V.  §  49  4. 

On  the  bay  of  Melas,  so  named  from  the  river  Melas,  that  empties  itself  into  it,  writ 
Cardia,  destroyed  by  Lysimachus,  to  procure  inhabitants  for  a  new  town  ;  Lysimachia, 
that  he  had  built  a  little  farther  south ;  and  Eiou,  which  was  burned  by  its  governor, 
Boges. — In  the  interior  were  Trajanopolis,  built  by  Trajan;  and  Adrianopolis,  its  suc- 
cessful rival,  built  by  Adrian,  and  now  the  second  city  of  the  Turkish  empire. — At  the 
east  mouth  of  the  Hebrus,  stood  JEnos,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  yEneas.  near  the 
territory  of  the  Cicones;  on  the  west  side,  Doriscus,  where  Xerxes  reviewed  his  im- 
mense armament  after  passing  the  Hellespont,  and  it  is  said  that  his  army  were  so  nu- 

erous  as  completely  to  drain  the  neighboring  river  Lessus.  At  the  mouth  oi  the  Nes- 
sus  was  Abdera,  the  birthplace  of  the  philosopher  Democritus,  near  which  were  the 
stables  of  Diomede,  who  is  said  to  have  fed  his  horses  on  human  flesh. 

§74.  The  principal  rivers  of  Thrace  were  ihe  Hebrus  (Maritza),  celebrated  lor  the 
clearness  and  rapidity  of  its  waters ;  Nessus  (Nissar),  and  Strymou  (Jamboli.) — The 
principal  mountains  were  Mount  Hicmus,  extending  from  the  Euxine  sea  in  a  western 
direction  between  Moesia  and  Thrace;  Rhodope,  extending  from  the  Euxine  sea  to  the 
sources  of  the  Nessus;  and  Pongoyus,  extending  thence  to  the  north  of  Macedon.  It 
was  on  the  Pangceus  that  the  wonders  ascribed  to  the  lyre  of  Orpheus  were  said  to  have 
been  performed  (P.  V.  $  48).  Two  precipices  of  this  mountain,  now  called  (  astagnas, 
approach  to  the  sea  nearly  opposite  to  the  island  Thasus,  and  form  very  narrow  )>;]  — 
which  were  defended  by  walls. — The  principal  seas  and  bays  adjoining  this  extensive 
maritime  country  were,  Pontus  Euxinus,  Bosphorus  Thracius,  Proponii*.  Hellespontus 
Melanis  Sinus  (Gulf  of  Saros),  and  Slrymonicus  Sinus  (Gulf  of  Contessa). 

}  75.  Thrace  was  anciently  possessed  hy  several  independent  tribes  ;  one  of  these,  the  Dolonei, 
being  hard  pressed  by  the  Jlbsynthi,  their  neighbors,  sent  to  Delphi  to  consult  the  oracle  about 
the  event  of  the  war.  The  ambassadors  were  directed  to  choose  as  leader  the  person  who  should 
first  invite  them  to  his  house.  While  passing  through  Athens  they  were  hospitably  entertained 
by  Miltiades,  the  son  of  Cypseltts;  they  immediately  requested  him  to  accompany  them  to  the 
Chersonesns,  and  Miltiades,  having  consulted  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  accepted  the  invitation. — On 
his  arrival  he  was  immediately  created  king,  and  the  Ahsynthians  were  soon  after  defeated.  He 
fortified  the  Chersonesus  by  building  the  long  walls  across  the  Isthmus,  and  after  a  prosperous 
reign  bequeathed  the  crown  to  his  nephew  Stesagoras. — Stesagoras  dying  after  a  short  reign, 
his  brother  Miltiades  was  sent  from  Athens  by  the  Pisistratida?  as  his  successor.  He  had  not 
reigned  long,  when  Darius,  king  of  Persia,  sent  a  fleet  of  Phoenicians  against  the  Chersonese, 
and  Miltiades.  unable  to  make  any  effective  resistance,  retired  to  Athens.— The  Chersonese,  after 
the  defeat  of  the  Persians,  was  principally  possessed  by  the  Athenians,  who  colonized  all  the 
coast.  The  interior  of  Thrace  remained  subject  to  the  native  princes,  until  the  whole  country 
was  united  to  Macedon  by  Philip  and  Alexander. 


76.  What  remains  to  be  described  in  Europe  we  shall  include,  as  already  remarked 
($  72),  under  G  r  ;e  ci  a  ,  using  this  name  in  what  is  commonly  considered  its  most 
comprehensive  sense  (cf.  P.  III.  Q  2).  The  extensive  region  thus  included  in  Graeeia 
presents  four  general  divisions,  which  are  obviously  suggested  by  the  natural  lace  oi 
the  country.  The  1st  is  that  part  which  lies  north  of  the  chain  of  mountains  called 
Cambunii,  which  are  connected  by  the  Stymphcei  Montes  with  the  Aero  Ceraunii .  the 
2d  is  the  part  between  the  Cambunii  on  the  north,  and  another  line  of  highlands  and 
mountains  on  the  south,  which  may  be  traced  from  the  Sinus  Maliacus  on  the  east,  to 
the  Sinus  Ambracius  on  the  west ;  in  its  eastern  extremity  it  forms  the  pass  ot  Ther- 
mopylae, and  the  chain  is  in  this  portion  of  it  called  CEta  ;  as  it  stretches  back  in  a 
northerly  and  then  westerly  direction,  it  is  called  Pindus;  this  sends  down  a  spur  from 
the  sources  of  the  river  Aehelous  to  the  Sinus  Ambracius,  where  it  forms  another  pass 
corresponding  to  that  of  Thermopylae  on  the  east  :  the  3d  is  the  part  between  the 
mountains  just  traced  and  the  gulfs  on  each  side  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  Sinus  <  'o- 
rinihiacus  and  Sinus  Saronicus  :  and  the  4th  is  the  peninsula  connected  to  the  main 
by  that  isthmus.  The  first  is  Macedonia;  the  second,  Epirus  and  Thessalia;  the 
third,  Hellas;  the  fourth,  Peloponnesus. 

§  77.  (1)  Macedonia,  considered  as  including  the  first  of  the  natural  divisions  above 
described,  was  bounded  W.  by  the  Mare  Hadriaticum ;  N.  by  Illyricum  and  l\  oe 
sia;  E.  by  Thracia,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  Mt.  Rhodope  and  the  river  Nes 
tus  flowing  from  Rhodope  ;  S.  by  the  Mg&um  Mare,  the  Cambunii  Monies  and  the 
other  mountains  forming  the  chain  already  mentic  _ed,  which  terminates  ill  >ne  Aero 
Ceraunii  on  the  western  extremity. 


Tl  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

In  noticing  the  physical  f<  atun  -  of  Macedonia,  it  will  be  observed  that  Mt.  II<rmut 
and  Mt.  Rhodope,  meeting  on  its  N.  E.  corner,  stretch  along  on  its  north  in  a  single 
chain;  this  was  called  Orbelus  Mons ;  a  spur  from  Orbelus  will  be  noticed  running 
down  south  through  Macedonia,  and  forming  a  connection  with  the  Stymphcei,  or  Mona 
vpha,  ahead)-  named,  betw<  <  n  the  ( 'ambunii  and  Aero  Ceraunii.  The  waters  east 
of  this  spur  flow  to  the  Mgean;  those  west  of  it,  to  the  Hadriatic. 

5.  The  principal  river  of  the  west  was  the  Drilo  (Drino),  which  runs  through 
Lake  Lychnidus,  and  empties  into  a  day  of  the  Hadriatic,  north  of  the  point  called 
Nymphaum  Promontorium. — One  of  the  most  important  places  in  this  western  por- 
tion was  Apollonia,  on  the  Hadriatic  coast,  celebrated  in  the  Roman  age  of  Greek 
literature  (P.  V.  §  9)  for  its  cultivation  and  said  to  be  the  place  where  Augustus  ac- 
■  d  In-  knowledge  of  Greek,  and  finished  his  education.  Another  place  is  worthy 
ot  notice  Epidamnus,  further  north,  called  Dyrrachium  by  the  Romans,  the  place 
win  re  travelers  from  Italy  to  Greece  generally  landed.  This  portion,  west  ot  the 
spur,  '.vas  taken  from  Illyricum  by  Philip  (Rollin,  B.  14.  §  1). 

The  country  east  of  the  spur  is  principally  champaign.  We  notice  three  most 
considerable  rivers;  the  Haliacmon  (Platemone),  in  the  southern  part,  flowing  east  to 
the  Sinus  Thermaicus  (Gulf  of  Thessalonica,  or  Salonichi);  the  Axius  (Vardari),  rising 
in  the  heights  between  Macedonia  and  Mcesia,  and  running  S.  to  the  head  of  the  same 
gulf,  receiving  on  its  way  many  tributaries,  and  uniting  with  the  Erigon  on  the  west 
before  its  discharge;  the  Strymon,  rising  in  Mt.  Rhodope,  and  flowing  to  the  Sinus 
Strymonicus  (Gulf  of  Contessa). — Between  the  two  gulls  or  bays  just  named,  was  the 
peninsula  sometimes  called  Chalcidice,  and  presenting  peculiar  features,  having  a 
cluster  of  mountains  on  its  neck,  and  being  split  into  three  smaller  peninsulas  by  two 
bays,  the  Toronaicus  (G.  of  Cassandra)  and  the  Singeticus  (G.  of  Monte  Sancto).  The 
western  of  these  smaller  peninsulas  was  Pallene  or  Phlegra,  the  tabled  scene  of  the 
natile  between  Jupiter  and  the  Giants  {Ov.  x.  151);  the  eastern  was  marked  by  Mt. 
Atkos,  extending  several  leagues  upon  and  projecting  into  the  sea,  and  was  celebra'ed 
for  a  canal  said  to  be  cut  across  its  neck  by  Xerxes  to  avoid  the  passage  around  Mt. 
Athos,  that   passage  having  proved  so  fatal  to  the  fleet  of  Darius. 

5  80.  This  portion  ol  Macedonia  had  numerous  subdivisions,  many  of  which  are 
not  important,  even  if  they  Could  be  accurately  traced.  Paonia  was  in  the  northern 
part.  The  part  between  the  Strymon  and  Nestus  was  called  Edonis.  The  southern 
part  on  the  west  of  the  Sinus  Thermaicus  was  Pieria.  Emathia  was  north  of  Pieria, 
and  of  the  same  gulf. 

E  m  at  hi  a  was  i  he  most  important  province.  In  this  was  situated  Edessa,  the  ori- 
ginal capital  of  the  country,  on  the  Erigon;  also  Pella,  on  the  Lydias,  subsequently 
made  the  capital  by  Amyntns,  the  lather  of  Philip.  Further  east,  on  the  Sinus  1  her 
maicus,  was  Thermce,  afterwards  called  Thessalonica,  the  place  of  Cicero's  banishment 
and   the  capital  of  the  country  as  a  Roman  province. 

A'  Thessalonica  there  stilt  remains  an  ancient  structure  which  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a  Cabirian  temple  (cf.  P.  'i 
5  129.  2)  ;  a  view  of  it  is  given  id  our  Plate  V. 

t  >n  'lie  peninsula  which  has  been  described  ($  79)  were  Potidaa,  or  Cassandria,  on  the 
oi  Pallene,  celebrated  for  its  splendor  under  kingCassander;  Olynthus,  memorable 
for  its  siege  by  Philip,  who  after  much  labor  captured  it  by  treachery  ;  Chalets,  which 
gave  name  10  i  lie  region;  Stagira  (Stagros),  on  the  eastern  coast,  the  birthplace  of  Aris- 
totle.— In  Pieria,  one  of  the  most  memorable  places  was  Pydna  (Kitra),  where  Olym- 
pian wa^  murdered  by  Cassander,  and  where  the  Roman  general  Paulus  yEmilius  made 
a  prisoner  of  Perseus  the  last  king  of  Macedonia.  B.  C.  168.  North  of  this,  on  the 
coast,  was  .1/.  (hone,  al  the  seige  of  which  Philip  lost  his  right  eye. — In  Edonis  were 
two  importanl  towns;  Amphipolis,  originally  on  an  island  in  the  river  Strymon,  an 
Athenian  colony;  Philippi,  further  east,  near  iMons  Pangaeus,  a  branch  from  Rho- 
dope. 

The  latter  was  built  tiy  Philip,  ("■•r  the  same  purpose  for  which  tlte  Athenians  built  Amphipnlis ; 

1 re  the  valuable  e<,i.i  and  silver  mines  found  in  this  region.    It  is  celebrated  fur  the  battle 

in  whit  ii  Brutus  and  Cassias  were  defeated  by  Augustus  and  Antony,  B.  C.  42;  and  memorable 
as  the  place  where  Paul  and  Silas,  having  been  "thrust  into  the  inner  prison,  with  their  feet 
f  isl  in  the  stocks,  (Acts  xvi.  25)  at  midnight  sang  praises  unto  God." 

rill  ileof  Philippi  instill  marked  I ly  ruin >(  M ill  Herald,  Sept.  1836,  p.  334).— Like  most  of  the  Grecian  cities,  it  was  at  the  foo. 
oft  hill  or  mouul  on  u  hich  was  ila  Acropolll  A  view  of  the  Acropolis  and  of  the  plain  helow  is  given  in  our  Plate  IV  A  travelei 
°n  I.  r.  in,  Neap'olis  to  Philippi ;  he  is  Just  pissing  '  mouern  Turkish  burying-ground  on  his  right 

•  an  I  under  a  near  lull ;  the  Acropolis,  with  its  ruins,  appeara  on  the  eminence  beyond  at  ( tie  right ;  at  the  base  of  this  eminence,  wai 
* I hi  >nd  south-west ;  farther  lo  the  south  i«  an  open  plain ;  the  moun'ain  on  the  left  is  the  southern  eitremitj 

t>  81.  The  kingdom  of  Macedonia  was  said  to  be  founded  by  Carantts,  a  descendant  of  Her 
cules,  I!  C  si  i  ;  bui  ii  ii,, i  noi  acquire  consequence  until  the  reign  of  Philip,  who  ascended  the, 
Ihrcne  It  0,  360  It  lias  been  slated,  that  150  different  nations  or  tribes  were  finally  included 
t/ilhin  its  limits. 

!)   Epirus  and  Thessalia,  embraced  in  the  second  natural  division  pointed 
>  it  ($  7b),  are  next  to  be  noticed, 
Thessalia  is  described   by  Herodotus  as  a  very  extensive  plain    embosomed   ic 


PLATE   TV. 


24  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

mountains.     The  Cambunh  and  Olympus  were  on  the  north;  Pelion  and  Ossa  on  the 

nasi  •  Pindus  on  the  west  :  and  (Eta  on  ihe  south:  so  that  only  the  small  portion  oi 

i  en  the  Sinus  Pelasgkus  and  the  Sinus  Maliacus  is  without  the  guard  of 

evi        nis  has  a   -uaid   a   little  in  the  interior,   by  Ml.  Ol/irys,  which 

icross  from  Pindus  to  Pelion. 

II,,  extensive  plains  of  Thessaly  were  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  breeding  of  horses  ;  and  the 

TbessaliHiis  were  the  firsl  »  ho  introduced  the  use  of  cavalry,  horses  having  been,  at  first,  only 

r  draught.     Hence,  perhaps,  arose  the  fable  of  the  Centaurs,  a  people  of  Thessaly,  wlm 

tosldto  have  !.«.„   half  man  and  halfho.se.    The  Thessai.an  cavalry  main  ained 

Ihi  ir  superiority  to  a  very  late  period,  and  to  them  Philip  was  indebted  for  many  ot  his  vicloues. 

-  •  1  he  northern  part  of  Thessaly  was  called  Pelasgiotis,  from  the  Pelasgi.  an 
•  -.»  ■  wanderin"  tribe,  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  inhabitants  ot  Greece 
I  |\  §33)  The  principal  cities  in  Pelasgiotis  were  Lanssa,  the  capital  ot  the 
province  :  Gomphi,  destroyed  by  Ca>sar;  Gonuus  and  Gyrtona,  near  the  entrance  oi 
ihe  ml.  of  Temve,  so  celebrated  for  its  natural  beauties;  Scotussa,  near  which  are 
Bom<  lulls,  called,  from  their  shape,  Cynos  Cephale,  where  Philip  was  defeated  by 
tus  f'lainiiuus:  and  Pharsalus,  near  which,  m  a  plain  called  Pharsalta,  Pompey 

overthrown  byCsesar. 'I  he  eastern  part  of  Thessaly  was  named  Magnesia; 

th<  mosl  remarkable  places  were  Sepias,  a  small  village  on  a  promontory  of  the  same 
name,  where  the  fleet  of  Xerxes  received  an  omen  ot  their  final  overthrow,  being 
shattered  in  a  storm:  Demetrias  (Vloo),  built  by  DemeUruis  Pohorcetes,  and  which, 
from  in-  commercial  advantages  of  its  situation,  almost  depopulated  ihe  neighboring 
towi  -  ;  M,  Ultra,  the  city  of  Philocteies  ;  Iolcos,  the  residence  oi  Jason  and  Medea; 
I  .'Here  the  ship  Argo  was  built,  from  which  the  Sinus  Pelasgkus  is(some- 

d  Pagasceus:   Aphetce  (Feiio),  whence  the  Argonautic  expedition  "sailed  ; 
residence  of  the  tvrani  Alexander;  and  Thtbm,  near  the  river  Amphrysus, 

where    Vpollo  led  the  herds  of  king  Admetus. In  the  southern  parts  oil  hessaly 

wen    Malia.  which  gives  name  to  the  Maliac  bay;  Larissa,  called  Cremaste  from  its 
4  sitqjtion,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Achilles  ;  Alos,  at  the  foot  ot  mount 
i  Ithrys    mar  which  the  combat  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithas  took  place  ;  Phy 
Inn  on  the  sea  coast,  the  residence  of  Protesilaus;  Dorion,  where  the  musical  con- 
en  Thamyris  and  the  Muses  took  place  ;  fiypala.  famous  for  the  magical 
arts  of  its  women  (Hor.  Ep.  5);  Lamm,  where  Antipaier  was  fruitlessly  besieged  by 
in.     Athenians;  and  Trachis  (Zeiton),  celebrated  for  its  desperate  resistance  when  be- 
ne ihe  Romans. 
-!.  The  mountains  have  been  mentioned  above    (§  82).     The  most  remarkable 
riv.r  was  ihe  Peneus,  which  flows  through  the  vale  of  Tempe  into  the  iEgean  sea.     This 
riv.i  i-  said  to  have  overflowed  Thessaly,  until  Hercules  opened  a  passage  for  the  waters 
,  n  ii n's  <  Hympus  and  Ossa.     The  principal  inlets  of  the  iEgean  sea.  on  the 

-  ,i  hi  coast,  were  Sinus  Pelasgicus  or  Pagasceus  (Gulf  of  Volo),  and  Sinus  Ma- 
liacus  '<  rulf  of  Zeiton). 

The  inundation  of  Thessaly,  during  the  reign  of  Deucalion,  is  one  of  the  first  events 
recorded  in  profane  history;  all  the  inhabitants,  except  Deucalion,  and  his  wife  Pvrrha.are  said 
to  have  been  destroyed.  Perplexed  to  discover  by  what  means  the  human  race  might  be  re- 
Stored  they  consulted  Ihe  oracle  of  Themis,  and  were  ordered  to  throw  stones  behind  them  ; 
ilios-'  thrown  bj  Deucalion  became  men  and  those  by  Pyrrba  women.  In  this  fable  the  history 
of  some  partial  inundation  seems  to  be  confounded  with  the  tradition  of  the  universal  deluge. 

The  next  remarkable  occurrence  was  the  Argonautic  expedition  under  Jason,  aided  by  the 
braves)   heroes  of  Greece,  in  the  ship  Argo   (P.  II.  <?  127)  —Achilles   was  the  most  remarkable 

-  ilian  prune  after  Jason  ;  he  was  the  son  of  Helens  and  the  sea-nymph  Thetis  ;  an  oracis 
had  for. told  that  he  would  perish  if  he  accompanied  the  Greeks  to  Troy;  to  prevent  Uiis,  his 
mother  concealed  him  at  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  king  of  Scyros,  by  one  of  whose  daughters  he 
begat  P\  rrhns.  or  Neoptolemus,  afterwards  king  of  Epirus.  Achilles  was  at  last  discovered  by 
I'll,  sses  and  brought  to  Troy,  where  he  was  slain  by  Paris,  one  of  the  sons  of  Priam. 

ilurinL'  the  supremacy  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  Thessaly  seems  to  have  been  of  little  importance. 
Tin-  greater  part  of  it  was  annexed  to  [Vlacedon  by  Philip  and  his  successors.  It  was  cruelly 
devastated  in  ihe  wars  between  ihe  Romans  and  I  lie*  Macedonian  and  Syrian  kings ;  it  also  suf- 
fered vi  r>  severely  in  the  civil  wars  between  Cesar  and  Pompey. 

1  i  del  Epirus  a  greater  extent  than  we  have  assigned  to  it  is  often  included. 
\\  .  true  suggested  as  iis  natural  boundaries  on  the  north  the  mountains  Cambunh  and 
Aero  '  i  raunii,  and  on  the  south,  the  Sinus  Ambracius  ;  but  the  region  called  Orislis 
between  the  \.-r<.  ( leraunii  and  the  river  Atius  is  commonly  termed  a  province  of  Epi- 
rus :  and  Acarnania,  within  the  proper  limits  of  Hellas,  is  also  ofien  considered  as 
•no  lei  province.  In  all  descriptions,  it  is  separated  from  Thessaly  by  Mt.  Pindus; 
wiui.  I  In  Mine  [onium  bounds  it  on  the  west.  Within  the  compass  here  given,  it  included 
the  provinces  Chaonia,  Thesprotia,  and  Molossis. 

C  ha  ii  ii  i  a  was  the  portion  under  the  Aero  Ceraunh  on  the  south,  said  to  be 

tmmed  from  Chi the  brother  of  Helenus  son  of  Priam.     These  mountains  were  so 

called  from  their  summits  (itpa)  being  often  struck  with  lightning  (Ktpawos) ;  they  were 
remarkable  tor  ntiraeiiiio  storms,  and  were  dreaded  by  mariners;  the  rocks  at  the  west- 
ern exireninv  of  their  southern  branch,  Acro-Ceraunia,  were  called  infamous  (infames), 
-The  orincipal  'own-  were  Oricum  in  the  extreme  north,  on   the  coast  between  the 


P.  1  EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       GR.ECIA.  25 

branches  of  the  mountains  just  mentioned  ;  and  A-nchtsmus  also  on  the  coast  and  in  the 
extreme  south  of  the  province. 

Thesprotia  extended  on  the  coast  from  Chaoma  to  the  Sinus  Ambracius  (Gulf 
of  Arta).  Its  principal  places  were,  But hrot urn  on  the  river  Xanthus,  near  which  iEneas 
is  said  to  have  landed  on  his  flight  from  Troy  to  Italy ;  and  Ephyra1,  on  the  river  Acne- 
ron,  flowing  to  the  harbor  called  Glycys  Lnnen  {y\vi<is  \ijir)v).  The  river  Acheron  is 
joined  at  its  mouth  by  the  Cocytus. —  These  two  streams  were  ranked  in  the  ancient 
mythology  among  t .iu  jlumina  inferorum,  or  infernal  rivers;  three  others  had  the  same 
rank;  the  Styx,  in  Arcadia;  the  Lethe,  in  Bceotia  probably;  and  the  Phlegethon,  the 
location  of  which,  as  an  actual  river,  is  unknown,  although  it  is  represented  sometimes 
as  uniting  with  the  Acheron. 

1  Ephyra  was  subsequently  palled  Cichyrus;  the  ruins  of  its  walls  are  said  to  be  still  visible. — Hrights,  Travels  in  Greece  and 
Albania.     Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  4. 

Molossis  was  east  of  Thesprotia,  and  north  of  the  Sinus  Ambracius.  The  Mo- 
lossian  dogs  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  Among  the  principal  towns  were 
Ambracia,  the  residence  of  the  Epirote  kings,  on  the  river  Aracthus  or  Arethon ;  and 
Passaro,  where  the  kings  of  Epirus  took  the  coronation  oath. 

Dodona,  famous  for  its  oracle  and  temple  of  Jupiter  (cf.  P.  III.  §  71),  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Tomarus,  is  placed  by  some  in  Molossis ;  by  others  in  Thesprotia;  it  was  in  the 
Hellopia,  not  far  from  the  river  Thy  amis,  which  rises  in  Mt.  Stymphe  and  flows  through 
Thesprotia  to  the  Mare  Ionium. 

The  French  traveler  Pouquevil'e  fnund  in  Hellopia,  in  the  modern  district  of  Jinma.  near  the  village  Gardiki,  westerly  from 
the  lake  of  Jaoina,  some  ruins  of  Cyclopean  character,  which  he  judged  to  be  the  ruins  of  Dodona;  including  remains  of  the  temple 
of  the  Dodonean  Jupiter  and  the  sacred  enclosure  of  the  Selli.— Cf.  Pounuevilk,  Voyage  de  la  Grece.  Par.  1826.  6  vols.  8.  vol.  i. 
p.  125-197.— Husha,  above  cited,  vol.  i.  p.  511. 

$88.  We  meet  but  casual  mention  of  the  Epirotes  in  history  until  the  Macedonian  Empire 
was  divided  after  Alexander's  death.  It  was  then  thai  this  people,  who  had  hitherto  been 
looked  on  as  barbarians,  and  held  in  subjection  by  the  Macedonians,  began  to  take  a  lead  in  the 
affairs  of  Greece. — The  folly  of  Pyrrhus,  who  hoped   by  his  victories  in  the  west,  to  rival  the 

conquests  of  Alexander  in  the  east,  weakened  their  forces  and  diminished  their  authority. 

On  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  the  Epirotes  adhered  to  the  cause  of  Grecian  liberty  with  a 
desperate  fidelity,  worthy  of  better  success.  When  the  conquest  of  their  country  had  been 
achieved  by  Paulus  /Emiiius,  enraged  at  their  resistance,  he  ordered  seventy  of  their  cities  to 
be  destroyed,  and  150,000  of  the  inhabitants  to  be  sold  as  slaves  ;  an  instance  of  atrocious  re- 
venge scarcely  to  be  parallelled  in  history. 

When  the  empire  of  Constantinople  fell  before  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Mahometans,  the  remnants  of  the  Christian  forces 
retreated  to  the  fastnesses  of  the  mountains  of  Sub  and  the  town  of  Parga  in  this  territory.— The  Sulioles,  after  performing  feats  ot 
valor  only  to  be  parallelled  in  the  brighter  days  of  Grecian  freedom,  were  duped  by  Ali  Pacha  and  treacherously  massacred  ;  and 
Parsa,  after  many  vicissitudes,  fell  under  the  power  of  Turkey.— For  an  account  of  Parga,  cf-  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xxiii.  p.  111. 

§  89.  (3)  Our  third  division  of  Greece  includes  the  portion  between  Mt.  (Eta  and 
the  large  gulfs,  Sinus  Corinthiacus  and  Sinus  Saronicus.  It  is  what  is  properly  termed 
Hellas,  and  is  also  called  Gr.t;cia  Propria. 

This  division  is  washed  on  every  side  but  the  north  by  the  sea.  On  the  east  are  first 
the  waters  of  the  Sinus  Maliacug,  then  of  the  Sinus  Opuntius  and  those  between  the 
mainland  and  Eu!>cea,  which  are  called  in  the  narrowest  place  Euripus.  Leaving  these 
and  drawing  near  the  southern  point  of  the  country,  you  enter  the  Myrtoum  Mare,  and 
having  passed  that  point,  Sunium  Promontoriuin,  with  the  splendid  temple  of  Minerva 
in  sight,  you  proceed  up  the  Sinus  Saronicus  (Gulf  of  Egina) ;  at  the  end  of  which  you 
must  take  a  land  carnage,  but  of  o  miles  only,  over  the  isthmus  of  Corinth  (Hexa-Mili), 
when  you  reach  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus  (Gulf  of  Lepanto). — This  opens  into  Hellas 
several  bays,  one  at  its  eastern  extremity  called  Halcyonium  Mare,  and  another  central 
and  opening  to  the  north  called  Sinus  Crissaus  (Bay  of  Salona). — Continuing  the  sur- 
vey of  the  coast  of  Hellas,  you  pass  out  of  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus  through  the  strait 
called  Dardanelles  of  Lepanto  between  Rhium  on  the  Peloponnesus,  where  is  the  tomb 
of  Hesiod,  and  Antirrhium  on  the  opposite  side.  Issuing  from  this  strait  you  enter  and 
continue  in  the  Mare  Ionium,  till  having  gone  through  the  artificial  channel  separating 
Leucas  from  the  mainland,  you  turn  round  the  Promcmtorium  Actium  and  enter  the 
Sinus  Ambracius,  which  ends  the  tour,  and  the  eastern  extremity  of  which  is  not  more 
than  70  miles  distant,  across  the  mountains,  from  the  Sinus  Maliacus,  where  the  ima 
ginary  tour  began. 

$  90.  If  an  observer  could  take  an  elevated  station  in  the  air,  and  thence  look  down 
ipon  Hellas,  his  eye  would  rest  upon  an  almost  countless  number  of  hills  and  moun- 
tains, with  rich  vales,  and  small  pure  streams.  At  first  its  summits  might  seem  to  rise 
jp  over  the  country  in  disorder  and  confusion,  but  soon  he  would  trace  some  obvious 
lines  oi  connection.  He  would  perceive  one  line  of  summits  stretching  from  Mt.  CEta 
at  Thermopi/lm  down  parallel  to  the  eastern  coast  and  to  the  island  Eubcea  as  far  as 
to  the  strait  Euripus. — He  would  observe  another  of  more  lofty  and  attractive  summits 
proceeding  from  Pindus  (in  about  the  centre  between  the  Sinus  Maliacus  and  Sinus 
Amhracius)  running  quite  southerly  a  short  distance,  and  then  sending  off  on  its  right  a 
line  of  minor  summits  down  to  the  western  ex'remity  of  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  but 
Kself  bendinjr  to  the  south-east,  and  at  length  verging  along  the  shore  of  that  gulf  ttt 


26  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

its  eastern  extremity,  ami  there  connecting  with  the  Geranii  Monies  and  Mons  Onciui 
on  thi  ith  Mons  Cithtsron,  which  proceeds  directly  east  to  the  sea  south 

of  thi  -  i  uts  r>i  Euripus. —  1  'he  partof  this  line  joining  Pindus  includes  probably  the 
m  which  ihe  ancient  Dryopes  dwelt.     The  first  part  of  the  branch  which 
ds  off  to  the  west,  is  the  Coras  chain,  and  the  termination  of  this  branch  at  the 
gull  i-  in  the  summits  called  Taphiassus  and  Chalcis. — In  the  main  line  bending  to  the 
south-  Bret  Parnassus,  which  although  of  barren  soil  was  celebrated  for  its 

eys  and  shady  erovi  for  meditation;  then  Helicon,  with  its  fountain 

.  which  started  it  i ding  to  fable)  from  ihe  stamping  ol  Pe- 

nis, as  yon  turn  eastward,  appears  Citharon,  which 
;  Fames. — In  the  territory  south  ol  these,  were 
particularly  Pentelicus,  famous  for  its  marble,  north-easi  from  Athens; 
//,/;„  i  rated  for  its  honey,  east  and  south-east  ol  Alliens:  Laurius,  containing 

-ilvcr  mines,  in  the  southern  extreme  of  Attica. — Aracynthus  was  a  chain  in 

I!  las  contained  eight  small,  but  independent  provinces  or  districts.  These 
were,  beginning  on  the  west,  Acarnania,  JEtolia,  Doris,  Locris,  Phocis,  Bceotia,  Ale- 
gar is.  Attica. 

a  districts  Acarnania  and  JElolia  were  very  inferior  to  the  rest  in 
mgh  nature  presented  herself  in  a  grander  and  sublimer  aspect,  than  in  some 
other  districts. 

\  e  a  r  n  a  n  i  a  was  marked  for  its  woods  and  forests,  and  its  inhabitants  were 
noted  for  their  attachment  to  sensual  pleasures.  We  have  alluded  (^  76)  to  the  natural 
boundaries  between  this  district  and  Epirus,  viz.,  the  Si/nts  Ambracius  and  the  spur  of 
mountains  running  from  Pindus  down  to  that  bay.  This  line  of  highlands  is  now 
called  Makrinoros,  which  name  is  also  given  to  the  narrow  pass  under  their  abrupt  and 
steep  termination  near  the  bay,  a  pass  similar  to  that  of  Thermopylae.  The  boundary 
between  Acarnania  and  the  next  district  of  Hellas.  yEtolia,  is  the  river  Achelous,  rising 
among  the  valleys  of  Mt.  Pindus  and  flowing  to  the  Mare  Ionium. 

i  If  the  places  in  Acarnania,  we  mention  Argos  Amphilochius,  on  the  river  Inachus 
emptying  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Sinus  Ambracius;  Anactorium,  on  a  peninsula 
forming  the  north-western  corner  of  the  district  ;  Actium,  a  little  further  to  the  east,  on 
the  Pnuiioiiiorij  of  the  same  name.  At  this  place  Augustus  gained  his  great  naval 
victory  over  A  ninny  and  Cleopatra,  and  to  commemorate  it,  built  a  town  called  Nico- 
polis,  and  instituted  games  celebrated  every  third  year,  called  Actio.. — Leucas  was  on 
the  northern  point  of  the  island  Leucadia,  which  was  a  peninsula  before  the  Pelopon- 
nesiiin  war.  but  alter  that  separated  by  an  artificial  channel.  On  the  south  part  was  a 
temple  of  Apollo  on  the  Promontory  Leucate,  from  which  the  despairing  Sappho  is  said 
to  have  thrown  herself  (cf.  P.  V.  §  54). — Stratus,  once  its  metropolis,  was  on  the 
Achelous  which  is  now  called  Aspro-potamo. 

I.    olia  was  east  of  Acarnania,  separated  by  the  river  Achelous  ;  it  is  now 
called   Vlahia.  from  a  tribe  of  barbarians  to  whom  the  Greek  emperors  L'ave  this  pro- 
river  was  the   Evenus  (Fideri),  falling  into  the  Corinthian  bay  , 
this  and  the  Achelous  are  the  largest  rivers  of  Hellas. 

The  following  are  the  chiel  places;   Calydon  on  the  Evenus,  under  Mt.  Chalets, 
-  ith  the  story  of  the  Caledonian  hour  (destroyed  by  the  son  of  the  king  of 
.-Eiolia  ,  whose  iu-k-  were  said  to  have  been  preserved  in  Greece  until  Augustus  carried 
hem  to  Rome  as  curiosities  :   Tin  rums,  the  ancient  capital,  in  the  interior,  or  between 
Evenus  and  Lake  Ttichotiis. — Naupactus,  on  the  Sinus  Corinlhiacus,  under  Mt. 
Taphiassus,  was  not  included  in  the  proper  limits  of  JEtolia,  but  was  given  to  this  pro- 
vince by  Philip  ol   Macedon  ;  it  was  said  to  have  its  name  from  "»(  and  irfiywiu,  he- 
me Heracbdse  buill  here  their  first  ship  to  invade  Peloponnesus. 
94.   Doris,  a  very  small  district,  lay  under  Mt.  Pindus,  between  (Eta  on  the  east 
»nd  the  mountains  "I  the  Dryopes  on  the  west,  having  Parnassus  on  the  south-west  and 
being  separated  from   Phocis  by  elevated  hills  on  the  south-east:  thus  wholly  sur* 
roundel  by  mountains.     It  was  called  "Doris  from  Dortis,  son  of  Deucalion,  ancient 

t arch  of  Thessaly.     It  was  a  rocky,  mountainous  region.     Its  towns  were  situated 

on  tin  river  Pindus,  a  branch  of  the  Cephissus,  which  also  rises  in  the  hills  of  Doris. 
Krom  its  four  towns  Pindus,  Erineum,  Boium,  and  Cytinium,  it  was  called  Tetrapolis  ; 
m  timi  -  Hexapolis,  the  two  places  Lilmum  and  Carphia  being  added. 

ed  oi  two  parts  separated  from  each  other. — The  larcer  part 

■  n  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  having  JEtolia  on  the  west,  and  Phocis  on  the    east 

(parti  i   it  by  the  Sinus  Crissmus).     The  inhabitants  of  this  part  were 

called  Liocri,  or  Lacri  Hesperii  and  Locri  Ozola.    Of  the  origin  of  the  latter 

name,  dim  rem    accounts  are   given  :    the   people  are   said    to   have   disliked   the   name 

exceedii  glj  One  oi  then-  principal  places  was  Amphissa,  in  the  interior,  where 

e  to  Minerva. —  Vaupact  originally  belonged  to  them. 

i  be  other  and  smallet  pari  "I  Locris  was  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Hellas,  on 
•he  wa  iting  it  from  Eubcea,    It  was  north-east  of  Phocis  and  Breotia,  divided 

'"•iiin  tr  em  by  a  chain  ol  mountains,  and  extending  from  Mount  CEia  on  the  north  tc 


P.I.  EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       HELLAS.  27 

the  Plalantus,  a  small  river  flowing  to  the  channel  of  Eubcea,  and  separating  Locris 

from  Bceotia,  on  the  south. This  part  was  inhabited  by  two  tribes. — The  Opuntii 

were  in  the  southern  region,  so  called  from  their  principal  city  Opus,  which  gave 
name  also  to  the  bay  adjacent,  Sinus  Opunlius,  containing  a  small  island,  Atalanta. 
The  port  of  Opus,  called  Cynos,  was  north  of  it,  on  the  bay. — The  other  tribe  or 
people  were  the  Epicnemidii,  so  named  from  Mount  Cnemis.  On  this  there  was  a 
small  town  of  the  same  name  :  other  places  of  note  were  Naryx,  the  city  of  Ajax, 
'  son  of  Oileus ;  Thronium  ;  and  Anthela,  where  the  Amphictyonic  council  assembled 
annually  in  a  temple  of  Ceres  or  Thesmophora  {the  lawgiver)  as  she  was  here  called, 
in  allusion  to  the  council. 

Close  to  Anthela  were  the  ever-memorable  straits  of  Thermopylae,  deriving  their 
name  from  some  hot  springs  and  fortified  gates  that  were  there.  This  celebrated 
pass,  usually  reckoned  the  key  of  Greece,  is  about  sixty  paces  wide,  and  is  situated 
between  the  ridge  of  Mount  (Eta  and  the  Malian  gulf,  at  the  junction  of  the  three 
countries,  Locris.  Phocis,  and  Thessaly.  Here  Leonidas,  with  a  handful  of  men, 
bravely  resisted  the  countless  myriads  of  Persia,  and  died  rather  than  violate  the 
Spnrtan  law,  which  forbade  flight  to  the  citizens.  In  the  same  place  Antiochus,  king 
of  Syria,  was  defeated  by  the  consul  Acilius. 

D>iring  the  struggles  of  the  modern  Greek  revolution  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  85.  2).  two  signal  triumphs  were  obtained  by  the  Greeks  ovet 
their  Turkish  oppressors  on  the  same  inspiring  spot.— A  plan  of  the  pass,  illustrating  the  contest  between  Leonidas  and  the  Persian* 
is  given  in  Eailtidetny's  Anacharsis,  cited  P.  V.  }  153.  2. 

$97.  Phocis  extended  between  the  two  parts  of  Locris,  from  the  Corinthian 
gulf  to  the  borders  of  Thessaly. 

The  capital  was  Elalea,  on  the  river  Cephissus,  the  capture  of  which  by  Philip  first 
awakened  the  attention  of  the  Greeks  to  the  dangerous  ambition  of  the  Macedonian 
monarch.  West  of  Elatea  was  Delphi,  on  mount  Parnassus,  celebrated  for  the  oracle 
of  Apollo  (P.  III.  §  72),  and  for  the  annual  meetings  of  the  Amphictyonic  council 
(P.  III.  §  105)  held  in  the  temple.  It  is  now  a  mean  village  called  Caslri.  Panics 
sus  (Haliocoro)  had  two  summits,  one  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  one  to  Bacchus;  the 
town  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  and  the  temple  was  built  on  a  neighboring 
eminence*,  close  to  the  fountain  Castalia.  Near  the  town,  the  Pythian  games  were 
celebrated,  in  memory  of  Apollo's  victory  over  the  serpent  Python. — Cirrha,  on  the 
small  river  Plistus,  falling  into  the  Corinthian  gulf,  was  esteemed  the  port  of  Delphi ; 
near  this  was  Crissa,  from  which  an  inlet  of  the  Corinthian  gulf,  and  sometimes  the 
whole  gulf,  was  called  Crissaeus;  and  Anticyra,  celebrated  for  the  production  of  hel- 
lebore.— The  principal  river  of  Phocis  was  the  Cephissus,  which  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  a  river  of  the  same  name  in  Attica. 

a  A  view  ff  Delphi  and  the  beighti  of  Parnassus  is  presented  on  page  xii.  of  this  Manual,  as  given  by  Bocage,  in  Barthtlemy's  Ana- 
charsis.— A  plan  of  Delphi,  with  explanations,  is  found  in  IHssen's  Pindar,  vol.  ii.  p.  628,  as  cited  P.  V.  §  60.  4. 

}  98.  At  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  the  Phocians  strenuously  exerted  themselves  for  the 
common  liberties  of  Greece  ;  in  revense,  Xerxes  despatched  a  large  army  to  lay  waste  the 
country  and  plunder  the  temple  of  Delphi.  The  greater  part  of  the  men  were  destroyed  by 
earthquakes  and  lightning  ;  the  inhabitants,  encouraged  by  these  appearances  of  a  divine  assist- 
ance, rose  en  masse,  and  completely  destroyed  the  remainder. About  280  B.  C,  a  large  body 

of  Gauls,  under  the  command  of  Brennus,  invaded  their  country,  and  were  defeated  under  cir- 
cumstances similar  to  the  defeat  of  Xerxes. 

$99.  Bceotia  occupied  the  north-east  of  Graecia  Propria,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Euripus,  a  narrow  strait  between  the  island  of  Eubcea  and  the  continent. 

The  capital  was  Thebes,  built  by  Cadmus,  the  Phoenician,  who  first  introduced  let- 
ters into  Greece  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  45).  The  city  stood  on  the  river  Ismenus.  and  was 
ornamented  with  seven  gates,  whence  it  is  called  Heptapylos.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  demi-gods  Hercules  and  Bacchus,  of  the  poet  Pindar,  and  of  those  illustrious 
warriors  and  statesmen.  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas.  The  citadel  was,  from  its  founder, 
called  Curhnea. — South  of  this  was  Platcea,  where  the  Persian  army  were  totally 
destroyed  by  the  united  valor  of  the  Athenians,  Spartans,  and  Plateans:  it  was  after- 
wards destroyed  by  the  Spartans  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  We  mention  also  Leuc- 
tra,  near  lake  Copais,  where  the  Spartans  were  defeated  by  Epaminondas;  Corona, 
near  mount  Helicon  ;  Chazrowa,  where  Philip,  having  defeated  the  Athenians  a?id 
Thebans,  became  absolute  master  of  Greece  ;  Lebadea,  remarkable  for  the  tempie 
of  Trophonius  ;  and  Orchomenus,  near  which  was  the  Acidalian  fountain,  sacred  to 
Venus. — Near  the  Corinthian  gulf  was  Thespiee,  sacred  to  the  Muses,  having  a  por* 
named  Creusa;  and  .4srra,  the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Hesiod. — On  the  Euripus  were 
Aulis,  the  rendezvous  of  the  Grecian  fleet  in  the  Trojan  expedition,  and  the  scene  of 
Tphigenia's  sacrifice  ;  Tanagra.  where  the  celebrated  poetess  Corinna  was  born  ;  and 
Delium,  a  village  which  derived  its  name  from  the  temple  of  Apollo,  built  in  imitation 
of  that  at  Delos,  and  was  the  place  where  Socrates,  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  saved 
the  life  of  his  pupil  Alcibiades. 

$  100.  The  chief  mountains  of  Bceotia  were  Helicon,  with  the  fountains  Aganippe 
*nd  Hippncrene,  sacred  to  the  Muses ;  Pimpla,  on  the  borders  of  Phocis,  dedicated 

5 


'^g  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

to  the  same  divinities,  Dirce,  near  Thebes;  and  Cithceron,  on  the  borders  of  Mega 
■  bus. 
Tii.-  people  of  BflMtie  were  usually  described  as  naturally  stupid,  but  with  apparently  littls 
Justice;  fbi  li  gavi   blrtb  i"  manj  men  uf  superior  talents,  and  the  barbarous  custom  of  ex- 

i  in  i)..-  reel  ol  Greece,  was  her.;  totally  prohibited.    They  have  been 

■\  of  nourishing  a  deadly  hatred  for  trifling  causes,    in  the  heroic  aues,  Thebes  seems  to 
the  roost  powerful  ofthe  Grecian  states,  bin  its  history  is  s.>  involved, that  the 

■  !,.-  truth  is  very  difficult.     It  certainly  decline,!  in  after  times  ;   probably  the  mtsfor- 
tnd  >  Ivil  .iiscrd*  of  tilt-  posterity  of  Cadmus  had  weakened  the  power  and  destroyed  the 
spirit  of  the  i" 

$  ldl .   Megarie  was  a  small  territory,  said  not  to  be  more  than  eight  miles  square, 

'  ithaeron,  near  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.     Its  chief  city  was  Megara, 

ed  midway  between  Corinth  and  Alliens,  built  on  two  cliffs  nol  tar  from  the 

.    ii.s  porl   wasiVtsaa,  taken  and  destroyed  by  Pericles.     The  only 

,.|  note  was  Crommyon,  near  the  Scironian  rocks:  these  were  said  to  be 

and  to  have  derived  their  name  Irotn  Sciron,  a  notorious  pirate  and 

robber. 

The  remaining  province  of  Hellas  was  Attica,  east  of  Megaris,  and  south 

.,t  Cithaeron.     The  district  so  named  was  of  a  triangular  shape,  not  30  miles  wide  at 

.  and  tapering  until  it  terminates  in  the  point  called  Sunium,  pro- 

i  the  Myrtoum  Mare,  cast  ofthe  S§ius  Saronicus  (gulf  of  Engia).     It  was 

IdKTh)  from  i's  maritime  situation.     The  capital  was  Athens,  a  more 

lull  description  of  which  we  shall  give  below. 

it   len  miles  north  of  Athens  is  Marathon,  where  the  first  Persian  in- 

vaders,  under  the  coi and  of  Datis  and  Artaphernes,  were  completely  routed  by 

Athenians,  commanded  by  Miltiades.     Nortb  ot  this  was  the  village  Rhanmus, 
wh(  formed  ofthe  marble  that  the  Persians  had  brought  to  raise  a  trophy 

of  their  anticipated  victory,  was  erected  to  the  goddess  Nemesis:  a  litile  to  the  east 
was  Phyle,  a  siron»  Ion,  which  was  occupied  by  Thrasybulus,  in  his  expedition 
against  the  thirty  tyrants.  On  the  Euripus  was  Velpkinum,  and  Oropus,  where  there 
was  a  celebrated  temple  of  Amphiaraus.  Nearer  to  Athens,  on  the  north  side,  was 
Acharna,  where  'he  Lacedemonians  encamped  when  they  invaded  Attica;  and  De- 
celia,  which  they  fortified  by  the  advice  of  Alcibiades. — East  of  Athens  was  Brauron, 
win  re  the  statue  of  Diana,  brought  from  Taurus  by  Orestes,  was  preserved  until 
taken  away  by  Xerxes;  and  Sunium,  a  town  and  promontory  at  the  south-eastern 
extremity  i  lebrated  for  a  splendid  temple  of  Minerva   (from  the  ruins  of 

which  it  is  now  called  Cape  Colonna),  and  is  in  modern  times  remarkable  as  the  scene 
of  the  shipwreck  beautifully  described  by  Falconer. — West  of  Athens  was  Eleusis, 
whir,  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  in  honor  of  Ceres  were  celebrated.  There  are  two 
able  temples  at  Eleusis  ;  that  of  Ceres  and  that  of  Triptolemus. 
$104.  Topography  oi  \im\s.  The  city  of  Athens  was  founded  by  Cecrops,  an 
Egyptian,  who  led  thither  a  colony  from  the  banks  ofthe  Nile.  At  first  it  was  called 
1  opia,  from  ihe  name  of  its  founder;  and  afterwards  'A^ijvat,  Athens,  in  honor 
of  tie  Minerva   (whom  the  Greeks  called  'Adjjn;),  because  she  was  the  pro- 

ity.     In  its  most  flourishing  state,  it  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
1  and  is  said  by  Aristides  to  have  been  a  day's  journey  in 

ind   ii  ;  according  to  other  and   more  exact  computations,  it  was  about  one 
hundred  and  Beventy-eighl  Btadia,  or  rather  more  than  twenty-two  Roman  miles;  and 
m  reckons  ii   to  have  been  two  hundred  siadia,  about  twenty-five  Ro- 
man miles  in  circumference  — Col.  Leake  considers  the  ancient  city  to  have  been  much 
modern,  and  estimates  the  circumference  as  not  less  than  19  miles  at 
I.  ast,  reckoning  the  sinuosities  of  the  coasts  and  walls. — The  number  of  gates  is  not 
known;  tliin,</i  an  named  by  Robinson;  the  largest  was  called  AiirvXov, and  was  near 
••.mi.  ns;  the  'if"  was  that  leading  to  Eleusis. 

Tor  >  j>i»ri  - !  Alboa,  see  nur  Pla'e  I.,  by  which  the  reader  may  lean)  ihe  situation  of  the  principal  parts  and  tuildinp. — Tb» 
-•  r,  here  rtvrn,  is  drawn  chiefly  from  Robinstm'i  Archcologift  Grxca. 

\!li.  ne  lies  in  a  valley,  .Mending  from  mount  Peutelicus  on  the  east  to  the 
Sinus  Saronicus  on  tin  west,  betwei  n  mount  Parnes  on  the  north,  and  Hymettus  on 
tin-  south.   In  the  plain  ol  this  beautiful  valley  thus  surrounded  by  natural  ramparts,  we 

li  atureol  bis  insular  mountain  rocks  standing  in  regu- 

nd  gradually  diminishing  as  you  descend  from  Pentelicus westward  to 

■   '  th<  s<  a  i-  called  the  hill  of  Musaus.   <  In  the  next  is  the  Atro- 

polii  "l  Atht  'is.     The  one  nexl  to  this  on  the  east  is  Mi.  Anchesmus,  on  the  summit 

ot  which  was  a  temple  and  statue  in  honor  of  Jupiter;  from  this  i  minence  an  observer 

could  survey  the  wholi  is  and   its  environs. — Two  streams  furnished  their 

Waters   tO  thl    I     )        Was    ihl    TlisSUS,  winch  (lowed    to   the  east    and   south  of  the 

city,  and  which  is  supposed,  from  tin-  appearance  ol  its  channel  and  from  the  allusions 
>t  the  poets,  •■>  Lav.    been  anciently  much  larger  than  it   has  been  seen  in  modern 

'mn  I.      'I  lo   oth(  r,  Cl  phitSUS,  was  Btill   smaller  ami  ran  on  the  other  side. Athens 

ma»  !  i'i  two  pni- ;  the  Cecropia,  built  by  Cecrops  on  the  summit  of  the 


P.  I.  EURO  IE.       HELLAS.       TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ATHENS.  29 

hill  termed  Acropolis  (aVpoVoXir),  and  called  the  upper  city,  h  &vu  jroXtc  ;  and  the  pari 
built  afterward,  h  xaro)  n6\i;,  or  the  lower  city. 

The  hill  nr  Acropolis,  as  distinguished  from  the  lower  part,  is  distinctly  seen  in  the  Vino  of  Athens  given  in  our  Plate  IX  a,  on 
page  K);   which   is  taken  from  J.  C.  Hobhouse't  Journey  through  Albania  and  other  provinces  of  Turkey,  Sc     Loud.   ISIS 

2  vols.  4.— The  Grecian  method  of  thus  connecting  an  Acropolis  with  their  towns,  is  also  illustrated  tj    or  Plate  IV.  cf.  §  HO. 

$  J 0?  I'lie  citadel,  or  tipper  city,  was  sixty  stadict  in  circumference,  and  was  fenced 
with  wooden  pales,  or,  as  some  say,  was  surrounded  with  olive-trees.  It  was  fortified 
on  the  south  side  by  a  strong  wall,  which  was  built  by  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades, 
from  the  spoils  taken  in  the  Persian  war.  and  which  was  called  Ktudviov  reT\os-  The 
north  wall  was  built  many  ages  before  by  Agrolas,  or  according  to  some,  by  Euryulus 
and  Hyperbius,  two  brothers,  who  first  taught  the  Athenians  the  art  of  building  houses. 
This  wall  was  denominated  HcXaayiKdv  or  JleXupyiKdv,  from  the  Pelasgi,  the  name  of 
its  founders.  This  wall  was  beautified  with  nine  gates,  from  which  it  is  sometimes 
called  'EvvtairvXov ;  but  though  there  were  several  lesser  gates,  there  was  one  grand  en- 
trance into  the  citadel,  the  TlpuirvXaia,  to  which  the  Athenians  ascended  by  steps  covered 
with  white  marble,  and  which  was  built  by  Pericles  at  great  expense.  Over  this  en- 
trance is  one  of  those  enormous  slabs  of  marble  called  "marble  beams"  by  Wheeler, 
and  to  vhich  Pausanias  particularly  alluded  when,  in  describing  the  Propylaea,  he 
says  that  even  in  his  time,  nothing  surpassing  the  beauty  of  the  workmanship  or  the 
magnitude  of  the  stones  used  in  the  building  had  ever  been  seen. 

The  inside  of  the  citadel  was  ornamented  with  innumerable  edifices,  siatues,  and 
monuments,  on  which  the  ancient  stones  were  fully  described.  'I  he  noble  siatues  of 
Pericles,  Phormio,  Iphicrates,  Timotheus,  and  other  Athenian  generals,  were  here 
intermingled  with  those  of  the  gods. 

Here  was  the  temple  of  Minerva,  called  Ni«"y  or  Victory,  constructed  of  white  mar- 
ble, and  placed  on  the  right  of  the  entrance  into  the  citadel. 

§  107.  About  the  middle  of  the  citadel  was  the  stately  temple  of  Minerva,  called 
Parthenon,  because  that  goddess  preserved  her  virginity  inviolate,  or  because  it  was 
dedicated  by  the  daughters  of  Efechtheus,  who  were  particularly  called  irapSivoi,  vir- 
gins. It  was  also  denominated  'E(cardp7r£<W,  because  it  was  one  hundied  feet  square. 
It  was  burnt  by  the  Persians,  but  restored  by  Pericles,  who  enlarged  it  fifty  feet  on 
each  side.  It  was  of  the  Doric  order,  and  built  of  that  beautiful  white  marble  found 
in  the  quarries  of  Pentelicus,  a  mountain  of  Attica.  Within  this  temple  was  the  statue 
of  Minerva,  so  celebrated  for  its  size,  the  richness  of  its  materials,  and  the  exquisite 
beauty  of  the  workmanship.  The  figure,  the  work  of  Phidias,  was  twenty-six  cubits 
high.  This  temple  still  remains  a  noble  monument  of  antiquity,  being  229  feet  in 
length,  101  in  breadth,  and  09  in  height. 

A  new  of  the  Parthenon  is  given  in  our  Plate  XXI.  fig.  1.  cf  P.  III.  §96.  On  the  bas-relief  taken  from  it  by  Lord  Elgin,  cf.  P.  IV 
$  100.     On  the  works  of  Phidias,  cf.  P.  IV.  §  179. 

Here  also  was  the  temple  of  Neptune,  surnamed  Erechtheus.  This  was  a  double 
building,  and,  besides  other  curiosities,  contained  the  salt  spring  called  'Ept-xStis,  which 
was  feigned  to  have  sprung  out  of  the  earth  from  a  stroke  of  Neptune's  trident,  when 
he  contended  with  .Minerva  for  the  possession  of  the  country.  This  part  of  the  temple 
was  consecrated  to  Neptune.  The  other  part  belonged  to  Minerva,  surnamed  rioAiaj, 
the  protectress  of  the  city,  and  Xlavipoaos,  from  one  of  the  daughters  of  Cecrops  of  that 
name.  Here,  so  late  as  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  a:ra,  was  the  sacred  olive- 
tree,  which  was  said  to  have  been  produced  by  Minerva,  and  to  have  been  as  old  as 
the  foundation  of  the  citadel.  Here  also  was  the  image  of  the  goddess,  which  was  said 
to  have  fallen  from  heaven  in  the  reign  of  Erichihonius,  and  which  was  guarded  by 
dragons,  called  i!i«rowpoi  oi/ieij,  and  had  a  lamp  always  burning  with  oil,  and  an  owl  be- 
fore it.  The  whole  structure  was  called  'Epcx$c<oi/.  Both  these  buildings  still  remain. 
The  smaller  edifice,  which  is  an  entrance  to  the  other,  is  29  feet  in  length,  and  21  feet 

3  inches  in  breadth.  The  larger  is  63^  feet  in  length,  and  36  feet  in  breadth.     The  root 
is  supported  by  channeled  Ionic  pillars.    See  Plate  IV  a. 

Behind  the  temple  of  Minerva  stood  the  public  treasury,  which  from  its  situation  was 
called  'Oirio-$6Sopos,  and  in  which,  besides  other  public  money,  a  thousand  talents  were 
deposited  for  any  very  great  exigency  of  the  state. 

In  the  citadel  were  also  several  other  edifices,  as  the  chapel  of  Jupiter  Surfa,  and  of 
Minerva  Tcimpa;  the  temple  of  Agraulos,  the  daughter  of  Cecrops,  or  rather  of  Mi 
nerva,  who  was  worshiped  under  that  name,  in  the  front  and  steep  side  of  the  lock  . 
and  the  temple  of  Venus,  'ImruXircia,  consecrated  by  Phcedra,  when  in  love  with  Hyp- 
polytus. 

§  108.  The  lower  city,  which  contained  all  the  buildings  that  surrounded  the  citadel, 
with  Munychia,  Phalerum,  and  Piraeus,  was  encompassed  with  walls  of  unequal 
strength,  built  at  different  times  and  by  different  persons.  The  principal  parts  of  the 
walls  were  the  Maxpa  rtix^,  which  joined  the  harbor  of  Piraaus  to  the  city,  and  which 
being  about  five  miles  in  length,  were  sometimes  called  Mairpo  o-k-eXri,  long  legs,  an<? 
Irachia  lomra.  Ions  arms.  They  consisted  of  two  sides.  The  wall  on  the  north  siae 
was  built  by  Pericles  at  great  expense,  and  continued  forty  stadia.     That  on  the  soul" 


P.  I.  EUROPE.       HELLAS.       TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ATHENS.  31 

side  was  called  Ndi-io*  tcTxos,  or  napa  plaov  reixi,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  south  wall 
of  the  citadel,  and  sometimes  Teix°s  <PakiPlK°v>  because  it  included  the  port  ol  Phalerum. 
It  was  built  by  Themistocles,  of  huge  square  stones,  not  cemented  together  with  mor- 
tar, but  fastened  on  the  outside  by  iron  and  leaden  cramps.  The  height  ot  it  was  forty 
cubits,  but  Themistocles  wished  to  raise  it  to  eighty  cubits.  Its  length  was  thirty-rive 
etadia.  Upon  both  of  the  walls  was  erected  a  great  number  of  turrets,  which,  alter 
the  Athenians  became  so  numerous  that  the  city  could  not  contain  them,  were  con- 
certed into  dwelling-houses.  The  i/lovvvxtov,  or  wall  that  encompassed  the  Munychia, 
and  joined  it  to  the  Piraeus,  contained  sixty  stadia;  and  the  exterior  wall  on  the  oihei 
side  was  forty-three  stadia  in  length ;  and  hence  it  appears,  as  has  been  before  ob- 
served, that  the  whole  circumference  of  Athens  was  178  stadia,  or  rather  more  than  22 
Roman  miles. 

§  109.  Of  the  buildings  of  the  lower  city,  the  principal  and  most  remarkable  were, 
the  following. — HoinreTov  was  a  stately  edifice,  in  which  were  kept  the  sacred  utensils 
used  at  festivals,  and  in  which  were  prepared  all  things  necessary  lor  solemn  proces- 
sions.— The  temple  of  Vulcan,  or  of  Vulcan  and  Minerva,  situated  not  far  from  the 
Ceramicus  within  the  city,  was  a  public  prison. — Near  to  this  building  was  the  temple 
of  the  Heavenly  Venus  ;  for  the  Athenians  had  two  deities  of  the  name  of  Venus,  of 
which  one  was  designated  Ovpaiia,  and  the  other  Hav&qno$:  the  former  presided  over 
chaste  and  pure  love;  the  latter  was  the  patroness  ol  lust  and  debauchery. — 'Kv&nno* 
was  a  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  who  were  called  avaicts.  In  this  place  slaves  were 
exposed  to  sale. 

The  temple  of  Theseus  was  erected  by  Cimon  in  the  middle  of  the  city,  near  the 
place  where  the  youths  employed  themselves  in  wrestling  and  other  bodily  exercises. 
This  temple  was  a  sanctuary  for  slaves,  and  for  all  persons  of  low  condition  that  fled 
from  the  persecution  of  men  in  power,  in  commemoration  of  Theseus,  who,  when 
alive,  was  the  guardian  and  protector  of  the  distressed. 

Speaking  of  the  temple  of  Theseus,  Dr.  Clarke  observes,  that  this  beautiful  Doric  temple  more 
resembling,  in  the  style  of  its  architecture,  the  temples  of  Pteslum  than  of  Minerva  in  the  Acro- 
polis, and  the  most  entire  of  any  of  the  remaining  structures  of  ancient  Greece,  were  it  not  for 
the  damage  which  the  sculptures  have  sustained,  may  be  considered  as  still  perfect.  The  entire 
edifice  is  of  Pentelican  marble  ;  it  stands  east  and  west,  the  principal  front  facing  the  east ;  and 
it  has  a  portico  of  six  columns  in  each  front,  and  on  each  side  a  range  of  eleven  columns,  ex- 
clusive of  the  columns  on  the  angles. 
A  view  of  (his  temple  is  given  in  Plate  XXI.  fig.  3. 

§  110.  'OMitrciov,  or  'OXvpireTov,  was  a  temple  of  Ionic  architecture,  erected  in  honor  of 
Jupiter  the  Olympian,  and  was  the  most  magnificent  structure  in  Athens.  The  area,  or 
peribolus,  within  which  it  stood,  was  four  stadia  in  circumference.  It  was  con- 
structed with  double  rows  of  columns,  10  feet  in  front,  and  21  in  flank,  amounting  in 
all  to  124  ;  the  extent  of  the  front  being  171  feet,  and  the  length  of  the  flank  more 
than  400.  These  pillars  are  the  majestic  ruin  of  this  sumptuous  and  stately  temple. 
The  foundation  of  this  edifice  was  laid  by  Pisistratus,  whose  sons  continued  the  work  ; 
but  it  was  not  completely  finished  till  the  time  of  Adrian,  700  years  after  the  structure 
had  been  commenced. 

The  temple  of  Apollo  and  Pan  stood  on  the  north  side  at  the  bottom  of  the  citadel, 
in  a  cave  or  grotto,  which  was  called  Maxpai  verpat,  or  KcKponiai  itirpai. — The  temple 
of  Diana,  surnamed  Awi'f&>i/oj,  because  in  it  women,  after  the  birth  of  their  first  child, 
dedicated  their  girdles  to  that  goddess. 

ndf&ov  was  a  temple  consecrated  to  all  the  sods,  who,  as  they  were  united  in  one 
edifice,  were  honored  with  one  common  festival,  which  was  called  QsoJ-cvia.  This  was 
also  a  very  magnificent  structure,  and  was  supported  by  120  pillars  ot  marble.  On 
the  outside  were  curiously  engraved  the  deeds  and  story  of  all  the  gods ;  and  on  one 
great  gate  two  horses  were  carved  by  Praxiteles. 

The  temple  of  the  Eight  Winds  was  a  tower  of  eight  squares,  of  marble,  on  every 
side  of  which  was  carved  the  figure  of  a  wind,  according  to  the  quarter  whence  n 
blew. 

The  model  of  this  building  was  furnished  by  Andronicus  Cyrrhaslcs,  who  placed  upon  the  lop  of  the  tower  a. small  pyramid  ol 
narble,  upon  the  summit  of  which  he  erected  a  brazen  tn'on,  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  switch  or  wand.    The  triton  was  so  placed 

that  he  turned  round  with  the  wind,  and  pointed  with  the  wand  to  the  wind  which  blew. A  view  of  this  structure  is  given  in  out 

t'late  XXI.  fig.  2. 

$  111.  troal,  porticos,  were  very  numerous  at  Athens;  but  the  most  remarkable 
was  that  called  Tluaiav&KTiaf,  and  afterwards  IToociAn,  from  its  containing  a  variety 
of  curious  pictures,  drawn  by  those  great  masters,  Polygnotus,  Mycon,  and  Panaenus, 
the  brother  of  Phidias.  At  the  gate  of  the  TloiKiXti  was  the  statue  of  Solon. — To  the 
north  of  the  Acropolis,  not  far  from  the  temple  of  Theseus,  are  the  ruins  of  a  struc- 
ture once  evidently  very  splendid,  supposed  by  Stuart  to  be  the  ruins  of  this  celebrated 
Stoa  or  Porch.  Some  travelers  have  mistaken  them  for  the  remains  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Olympius  already  described,  which  was  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city,  near 
the.  fountain  Calirrhoe. 

2/lowetov  was  a  fort  near  the  citadel,  which  received  its  name  from  the  poet  Musoeus 


32  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  scholar  of  Orpheus,  who  used  to  repeat  his  verses  in  this  place,  where  he  was  alsr. 
buri<  ;i-  a  music  theatre,  built  by  Pericles.     The  inside  of  this  building 

was  f.  Ii  d  iges  of  pillars  ;  and  the  outside  roof  or  covering  was  gra- 

dually bent  downwards.     The  roof,  whidn  was  constructed  of  the  masts  and  yards  of 
the  \  n  from  the  Persians,  and  in  its  form  resembled  the  tent  of  Xerxes, 

oi  stone  or  marble.     It  was  burnt  by  Sylla  at  the  siege  of 
is  rebuilt.     This  Odeum  was  situated  on  the  south-east  angle 
of  th.  Ii  urn  "t  Hcrodi  -  Aniens  has  so  i  etimes  been  confounded  with 

ihat  o  the  Odeum  of  Herodes  was  situated  at  the  south-west  angle  of 

i  buill  by  Herodes  in  memory  of  his  wife,  and  was  con- 

tar  surpassing,  in  magnitude  and  in  the  costliness  of  its  materials,  every 
of  the  kind  in  till  Greece.     The  roof  of  this  building  was  of  cedar. 
The  Ceramicus  iKipapetuds)    received   its  denomination  from  Ceramus,  the  son  of 
Bacchus  and  Ariadne;  or  more  properly  dn6  rns  Kipauuxns  t£x>"is,  from  the  potter's 
art.  which  was  invented  here  by  Coraebus.     This  extensive  space  was  divided  into 
which  was  situated  within  the  city,  and  contained  a  great   number 
s,  theatres,  porticos,  &c. ;  the  other  was  in  the  suburbs,  was  a  public  bury- 
in-  place,  and   contained   the  Academy,  and  several  other  buildings.— The  Lyceum 
and  the  Cynosargi  s  were  also  in  the  suburbs  on  the  north-east. 

Respecting  the  Academy  and  other  Gymnasia  ;it  Athens,  see  P.  IV.  §§  64,  71. 

■";  112.  rums,  were  very  numerous;  but  the  most   remarkable  were   the 

old  and  the  new  forum.     The  new  forum  was  in  a  place  called  'Epsrpia,  which  it  is 
probabli   was  near  to  the  portico  of  Zeno.     The  old  forum  was  situated  in  the  Cera- 
micus within  the  city,  and  was  called  'Ap\aia  dyopa.     It  was  extremely  spacious,  and 
i c(!  with  buildings  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  gods,  or  to  the  service 
of  the  state;  with  others  which  sometimes  afforded  an  asylum  to  the  wretched,  but 
which  were  often  a  shelter  for  the  wicked ;  and  with  statues  decreed  to  kings  and  in- 
dividuals, who  had  merited  well  of  the  republic.     In  it  were  held  the  public  assem- 
blies of  the  people;  bul  every  trade  had  a  different  place  assigned  as  a  market,  and 
forum  was  divided   into  different  parts,  according- to  the  wares  exposed  for  sale. 
Thus  K.'v.Voc  denotes  the  place  where  slaves  were  sold;  'AAcfrirdirwAij  dyopa,  the  bakers' 
market ;  l\3->..ir<.>,\ic.  aj  opo,  the  fish-monger's  market;  rvvaiKtia  dyopa,  the  market  for  wo- 
men's  apparel.  The  time  when  goods  were  exposed  to  sale  was  called  n\ri§avaa  dyopa,  full 
market,  from  the  greal  number  of  persons  assembled;  and  different  hours  of  the  day 
.  to  have  been  appointed  for  the  sale  of  different  commodities.     To  this  place  the 
inhabitants  resorted  every  day.     The  Scythians,  kept  in  pay  by  the  republic  to  main- 
tain order,  were  encamped  in  the  middle  of  the  forum.     Collectors  also  attended  to 
m   the  duties  imposed  on  every  thing  that  was  sold,  and  magistrates  to  superin- 
tend what  passed. 

BovXevHjpia  ware  public  balls,  in  which  each  company  of  tradesmen  met,  and  deli- 
matters  relating  to  their  trades.     At  Athens  trade  was  very  much  encou- 
raged  :  and  if  any  one  reproached  another,  even  the  lowest  citizen,  with  living  by  the 
profit  of  his  traffic,  he  was  liable  to  an  action  of  slander. 

Aqueducts  were  not  common  at  Athens  before  the  time  of  the  Romans;  al- 

tl eh  one  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Fisistratus.     The  want  of  them  was  supplied 

by  wells  ((polara),  some  of  which  were  (lusr  by  private  persons,  and  others  at  the  pub- 

e  :    bul   as  !_r<"»l  water  at  Athens  was  extremely  scarce,   frequent  quarrels 

among  the  citizens.     Adrian   laid   the   foundation  of  a  stately  aqueduct,  which 

1  bj  his  successor  Antoninus,  and  which  was  supported  by  Ionic  pillars.- 

The  stadium  was  an  oblong  area, semicircular  at  one  end.  designed  originally  foi 

the  foot-race,  but  used  for  other  games  and  exercises;  and  for  the  accommodation  of 

ed  thither  in  great  numbers,  it  was  built  with  steps  above  each 

'"her.  in  ordt  r  thai  the  higher  ranks  might  look  over  the  heads  of  those  placed  below 

them.     'I  in   most  remarkable  at    Athens,  and  indeed  in  all  Greece,  was  the  stadium 

:  ivaBnvatKdv),  erected  ni  ar  die  river  Missus  by  Lycurgus,  and  afterwards  en- 

1  bj  I  [erodes   Itticus,  one  of  the  richest  of  the  Athenians.     It  was  built  of  Pen 

tehc  marble,  with  such  magnificence  that   Pausanias  did  not  expect   to  he  credi'ed, 

in  his  brief  descriptii I   this  work,  and  says  that  it  was  a  wonder  to  be  taken 

for  an  i  I  w  hire  marble  upon  the  banks  of  the  Ilissus.     Ft  was  about  125  geo- 

ft,  and  26  or  2"  in  breadth,  and  was  therefore  called  a  stadium 
in  ordinary  use  among  the  Greeks,  being  the  eighth  pan  of  a  Roman  mile 
$114.  The  Areopagus  was  a  small  eminence  a  little  to  the  north-west  of  the  Aero 
i '••'■  -      On  this,  the  court  or  Benate  of  the  Areopagus  usually  held  its  meetings.   (CI 
P.  HI.      108).      \  Bpace  was  leveled  for  the  purpose  on  the  summit  of  the  rock;  and 
•  ps  which  conducted  to  it,  were  cut  oul  of  the  natural  solid  stone.     There  was 
originally  neither  enclosure  nor  roof;  bul  merely  an  altar  to  Minerva,  and  two  stone 
seats  for  the  accuser  and  defendant.     The  court  was  occasionally  protected  by 
temporar)   erection. — The   Pnyx,   flvtff,  was  another  eminence,  opposite  the  Areo- 
la,   not    far   from    the   citadel,   celebrated   as   the   plan-   where   the   Athenians 
ne.d    then    assemblies.      Almost   the   whole  of  the   structure,   as  appears  from   a 


P.  I.  EUROPE.       HELLAS.       TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ATHENS.  33 

recent  removal  of  the  earth  in  this  place,  was  an  excavation  of  the  rock.  The  0ni*a, 
on  which  the  orators  stood  to  address  the  people,  was  carved  from  the  stone,  and  yet 
remains.  Before  this  was  a  semicircular  area,  of  which  the  part  most  distant  from 
the  orator's  stone  consists  of  masonry.  In  the  perpendicular  surface  of  the  rock, 
facing  this  area,  are  niches  for  votive  tablets.  North-east  from  the  Acropolis,  on  the 
street  of  the  tripods  (cf.  §  115),  was  the  Upvravclov,  where  was  a  public  hall,  and  where 
the  laws  of  Solon  were  deposited.     Near  it  was  the  BovXciuv  or  senate-house. 

§  11*5.  Athens  had  theatres  besides  those  termed  Odea.  One  of  the  most  celebrated 
was  the  theatre  of  Bacchus,  capable  of  accommodating  30,000  spectators.  (Cf.  P.  IV. 
§  235.)  This  contained  statues  of  many  of  the  tragic  and  comic  writers,  and  was  the 
place  where  the  dramatic  contests  were  decided :  it  was  near  the  Acropolis,  at  its 
south-east  angle.  Nothing  of  it  is  now  seen  except  the  circular  sweep  scooped  in 
the  rock  for  the  seats.  Above  it,  in  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis,  still  appears  a  cavern 
or  grotto,  formerly  termed  the  Cave  of  Bacchus,  but  now  converted  into  a  sort  of 
chapel. — Close  by  this  cavern  stands  a  building,  called  the  Ckoragic  monument  of 
Thrasyllus  ;  having  on  its  front  three  inscriptions  recording  dramatic  victories  obtained 
in  the  theatre.  Over  this  building,  and  higher  up  the  rock,  are  the  two  Columns  of 
the  tripods,  or  Ckoragic  pillars.  There  were  several  other  edifices  in  Athens,  erected 
for  the  same  purpose;  one,  exquisitely  wrought,  is  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  Acro- 
polis, commonly  called  the  Lantern  of  Demosthenes,  but  proved  by  its  inscription  to 
be  a  ckoragic  monument  erected  by  Lysicrates.  This  edifice  stood  in  the  street  of  Ike 
tripods,  so  called  from  the  circumstance  that  in  it  were  erected  (on  choragic  monu- 
ments or  pillars,  or  otherwise  located)  numerous  tripods,  which  had  been  obtained  as 
prizes  in  the  musical  or  theatrical  contests. 

Respecting  the  dramatic  and  musical  contests  above  alluded  to,  see  P.  IV.  §  66. — A  view  cf  the  Monument  3f  Thrasyllus  is  given 
Mi  Plate  XLIX.  Hz.  C  ;  and  of  that  of  Lysicrates,  in  the  same  Plate,  fig.  A  ;  the  designation  Lantern  of  Danosl henes  is  said  to  have 
been  applied  by  the  modern  Greeks,  under  the  groundless  supposition  that  it  was  the  study  of  that  illustrious  orator. 

$  116.  Athens  had  three  harbors  for  ships: — 1.  Xlttpauvc,  Piraus,  which  belonged 
tj  the  tribe  of  Hippothoontis.  and  was  about  35  or  40  stadia  distant  from  the  city, 
before  the  building  of  the  uatpa  rcixi  or  long  walls.  Alter  that  time,  the  Athenians, 
by  the  direction  of  Themistocles,  rendered  this  their  principal  harbor.  It  contained 
three  Sppot  or  docks.  In  this  harbor  were  five  porticoes,  which  being  joined  together 
formed  a  very  large  one,  called  on  that  account  Ma<cpa  o-roa.  The  Piraeus  also  con- 
tained two  forums.  Here  the  productions  of  all  countries  were  accumulated  ;  and 
this  was  the  market  not  of  Athens  only,  but  of  all  Greece.  In  this  harbor  three  hun- 
dred gallies  have  sometimes  been  collected  at  once  ;  and  it  was  sufficiently  capacious 
to  contain  four  hundred.  The  advantages  of  this  place  were  first  observed  by  The- 
mistocles when  he  devised  the  plan  of  giving  a  navy  to  Athens.  Markets  and  maga- 
zines were  presently  erected,  and  an  arsenal  capable  of  furnishing  every  ibing  neces- 
sary for  the  equipment  of  a  great  number  of  vessels. — 2.  Movvvxin,  Hfunyckia,  which 
was  a  promontory  not  far  distant  from  Pirasus,  and  extended  not  unlike  a  peninsula, 
and  was  well  fortified  both  by  nature  and  art.  It  received  its  name  from  a  person 
called  Munychus,  who  dedicated  in  this  place  a  temple  to  Diana,  surnained  Movwxi*. 
— 3.  $a\rip6i>,  Pkalerum,  which  belonged  to  the  tribe  Antiochis,  and  was  distant  from 
the  city  35  stadia,  or  as  some  say,  only  20  stadia.  This  was  the  most  ancient  of  the 
three  harbors ;  and  from  it  Theseus  is  said  to  have  sailed  tor  Crete,  and  Mnestheus 
for  Troy. 

For  further  details  respecting  the  interesting  objects  in  this  renowned  city,  we  refer  to  the  works  cited  P.  IV.  §  243.  I. ;  P.  V 
5  7  (b).— We  may  add  Waddxngton's  Visit  to  Greece.— Hughes,  Travels  in  Greece,  &c.  Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  4.— Knae,  Hellas,  ode- 
Darstellung  des  alien  Griechenlandes,  &c.  Leipz.  1825.  3  vols.  8.  In  this  work  may  be  found  an  account  of  Lord  Elgin's  pro 
ceedings  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  190.  4) ;  also  of  the  various  modern  works  illustrating  the  remains  of  Grecian  art  in  general. — (  f.  Stuart** 
Diet,  of  Architect,  under  Athenian  Architecture  ;  cf.  also  Chateaubriand's  Travels,  in  Introduction. — E  D.  Clarke,  Travels  iu 
various  countries,  &c.  Part  II.  sect.  2. — Barthelemy's  Anacharail,  ch.  xii.,  a  beautiful  description. —  W.  M.  Leake,  Topography  ot 
Athens.  Lond.  1821.  with  an  Atl.  fol.  Cf.  Tiansactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature  of  the  United  Kingdom,  vol.  iii.  p.  183. 
—  fVvrdsworth,  Athens  and  Attica. — Rienftcker,  Topognphie  von  Athen  (a  German  translation  of  Leake).  Halle,  1829;  with 
notes  of  Mtlller  and  Meier.— C.  0.  MUller,  De  Munimentis  Athenarum,  &c.  Gott.  1837.  4.  with  plates.—/..  Bergmann,  Die 
Allerhiimer  von  Athen,  nach  .Stuart  und  Revett,  &c.  Weimar,  1838.  80  plates.— Hirfs  Plan  des  Athen.— Ensch  Sf  Gruler,  Ency- 
clopadie,  under  Alttka  (written  by  Mliller).— There  is  a  glance  at  some  of  the  most  interesting  objects,  in  IV.  Cotton,  Visit  to  Con- 
ttantinople  and  Athens.     N.  York,  1836.  12.  ch.  18,  19. 

§  117.  (4.)  The  Peloponnesus,  the  fourth  division  of  Grsecia  (§  76),  remains  to  be 
noticed.  In  looking  at  the  physical  features  of  this  peninsula,  we  perceive  in  the 
interior  a  circular  chain  of  mountains,  almost  surrounding  an  included  tract  of  country 
which  was  called  Arcadia.  From  this  circle  of  elevated  summits,  various  branches 
are  sent  off  towards  the  sea;  and  we  find  a  line  running  out  to  each  of  the  principal 
promontories;  to  Rhium  Prom,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus  ;  to  Chelmii- 
tes  Prom,  on  the  western  side  of  the  peninsula  ;  to  Acritas  Prom,  west  of  the  Sinus 
Messeniacus  ;  to  Tanarum,  to  Malta,  and  to  Scyllmim,  the  other  points,  which  occur 
in  passing  round  the  peninsula  to  the  east. — Between  these  several  mountains  were 
fruitful  vaileys,  watered  by  numerous  streams  descending  from  the  mountains  in 
eveiv  direction. 


34  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY 

$  118.  This  eountrv  was  originally  railed  Argia  and  Pelasgia,  but  after  the  con- 
quest.-, ol  Pelopa  was  called  the  island  of  Felons,  neAmros  vivos;  it  was  also  called 
lis  present  name,  Morea,  is  said  to  be  drawn  from  its  resemblance  to  a  mul- 
perr]  ipe,  or  from  the  Dumber  of  mulberry  nets  that  it  produces. — It  may 

e  \  divis s:   A.chaia,  Argolis,  Elis,  Arcadia.  Messenia,  and  Laco- 

nia.    Sicyoi  ia  and  Corinthia  are  sometimes  added  to  these  ;  bat  they  may  be  included 
under  Achaia.  ....        r        ,    ,  , 

v  119.  Achaia,  in  the  extenl  we  have  just  given  to  it,  includes  the  whole  north 
coast  of  Peloponnesus,  and  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  by  which  it  is  joined  to  Hellas 
Exclusive  of  Sicyonia  and  Corinthia,  it  comprised  twelve  towns,  each  independent, 
and  possessed  of  its  own   little  territory,  winch  were  from  a  very  early  time  united 
called  the  Achaean  league;  they  were  Dyme.  Olenus,  Pharos, 
iow  Patras),    Rhype,   Mgium  the  place  where  the  deputies  of  the 
league  met,  Hi  lici  .  Bura,  -flSge,  Mgina,  and  Pellene.     In  the  resistance  to  the  Ro- 
man- made  by  the  Achaean  league  in  the  later  ages,  the  cities  of  irficyon  and  especially 
Corinth  took  p:irt . 
It  was  from  the  opposition  made  in  Achaia.  that  the  Romans,  when  Mumming  reduced  Greece 
luhjecl  province  by  the  capture  of  Corinth,  B.  C.  HO,  applied  the  name  Achaia  to  the  whole 
country.     Cf  £  '^13.  I.  6. 

n    was   the    most   ancient    city  of  Greece,  said  to  have  been  founded 
B    C    2089.— But  Corinth  has  obtained  greater  notoriety:  it  was  on  the  isthmus,  at 
.  an  equal  distance  from  the  Saronic  and  Corinthian  gulfs.     It  was  once  called 
Ephyra.     [ts  citadel  was  on  a  hill  called  Acro-Corinthus.     It  had  two  ports;   Lecnce- 
ii in.  on   the  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  and   Cenchrea,  on  the  Sinus  Saronicus.     Although 
destroyed  by  Mummius,  il  afterwards  recovered  its  splendor,  being  rebuilt  by  Julius 
ine  more  famous  than  before  for  its  luxury  and  licentiousness. 
The  isthmus  of  Corinth  was  an  important  pass.     Several  attempts  have  been  made,  at  differ- 
ent peri. '(Is.  to  join  these  two  seas  by  a  canal,  and  from  the  failure  of  them  all,  "  to  cut  through 
the  Corinthian  isthmus"  has  become  a  proverbial  expression  for  aiming  at  impossibilities.    Here 
the  Isthmian  zanies,  in  honor  of  Neptune,  were  irieiinially  celebrated  :  and   here  a  stand   haa 
frecjii*  nth  been  made  against  foreign  invaders,  the  narrowness  of  the  isthmus  easily  admitting 
of  regular  fortification. 

$121.  Argolis  occupied  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  tne  Peloponnesus.     Its 

chief  town  was  Argos,  on  the  river  Inachus,  more  celebrated  in  the  heroic  than  the 

histoi  i  -     When  Perseus  had  accidentally  slain  his  grandfather  Acri- 

sius,  he  transferred  the  seat  of  government  to  Mycews ;  this  latter  city  retained  its 

to  thi    i   hI  oi  the  Trojan  war ;  but  alter  the  death  of  Agamemnon,  the  Argives, 

through   motives  of  jealousy,  besieged,  captured,   and  leveled  it  with  the  ground.— 

i  >i\  A.rgos  was  Nemea,  where  Hercules  slew  the  Nemean  lion,  and  instituted  the 

Nemean  games  in  memory  of  his  victory;  and   Tirynthus,  a  iavoriie  residence  of 

Hercules,  whence  he  is  frequently  called  the  Tirynthian  hero. — On  the  Sinus  Argo- 

licus  [G  ill  di    Napoli)  ware.  Natiplia  (Napoli  rjj   Romania),  in  ancient  and' modern 

times  the  principal  port  ii;  these  countries;  Epidaurus,  remarkable  for  a  celebrated 

ol    Aesculapius  (P.  II.  *  81);  and   Trozzene,  whither  the  aged  inhabitants  of 

Athens  retired  when  their  city  was  burned  by  Xerxes. 

E    is   was  a  small  province  south  of  Achaia.  on  the  coast  of  the  Ionian  sea. 
[ts  'in,  |  town  was  Elis,  the  residence  of  king  Salmoneus,  who  is  said  to  have  pro- 
voked the  indignation  of  Jupiter,  by  Ins  attempts  to  imitate  thunder  and  lightning;  it 
was  on  the  P  m  us  (Belvidere  or  Igliaco),  a  principal  river  of  the  province.     Pisa,  de- 

Btroyed  at  a  very  remote  pe i.  was  mi  the  Alpheus  (Ron  pi  ha  or  Rufeas),  a  larger  rivei 

flowing  from  Vrcadia.    Not  far  from  Pisa  was  Olympia,  the  place  near  which  the  Olym- 
pic garni  9  w<  re  celebrated. 

Olywpia  wna  the  name  not  of  a  city,  but  of  the  sacred  site  near  which  the  games  were  per- 
fn/med      Here  was  the  grove  Allis,  with  splendid  monuments  scattered  in  it;  the  temple  of 
Olympian  Jupiter,  with  its  celebrated  statue  <cf.  P.  II.  J  24);  the  Cronium  or  Hill  of  Saturn  ; 
imoui  hippodrome  and  stadium. 
BarMelemg  eh   nxtlil.  a«  cited  P.  V.  $  153.  2.— Chnimil-Oouffier,  Sur  I'Hippodrome  d'Olympia,  in  the  Man.  Acad.  Inter,  vol 
■  Infer,  vol.  ii.  p.  630,  where  is  a  plan  with  explanations.— youi/iMwHe,  Voyage  de  la  Grece,  vol.  v.  p.  401. 

-  J  S.  Me.  ,  ft,  n  yii. pia,  be.  ai  cited  P.  IV.  t)  243.  I. 

Arcadia  occupied  the  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus;  and  being  entirely  de- 

iculture  was  said  m  l.e  sacred  to  Pan. — Its  principal  towns  were  Tegcea,  the 

Capil  ll  ;    <>  i  i,, ,i„,  mis.  near  the  lake  SlymphaluS.  when-  I  lercules  destroyed  the  Harpies, 

1,1  the  i    er  Ladon,  which  flows  through   Arcadia  and  joins  the  Alpheus  in  the  eastern 

part  ol  the  province;  Mantinea,  where  Epaminondas  fell,  near  the  nuns  of  which  is 

Tripolitza,  the  metropolis  ol  the  Morea;   Megalopolis,  near  the  Helissus,  a  tributary  to 

be   Vlphi  H-.  limit  by  Bpaminondaa  to  repress  the  incursions  of  the  Lacedaemonians.— 

From  the  ruins  "I  Phigalia  (Paulitza),  in  the  territory  of  the  Parrhaeii,  were  taken  the 

alian  Marbles  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  179,  %  183.  4). 

The  mountains  "I   Arcadia  were  greatly  celebrated  by  the  poets;   the  principal  were 

^u!hn, .  the  birthplace  oi  Mercury  ;   Erymanthus,  where  Hercules  slew  an  enormous 


1  'zii-i, '-- • --'  ■  --■■■'■■■ -"iy 

"35 


."36  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

boar  j  Manalut,  snared  to  tlie  Moses;  Part  hoi  ins,  where  Atalanta  resided;  Parrha- 

irid  Pan.    From  the  hUl  Nmiaeris  flowed  the  cel»- 
river  Ad/j  ,-  its  wad  re  were  said  to  lie  poisonous. 

L'he  south-  ision  oi  the  Peloponnesus  was  M  essenia,  of  which 

Mtssenc,  a  irtihed    own,  was  the  capital;  the  citadel  was  called  Ithome,an'\ 

.  iim  se  were  in  the  interior,  west  from  the  Famish 

.    principal  river  of  the  province,  and  Hows  from  the  mountains  between 

M,  -.  Ircadia  into  the  Sinus  Messeniacus. — The  other  principal  towns  were 

Nestor,  now  called  Navari7i;   Methane,  where  Philip  defeated  the 

.    mil  CEchalia  or  Erytopolis,  conquered  by  Hercules. 

I'ln-  Mcssenians,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  were  subdued  by  the  Lacedemonians,  and  'ha 

i    nari  compelled  to  leave  the  country.    Subsequently  their  city  lay  long  in  nuns:  but 

v,  in  ii  Epaiuin I  is  bad  destroyed  the  supremacy  <>i'  Sparta,  he  recalled  the  descendants  of  the 

■  i  nd  rebuilt  Messene.    After  his  death,  Hit  Spartans  again  became  musters  of  the  country, 
but  did  not  expel  the  Messenians  from  their  restored  possessions. 

The  south-eastern  and  most  important  division  of  the  Peloponnesus  was 
Laconia.  Its  capital  was  Sparta,  winch  we  shall  describe  in  the  following  sections. 
The  other  towns  of  note  wire,  Amychz,  on  the  Eurotas,  the  residence  of  Leda; 
Therapne,  on  the  -ame  river,  the  birthplace  ol  Castor  and  Pollux;  Gytheum,  the  prin- 
cipal port  ol  Lacoma;  Helos,  whose  inhabitants  were  enslaved, by  the  Spartans •  and 
Sellasia,  where  the  Achaeans,  by  the  defeat  of  Cleomenes,  liberated  ihe  Peloponne- 
bus  from  the  power  o'.  Lacedsmon. 

The  Sinus  Laconicus  (Gulf  of  Colochina)    was  bounded   by  the  capes  Malea  (St 
lo)  and  Tanarum  (Matapan).     Near  Tffinarum  was  a  cave  represented  by  the 
as  the  entrance  into  the  infernal  regions;  through  this  Hercnles  is  said  to  have 
dragged  up  Cerberus. 

I  •  Peloponnesian  stales  were  first  subjected  by  Pelops ;  but  about  eighty  years  after  the 
Trojan  war.  the  Heraclide,  oi  descendants  of  Hercules,  returned  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
became  masters  of  the  different  kingdoms.  This  event,  which  forms  a  remarkable  epoch  in 
t.p-i  ian  history,  took  place  1104  B.  C. 

Topography  of  Sparta.  The  city  of  Lacedaemon,  which  was  anciently  called 
Sparta,  is  said  lo  have  been  built  by  king  Lacedaemon,  who  gave  it  the  latter  denomi- 
nation fron.  his  wile  Sparta,  though  he  designated  the  country  and  tne  inhabitants 
from  his  own  name  ;  but  some  think  that  this  city  received  the  appellation  of  Sparta 
from  the  Sparti,  who  came  with  Cadmus  ir.to  Laconia.  It  was  situated  at  the  foot 
ot  mount  Taygetus,  on  the  west  side  ol  the  river  Eurotas,  which  runs  into  the  Laconic 
gulf.  Ii  was  ot  a  circular  form,  and  forty-eight  stadia  or  six  miles  in  circumference, 
and  was  surrounded  to  a  great  extent  with  vineyards,  olive  or  plane  trees,  gardens, 
and  summer-houses. 

ntly  the  city  was  not  surrounded  with  walls;  anil  its  only  defence  was  the 
valor  ot  its  inhabitants.  Even  in  the  reign  of  Agesilaus,  and  for  the  space  of  eiuht 
hundred  years,  this  city  was  without  any  fortifications;  but  after  it  fell  into  the  hands 
ol  tyrants,  ii  was  surrounded  with  walls,  which  were  rendered  very  strong.  It  had, 
however  some  eminences  upon  which  soldiers  might  be  posted  in  case  ot  an  attack. 
The  highest  ol  these  eminences  served  as  a  citadel;  its  summit  was  a  spacious  plain, 
on  which  v  I  several  Bacred  edifices.     Around   this   hill  were   ranged   five 

towns,  which  ware   separated   from  each  other  by  intervals  of  different  extent,  and 
oi  which  was  occupied  bvone  of  the  tribes  of  Sparta. 

I  he  :■"  at  square  or  forum,  'Ayopa,  in  which  several  streets  terminated,  was 
embellished  with  temples  and  statues.  It  also  contained  the  edifices  in  which  the 
senate,  the  ephori,  and  other  bodies  of  magistrates  assembled.  Of  these  public  edi- 
fices the  mosl  remarkable  was  the  Portico  of  the  Persians,  which  the  Lacedaemonians 
■  'I  after  the  battle  of  Plataea,  at  the  expense  of  the  vanquished,  whose  spoils 
they  shared,  The  roof  of  this  building  was  supported  by  colossal  statues  of  the  prin- 
-  in  the  army  of  Xerxes,  who  had  been  taken  or  killed  in  that  battle,  and 
who  were  habited  in  flowing  robes. — The  Scias  was  a  building  not  far  from  the  forum, 
in  which  a  ■'  the  people  were  commonly  held.     The  ('horn*  was  a  pari  of 

the  forum    where  dances  were  performed  in  honor  of  Apollo  in  the  Gymnopaedian 
■ 
I  ipon  the  highest  of  the  eminences  stood  a  temple  of  Minerva,  which  had  the  privi- 

I   asylum,  as   had    also   the   ...rove    thai    surrounded   it.  and  a  small   house  appei- 

ig  to  n,  in  which  king  Pausanias  was  lefi   to  expire  with  hunger.     The  dimple 

was  buil'  (XaAfft'oiKos),      Within  the  building  were  engraven,  in  bas-relief, 

the  labors  ol  Hercules,  and  various  groups  of  figures.    To  the  rignl  of  this  edifice  was 

itue  of  Juptter,  supposed  to  be  the  most  ancienl  statue  of  brass  in  existence ;  of 

•••  dale  with  the  re-establishment  of  the  Olympic  games. 

The  in";'  ornamented  place  in  Sparta,  however,  was  the  Pcecile,  which,  instead  of 

'•      j  confined  lo  a  single  gallery  like  thai  al   Athens,  occupied  a  very  considerable 

The  Romans  afterwards  took  away  the  Buperb  paintings  in  fresco  which  had 

■teen  employed   to  decorate  the  walk. — farther  advanced  in  the  city  appeared  differ- 


38  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

ei:t  ranges  of  Porticos,  intended  only  for  the  display  of  different  kinds  of  merchan 
dize. 

I    Columns  and  statues  were  erected  for  Spartans  who  had  been  crowned  at 

Ifympic  games;  but  never  for  the  conquerors  of  the  enemies  of  their  country. 

es  mighl  1"'  decreed  to  wrestlers;  bu(  the  esteem  of  the  people  was  the  only 

there.    It  was  not  till  forty  years  after  the  battle  of  Thermopylae,  that 

(l„.  bones  ol    Leonidas  were  conveyed  to  Sparta  and  deposited  in  a  tomb  near  the 

he  same  lime  also  the  names  of  the  three  hundred  Spartans  who  had 

,  with  him  were  first  inscribed  on  a  column. — The  theatre  was  in  the  vicinity  of 

arum,  and  vt  ol    beautiful  white  marble.     Not  far  from  the  tomb 

-■  oi  Brasidas  and  Pausanias.    funeral  orations  and  games  were 

i\-  given  mar  these  monuments, 

Of  ii diflcei  Find  i UincMs  of  Spuria  it  may  be  remarked  in  general,  that  they  were  not 

distinguished  foi  architectural  beauty  ;  and  Ihe  cily  had  nothing  imposing  or  splendid  in  its  ap- 

ince. 

5  L29.  On  the  south  side  ol  the  city  was  the  'IxirvSpo/ios,  or  course  for  foot  and  horse 

Bom<   Vi  -   ges  of  which  are  still  visible  ;  and  a  little  distance  from  it  was  the 

Platanisttu,  or  place  of  exercise  for  youth,  shaded  by  beautiful  plane-trees,  and  en- 

(  by  the  Eurotas  on  one  side,  by  a  small  river  which  fell  into  it  on  the  other,  and 

by  a  canal  which  opened  a  communication  with  both  on  the  third.     The  Platanistas 

,\  i-  entered  by  two  bridges,  on  one  oi  which  was  the  statue  of  Hercules,  or  all-sub- 

iher  that  of  Lycurgus,  or  all-regulating  law. 

The  place  winch  served  Sparta  for  a  porl  or  harbor,  was  Gylkeium,  riOeiov,  situated 

from  the  mouth  ol  the  Eurotas,  and  distant  from  Sparta  240  stadia,  according  to 

,.   and  30    300?]  according  to  Polybius.     It  was  early  surrounded  by  strong 

wails,  and  had  an  excellent  harbor,  in  which  the  fleets  of  Sparta  rode  in  security,  and 

where  they  found  every  requisite  for  their  maintenance  and  security. 

Tlie  ruins  of  Sparta  arc  found,  under  the  name  Palmichori  or  old  town,  about  two  miles  distant 
from  ihe  lern  town  Misitra,  near  a  spot  called  Magoula.  "The  whole  sue,"  says  Chateau- 
briand, "is  uncultivated  ;  when  I  beheld  this  desert,  not  a  plant  adorned  the  ruins,  not  a  bird, 
nnl  an  insect,  nol  a  creature  enlivened  them,  save  millions  of  lizards,  winch  crawled  without 
noise  upand  down  the  sides  of  Ihe  scorching  walls.  A  dozen  half-wild  horses  were  feeding 
lure  and  thereupon  the  Withered  ::rass;  a  shepherd  was  cultivating  a  few  water-melons  in  a 
corner  of  the  theatre;  ami  at  Magoula,  which  gives  its  dismal  name  to  Lacedaunon,  I  observed 
a  small  grove  of  cypresses." 

-  topography  au't  ruim  of  Sparta,  see  ChaieavbrianoVt  Travels  (p.  94,  e<1.  N.  V.  1814). — Lt  Roi,  Monumens  de  la  Grece. — 
rary  of  the  Morea.— Leake's  Travels  in  Ihe  Morea.    Loud.  1830.  3  vols.  8.— Cramer,  Dudwell,  &c.  as  cited  P.  V. 

*  7.  (b). 

IV.       ISLANDS    BELONGING    TO    EUROPE. 

<}  HO.  It  was  mentioned  ($  8),  that  having  considered  the  mainland  of  Europe  under 

three  divisions,  northern,  middle,  and  southern,  we  might  notice  the  islands  together 

under  a  fourth.    The  European  islands  known  to  the  ancients  were  in  the  Atlantic  or 

Mediterranean;  ol  those  in  the  Baltic  they  knew  but  little.     We  will  speak  first  of 

those  in  i  lie   \  i  lantic. 

V  131.  Of  these,  Britannia  was  ihe  most  important.     It  was  scarcely  known  to 

the  < i .i \  ~  "i  Julius  Caesar.     Being  peopled  by  successive  migrations  from 

Gaul,  the  Britons  naturally  aided  the  mother  country  when  invaded,  and  thus  pro- 

;eance  ol  Home.     The  south-western  shores  are  said  to  have  been 

d  by  the  Phoenicians  at  a  much  earlier  period  ;  and  that  enterprising  people  have 

\i  i  ii  described  as  carrying  on  an  extensive  trade  for  tin  with  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly 

which,  from  their  abounding  in  that  metal,  were  called  the  Cassiterides  Insula 

or  Tin  islands. 

t  19*  the  enumeration  of  the  several  tribes  and  villa/jes  being  a  matter  rather  of  curiosity 
•han  Utility,  M  e  shall  only  notice  a  few  Of  the  more  remarkable  —The  Cantii  occupied  the  snutfc 
Dftlw  i-l  tnd  ;  in  tleir  territory  were  Rutuvim  (Kichhorouirh),  celebrated  for  its  oysters  by  Juve- 
nal :  and  Pnrlu*  /.•  - it  1 1  vinne),  where  Cesar  landed,  II.  C.  55.— The  Trinobantes  possessed  the 

country  north  ol  the  <  tantii ;  t d.ir  chief  town  was  Londinum  (London),  the  most  flourishing  Ro- 
man  colony   in    Britain        lie-  .sy/.c,  .   possessed   South  Wales,  and  appear  to  have   been  a  very 

flourishing  and  warlike  tribe     <  aractai  us,  oi f  their  kmns,  is  celebrated  for  having  bravely 

defended  the  liberties  of  his  c t r\  ;  and  for  a  long  time  baffled  the  utmost  edorts  of  ihe  Ko  . 

mani    i"   ■'  Htbdued  bj  Ostorius  Scapula,  A.  D.  51,  and  sent  in  chains  to  Rome  — 

'"i  the  eastern  coast  were  the  heni,  «  hose  queen  Boadicea,  having  been  cruelly  abused  by  the 

*  deputies,  took  up  arms  lo  avenge  her  own  and  her  country's  wrongs  ;  at  first  she  ob- 

1:111 several  victories  over  her  oppressors,  but  was  finally  defeated  by  Suetonius  Paulinas. 

A-  "  "I     -The  north  of  England  was  possessed  t>\  the  Brii? antes,  the si  powerful  and  ancient 

of  the  British  nations;  their  principal  towns  were  Eboraeum  (York),  and  hurium  (supposed  tc 
\i-  AUkoroHgh  i,  ihe  c  ipuai  of  theii  tribe. 

ill   less  known  than  England;  five  nations  on  the  borders 
known  by  the  general  name  oi    \ieattp,  were  subdued  by  Airricoln,  and  became  nomi 

Bally  lubjeci  to  the  dom m  oi  Rome. 

When  Britain  became  a  Roman  province,  it  was  divided  into  the  five  following 


PLATE    V. 


1.  The  Rotunda  of  Salonica  the  ancient  Thessalonica.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  Cabirian  Temple.  By  the  Christians  it  was  converted  into  a 
church  of  Paul  and  Peter.  The  Turks  have  turned  it  into  a  mosque:  and 
erected  the  minaret,  which  appears  attached  to  it,  and  in  the  gallery  of 
which  is  seen  a  Muezzin,  whose  office  is  to  announce  from  the  gallery  the 
hour  of  prayer. 

2.  A  fountain  for  the  Mussulman  ablution  before  prayers. 


30 


40  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

provinces?  Britannia  prima,  comprising  the  eastern  and  southern  division  oi*  the 
country;  Flavia  Ceesariensis,  containing  the  western  tribes;  Britannia  secunda, 
which  included  all  Wales;  Maxima  Casariensis,  which  contained  the  country 
between  the  Former  divisions  and  the  river  Tweed ;  and  Valenlia,  occupied  by  the 

}  134.  To  repel  the  incursions  of  the  Picta  and  Scots,  who  frequently  Iniil  waste  the  Roman 

iellleni<  nis  several  too/Is  were  built  across  the  island.    The  first  was  erected  by  the  celebrate* 

,   «  ho  completed  the  conquest  of  Britain.     Hut  this  being  found  insufficient  to  restrain 

the  ini  iirsions  of  the  barbarians,  the  emperor  Adrian  erected  a  rampart  of  great  strength  and 

dimensions  —The  wall  of  Adrian  extended  from  Mstuarium  huna  (Solway  Frith),  on  the  western 

roast,  to  Sfredunttm  (Cousin's  House),  a  village  norther  Pons  JEM  (Newcastle-upon-Tyne),  on 

distance  of  about  To  miles.  Ii  consisted  nfa  double  rampart  and  ditch,  and  wag 

them  .1  by  forts  erected  at  short  intervals.— Twentj  years  after  this,  the  emperor  Antoni- 

ii  i  n  the  w  .11  of  Agricola,  which  \\  ras  marly  parallel  to  that  of  Adrian,  and  had  been  neg- 

Lhai  was  built,  whence  this  is  usually  called  the  rampart  of  Antoninus. 

i.  But  the  last  and  greatest  of  these  structures  was  the  wall  erected  by  the  emperor  Seve- 

D.  200      ll  was  situated  a  few  yards  north  of  the  wall  of  Adrian,  and  was  one  of  the 

jtrongesl  fortifications  ol  antiquity.     The  wall  was  twelve  feet  wide  and  eight  feet  high,  built 

of  Btone  and  cement  ;  it  was  strengthened  by  eighteen  stations  or  garrisons,  thirty-one  castles, 

and  three  hundred  and  twenty-four  towers  :  the  whole  body  of  forces  employed  to  garrison  this 

immense  range  of  fortification  were  ten  thousand  men,  besides  six  hundred  mariners,  appointed 

to  guard  the  points  where  the  ramparts  communicated  with  the  shore. 

§  136.  The  islands  adjoining  Britain  were  the  Orcades  (Orkneys),  Hebrides  (Western 
[sles  .  Mono  Taciti  (Anglesea),  Mona  C<esam  (Man),  Veclis  (Isle  of  Wight),  and  Cas- 
siterides  Scilly  Isles). — Ireland  was  known  to  the  ancients  only  by  name,  and  was 
called  [erne  Juverna,  or  Hibernia. 

The  Irish  say  'hat  they  are  descended  from  a  Scythian  nation,  and  thai  at  an  early  period,  pari  of  the  country  was  colonized  hy  the 
Phoenicians;  in  proof  of  the  latter,  it  has  been  urged  thai  Ihe  specimens  of  the  Punic  language  preserved  by  Plautus,  are  llmost  pure 
Iri-h  ;  and  lhal  antique  swords,  foun  1  in  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  have  on  analysis  been  proved  to  consist  of  materials  precisely  similai 
the  Punic  swords  dug  up  by  Sn  W.  Hamilton  in  the  field  of  Canoae.— Cf.  P.  V.  $  352.  2. 

An  island  called  Thule  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  classical  authors  as  the  most 
distant   known,  but  its  situation  has  not  been  described,  and  therefore  we  cannot  be 
ii  what   particular  island  was  meant.     Iceland,  some  of  the  Shetland  isles,  and 
and,  have  been  named  by  different  modern  writers  (cf.  §  3). 
§  137.   In  speaking  of  the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  we  begin  in  the  western  part. 
The  Balearic^,  denying  their  name  from   the  skill  of  the  inhabitants  in  slinging  and 
i\.  were  on  the  coast  of  Spain.     Their  names  were  Balearis  major  (Majorca): 
Balearis  minor  (Minorca),  and  Ebusus  (Ivica). 
B(  twei  n  Spain  and  Italy  are  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  separated  by  the  F return  Fossa 
facta).     Corsica,  called  by  the  Creeks  Cyrnos,  was  of  little  note  in 
ancient  times,  but  is  celebrated  for  having  given  birth  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte.     It  con- 
tained two  Roman  colonies,  Mariana  planted  by  Marius,  and  Aleria  by  Sylla.     North 
•  i    Vfariana  was  Malinorum   Oppidum   (Bastia),  the  present  capital  of  the  island. — 
Sardinia  derived  its  name  from  Sard  us,  an  African  prince,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Her- 
cules, who  at  a  very  early  period  led  a  colony  hither;  it  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
Ic/tnusa,  from  its  resemblance  to  the  human  foot.     Neither  serpents  nor  wolves  were 
found  in  this  island,  and  (as  we  are  told)    only  one  poisonous  herb,  which  caused  those 
who  eat  ol  it  to  expire  in  a  fit  of  laughter,  and  hence  the  expression,  a  Sardonit  grin. 
The  i  hief  town  was  CalarU  (now  Cagliari).     Both  islands  were  long  tributary  to  the 

ins,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Romans  in  the  first  Punic  war. 

I  in  n   were  several  small  islands  of  no  great  importance  on  the  coast  of  Italy;  the 
n    Uua  (Elba),  which  is  of  some  interest,  as  the  spot  of  Napoleon's  temporary 
hmenl  ;   Prochr/ta;  and  Caprea  (Capri),  infamous  as  the  scene  of  the  unnatural 
ill  baucheries  of  Tiberius. 

S  i  e  i  I  i  a,  the  largest  and  most  fertile  of  the  Mediterranean  islands,  lies  to  the 
south  ol  Italy,  from  winch  it  is  separated  by  the  Fretum  Siculum  (Strait  of  Messina). — 
li  was  called  Triquetra,  or  Trinacria,  from  its  triangular  shape,  terminating  in  three 
promontories;  Pelorus  (Faro),  on  the  north;  Pachynus  (Passaro),  on  the  south;  and 
Lilybavum  (Boco),  on  the  west. 

Syracusa  (Siracusa)  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Sicily,  and  one  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble cities  oi  antiquity.  It  was  founded  by  a  Corinthian  colony  led  by  Archias,  and 
arrived  al  such  a  pitch  of  greatness  that  the  circuit  of  its  walls  exceeded  twenty  miles.— 
It  was  divided  into  five  parts,  which  were  so  large  as  to  be  esteemed  separate  towns; 
rix,  Onygia,  a  small  island,  on  which  the  Greeks  originally  settled ;  Acradina  facing 
die  sen;  J'ycha,  between  that  and  the  following  division;  Neapolis,  which  stood  on 
the  great  pori ;  and  Bpipolre. — Syracuse  hud  two  ports,  the  lesser  formed  by  the  island 
Ortygia,  and  the  greater  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Anapus,  which  here  flows  into  a 
bay,  having  the  island  al  its  northern,  and  the  fori  of  Plenvmyrium  at  its  southern 
extremity.  The  celebrated  prison  called  Latomia  was  cut  out  of  the  rock  by  the  tyrani 
Dionyshu  :  in  this  was  a  cavern  shaped  like  the  human  ear.  so  contrived  as  ;o  transmit 
sll  Bounds  from  below  to  a  small  apartment  where  the  tyrant  used  to  conceal  himself 


P.  I.  EUROPE.       ISLANDS    OF    THE    MEDITERRANEAN.  41 

in  order  to  overhear  the  conversation  of  his  victims ;  it  is  now  a  very  handsome  sub 
terraneous  garden. 

This  city  is  remarkable  for  the  defeat  of  the  Athenians,  in  their  fatal  Sicilian  expedition,  aim 
the  formidable  resistance  made  by  tbe  inhabitants  when  the  town  was  besieged  by  Marcellns 
This  siege  was  protracted  principally  by  the  mechanical  contrivances  of  Archimedes. 

§  139.  Some  of  the  other  considerable  towns  in  Sicilia  were  Mcssana ;  Leontium; 
Agrigentum,  where  the  tyrant  Phalaris  resided  ;  Lilyb&irm,  Drepanum,  Panormos  (Pa- 
lermo), Himera  ;  Nuulochus ,  where  the  oxen  of  the  sun  were  supposed  to  be  kept ; 
Tricola,  where  Trypho  and  Athems  established  the  head  quarters  of  a  republic  of 
slaves,  and  held  out  against  the  Roman  power  for  several  years ;  Selinus,  known  for 
its  vigorous  but  unavailing  resistance  to  the  Carthaginians. 

Interesting  Greek  ruins  have  been  found  at  Selinus,  Agrigentum,  &c. — On  these  ruins,  see  Ji.  Hoare,  Classical  Tour,  vol.  ii.  p.  78  ss> 
Cf.  P.  IV.  §  178.  3.—F.  Gartner,  Architect.  Monuni  of  Sicily,  as  cited  P.  IV.  )  243.  I.— See  also  the  citations,  P.  IV.  ^  234.  3. 

The  principal  Sicilian  rivers  are  the  Si7ncethus  (Giaretta),  celebrated  for  the  pioduc 
tion  of  amber;  Asinarius,  where  the  Aihenian  generals  Nicias  and  Demosihenes  wert 
i  taken  prisoners  by  the  Syracusans,  and  Helorus  on  the  eastern  coast  ;  on  the  south 
side  were  Camicus  and  Crimisus,  with  some  smaller  streams;  and  on  the  north,  the 
river  Himera. — Mount  JEtna,  so  celebrated  for  its  volcano,  occupies  a  great  part  of 
Sicily  ;  the  poets  feigned  that  the  giants,  when  defeated  by  Jupiter,  were  buried  under 
this  heap,  and  that  the  erupiions  were  caused  by  their  efforts  to  relieve  themselves. 

The  firsll  inhabitants  of  Sicily  were  the  Cyclopes  and  La?slrigons,  a  barbarous  race  of  people, 
almost  extirpated  by  the  different  (Jreek  colonies,  whom  the  commercial  advantages  of  Sicily's 
situation  induced  to  settle  in  this  island. 

§  140.  Near  the  western  angle  or  corner  of  Sicily  are  three  small  islands  called 
JEgates,  opposite  one  of  which,  JEgusa,  Ltitatius  Catulus  defeated  the  Carthaginians 
in  a  great  naval  engagement,  and  tnus  put  an  end  to  the  first  Punic  war. — North  of 
Sicily  were  the  Insula  JEoliw  (Lipari  islands),  sacred  to  Vulcan  ;  the  largest  is  Lipara, 
which  was  once  a  place  of  great  consequence  ;  the  next  in  size  is  Strongyle  (Strombolt),' 
where  ^Eolus  is  said  to  have  imprisoned  the  winds,  and  where  there  is  a  celebrated 
volcano. — South-east  of  Sicily  is  Melite  (Malta),  remarkable  in  ancient  times  for  its 
cotton  manufactories.  Here  St.  Paul  was  shipwrecked  in  his  voyage  from  Jerusalem 
to  Rome.  It  was  first  peopled  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  found  this  island  a  convenient 
station  for  commerce  on  account  of  its  excellent  harbor. — Near  Malta  is  the  small  island 
of  Gaulos  (Gozo). 

§  141.  We  notice  next  the  Ionian  Islands,  on  the  western  coast  of  Greece.  Corcyra 
'Corfu)  stood  opposite  that  division  of  Epirus  called  Thesprotia,  from  which  it  was 
separated  by  a  narrow  strait,  named  Corcyrean. — It  is  called  by  Homer  Scheria,  or 
Phmacia,  and  he  describes  (in  the  Odyssey)  the  inhabitants  as  luxurious  and  indolent. — 
The  principal  town  was  Corcyra,  near  which  were  the  celebrated  gardens  of  Alcinous 
and  Cassiope.  Near  the  promontory  of  Phalacrum  was  a  remarkable  rock,  said  *o 
have  been  the  ship  which  Ulysses  received  from  Alcinous,  to  convey  him  to  his  native 
country,  and  which  Neptune  changed  into  a  rock,  as  a  punishment  to  the  Phaeaciana 
for  aiding  Ulysses. 

Leucadia  (Santa  Maura)  was  originally  a  peninsula,  and  the  isthmus  was  cut  through 
by  the  Carthaginians  to  facilitate  navigation.  The  chief  town  was  Leucas,  in  earlier 
ages  called  Nericum,  and  the  neighboring  country  Neritis ;  it  was  founded  by  a  Co- 
rinthian colony,  and  was  joined  to  the  continent  by  a  bridge,  as  the  strait  was  here  very 
narrow — At  the  south-western  extremity  of  Leucadia  was  a  high  mountain,  named 
Leucate,  and  a  remarkable  rock,  called  from  its  color  Lcuroptira,  from  which  unfortu- 
nate lovers  precipitated  themselves  into  the  sea.  On  the  top  of  this  rock  was  a  temple 
of  Apollo,  where  the  victims  offered  sacrifices  previously  to  taking  the  fatal  leap. 

The  Echinades  (Curzolari)  were  a  small  cluster  of  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Achelous,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  was  Di/lichium,  part  of  the  empire  of  Ulysses. 
—Near  Dulichium  was  Ithaca  (Thaki),  the  birthplace  of  Ulysses;  the  capital  was  also 
called  Ithaca,  and  stood  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Neritus. 

$  142.  Cephalenia  (Cephalonia)  is  the  largest  of  the  Ionian  islands. — Its  chief 
town  was  Same,  from  whence  the  island  was  frequently  called  by  that  name  ;  there 
were  three  other  towns  of  little  consequence  in  the  island  ;  from  which  circumstance 
it  is  called  Tetrapolis.     In  this  island  are  some  ruins  of  Cyclopean  structure. 

South  of  this  was  Zacynlhus  (Zante),  with  a  capital  of  the  same  name,  celebrated  for 
its  fertility  and  beautiful  groves.  Herodotus  declares  that  there  was  such  an  abundance 
of  bitumen  found  here,  that  even  the  neighboring  sea  assumed  prismatic  hues  from  the 
oiiy  matter  that  floated  on  its  surface. 

West  of  the  Peloponnesus  were  the  Strophades  (Strivoli),  at  first  calle  I  Plola,  tne 
residence  of  the  Harpies;  and  south  of  them,  the  island  of  Sphacleria  (Sphagise),  takeu 
by  Cleon  the  Athenian,  in  the  first  Peloponnesian  war. — South  of  the  Peloponnesus 
was  Cy/hera,  or  Porphyron  (Cerigo),  sacred  to  Venus.  It  contained  two  exc<  llent  towns 
and  harbors,  Cythera  and  Scanda,  which  the  Lacedaemonians  fortified  with  ^reat  care, 
but  the  Athenians)  destroyed  both  in  the  first  Peloponnesian  wnr 


42  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

$  143.  W  3  may  include  among  the  Mgean  Mauds  all  that  remain  to  be  noticed. 
The  1  lu  acian  islands  occupy  the  northern  part  of  the  iEgean,  and  were  named 
Thasus,  Samothrace,  and  [mbrus. — Thasus  (Tasse),  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Nessus, 
agi  a  of  Grecian  history  named  JEtlma.  It  produced  wine  and  mar- 
ble and  the  inhabit  intt  w<  re  al  one  lime  so  powerful  as  to  dispute  the  mastery  of  the 
gen'wilh  the  Athenians,  but  after  a  severe  contest  of  two  years  they  were  compelled 
to  surrender  at  discretion.— Samothrace  (Samandrachi)  derived  its  name  from  Saraos, 
by  a  colony  from  which  it  was  first  peopled.  From  this  place  Dardanus  brought  the 
worship  of  Cybele  to  Troy. — Imbnu  (Embro)  lies  to  the  south  oi  Samothrace. 

14.    Tenedos  stands  at  the  entrance  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite   the  Troad.     It 
contained  but  one  city,  and  a  celebrated  temple  of  Apollo,  here  called  Smintheus,  be- 
,1  the  inhabitants  from  a  plague  of  mice,  called  Sminthffi  in  the  Phry- 
gian languaj  ,   ,.        ,      „  ,  ,         .        , 

ith-wesl  of  this  was  Lannos  (Stahmene),  dedicated  to  \  ulcan,  who,  when  thrown 

...  Jupiter,  is  said  to  have  fallen  on  this  island.     It  contained  two  cities, 

or  Vulcatia,  and  Murina. — Farther  west,  on   the    Thessalian  coast,  was 

Halonnesus  (Droma),  which  is  said  to  have  been  at  one  time  defended  by  the  valor  of 

the  w en  alon*  .  when  all  the  males  were  slam.     South  of  these  were  Sciatkus  (Sci- 

Scopela);  and  Scyros  (Skiro),  where  Achilles  was  concealed  by  his 
i  Thi  us.  it.  prevent  his  going  to  the  Trojan  war. 
South  of  Tenedos,  and  opposite  Ephesus,  was  Lesbos  (Metehn),  the  birthplace  of 
tht  philosopher  Pittacus,  the  poets  Anon  and  Alcreus,  and  the  poetess  Sappho;  its 
chiel  towns  were  Mi  Ihymna  celebrated  for  wine,  and  Milylene,  from  whence  the  island 
has  derived  its  modi  rn  name. — South  of  tins  was  Chios  (Scio),  celebrated  for  its  wine. 
The  slaughter  ol  the  inhabitants  of  this  island  by  the  Turks,  in  1822,  excited  great 
public  sympathy. 

I  gesf  island  of  the  iEgean  was  E  u  b  oe  a  (Negropont),  opposite  the  coast 
.,i  Bceotia,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  called  the  Euripus.  Into 
tin-  strait  Aristotle  (P.  V.  $  115),  according  to  the  accounts  of  some,  threw  himself,  in 
ol  frenzy,  because  he  was  unable  to  explain  the  cause  of  its  ebbing  and  flowing, 
'i  he  chief  towns  were  Chalets,  joined  to  Aulis  in  Bceotia,  by  a  bridge  across  the  Euri- 
pus: Eretria,  an  Athenian  colony,  founded  before  the  Trojan  war;  Oreus,  on  the 
Euripus;  the  town  and  promontory  of  Artemisium,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island, 
where  the  Gret  ks  gained  their  first  naval  victory  over  the  Persians;  and  Carystus,  in 
the  south,  between  the  promontories  Geraestus  and  Caphareus,  remarkable  for  the 
quarries  of  marble  in  the  neighboring  mountain  Ocha.  The  history  of  Euboea  is  not 
very  important,  as  the  greater  part  was  subjected  toother  Greek  states. 

In  the  Si  ironic  gull  were  ^Egina  (Engia),  anciently  Mnone,  strongly  fortified  by 

natun  one  period  the  rival  of  Athens  at  sea;  here  were  discovered  the  monu- 

-  called  the  JBginetan  sculptures  or  marbles  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  190.  3).     The  JF.gme- 

he  most  distinguished  of  the  Grecian  allies  at  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and 

valor.— Next  to  this  is  Salamis  (Elimi),  the  island  of  Telemon, 

father  of  Ajax  and  Teucer.     Near  Salamis  the  Greek  fleet,  commanded  by  Euribia- 

ii 'an,  and  Themistocles  the  Athenian,  totally  defeated  the  immense  navy 

,.i   Persia, — On  the  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  Calauria  (Foro),  where  Demos- 

ill.  ne-  poisoned  himself  thai  he  might  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  Antipater,  the  suc- 

cessor  ol  Alexander  the  '  treat. 

South-east  of  Euboea  was  the  large  cluster  of  islands  called  the  C  yclades, 

from  their  nearly  forming  a  circle  round  the  island  of  Delos.     This  island,  also  called 

Ortygia,  is  celebrated  by  the  poets  as  the  birthplace  of  Apollo  and  Diana;  on  which, 

M ( 1 1 ii 1 1  Cynthus,    stood  the  celebrated  temple  of  the  Delian  god,  to  which  pil- 

grim -  were   made   from  all   parts  of  Greece.     A  sacred  galley,  called  Pontius 

(h  iripaXoO,  was  annually  sen!  from  Alliens  to  Delos  with  a  solemn  sacrifice,  and  dur- 
ing  its  absence  it  was  unlawful  to  punish  any  criminal  in  Athens  capitally.  The  other 
remarkable  islands  in  this  group  were  Myconus,  Gyarus,  and  Seriphus,  small  islands 
whither  the  Roman  emperors  used  to  banish  criminals;  Andros  and  Tenos,  south-east 
ot  Euboea;  Ceos  (Zea),  and  Helena,  on  the  coast  of  Attica;  Cythus,  Siphnus,  and 
Melos  (Milo  .  Bouth  ol  Ceos;  rums,  celebrated  tor  its  white  marble,  the  birthplace  of 
(he  -  nd  Praxiieles  ;  Xinos.  sacred  to  Bacchus,  where  Ariadne  was 

erted  by  Theseus  ;   tos,  where  Homer  was  said  to  have  been  buried  ; 

Tin  rn .  and   .  I  im/i/ii'. 

147.  The  islands  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  iEgean  were  called  the  Sporades,  and 
more  propi  ed  to  Asia,  but  they  are  enumerated  here  as  they  were  possessed 

b\  the  Greeks.  'I  he  chief  of  these  were  Samos,  sacred  to  Juno,  the  birthplace  of  Py- 
thagoras ;  Icaria,  which  gave  name  to  the  tcarian  sea  ;  Patinas  (Palmossa),  where  the 
A  post  lo  John  wrote  the  Revelations;  Cos,  the  native  country  of  Harpocrates ;  Car- 
pathui  (Scarpanto),  which  gave  name  to  the  Carpathian  sea;  and  Rhodus  (Rhodes). — 
This  latter  island  contained  three  cities,  Lindus,  Camyrus,  and  Rhodus. 

M  the  harb  ir  of  niiodus  Ptiini!  the  Colossus,  an  enormous  statue,  dedicated  to  the  sun  (P.  II 
f  ''£ .     It  hHd  in  one  hii ml  a  lighthouse.    This  splendid  statue  (cl.P.lV.J  180.  1)  wag  thrown 


P.  I.  ASIA.       EASTERN    DIVISION.      INDIA.       PERSIA.  43 

down  by  an  earthquake  about  B.  C.  225,  and  having  long  lain  prostrate  was  broken  up  bj  the 
Saracens  when  they  became  masters  of  the  island,  in  the  seventh  century. 

§  148.  Creta  (Crete  or  Candid),  at  the  entrance  of  the  vEgean.  was  the  most  cele- 
brated island  of  ancient  times:  it  is  said  to  have  contained  a  hundred  cities,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  were  Gnossus,  near  Mount  Ida,  on  the  north  side  ol  the  island  ;  Gortynia, 
on  the  opposite  side,  where  stood  the  celebrated  Labyrinth,  built  by  Daedalus  ;  and 
Cydonia,  by  some  esteemed  the  capital. 

The  first  inhabitants  of  Crete  were  the  Idrei  Dactyli,  who  lived  near  Mount  Ida,  and  exercised 
mechanical  arts  ;  nearly  contemporary  with  these  were  the  Cnretes,  who  directed  their  attention 
to  agriculture. — Minos,  a  descendant  of  Jupiter,  was  the  legislator  of  Crete,  and  from  his  laws 
the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  are  said  to  have  been  principally  borrowed.  The  fabulous  legends 
respecting  this  monarch,  Ins  wife  Pasiphae,and  his  daughter  Ariadne,  are  mentioned  in  another 
place  (cf.  P.  II.  D  11".  (a), and  r}  125). 

The  Cretan  Latynnth  is  generally  represented  to  have  been  near  Gnossus  ;  but  some  suppose  it  to  have  been  found  in  the  remark- 
able excavations  or  caverns  near  Gortynia,  consisting  of  several  chamben  and  galleries.  It  is  not  improbable  that  some  such  cavern 
-ear  Gnossus  gave  rise  to  the  story  of  an  artificial  labyrinth. — See  //lcWTs  Creta. — Cuckcrdl,  on  the  Cretan  Labyrinth,  in  IValpol&l 
Memoirs. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Antiquit.  art.  Labvrinthus. 


II.  OF  ASIA. 

%  149.  Asia,  the  largest  and  most  populous  of  the  divisions  of  the  globe,  is  cele- 
brated as  the  birthplace  of'the  human  race  ;  the  quarter  where  the  true  God  was  wor- 
shiped when  the  rest  of  the  world  was  sunk  in  superstitious  barbarism ;  the  scene  of 
our  Savior's  life  and  suffering0;  and  for  the  great  monarchies,  the  Assyrian,  Baby- 
lonian, and  Persian,  which  possessed  extensive  sway  (cf.  §  211)  before  the  commence- 
ment of  authentic  European  history. — From  Asia  the  first  principles  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  were  imported  into  Europe,  and  there  civilisation  had  attained  a  high  degree 
of  perfection,  before  the  western  countries  had  emerged  from  barbarism. 

§  150.  The  countries  of  Asia  may  naturally  be  considered  in  two  divisions,  the 
Eastern  and  Western ;  the  boundary  between  them  being  the  river  Rha  or  Wolga, 
the  Mare  Caspium,  and  the  mountains  extending  thence  towards  the  Sinus  Persicus. 

The  Eastern  division  includes  Scythia,  Sinartjm  Regio,  India,  Peksia,  Media, 
and  Parthia,  with  the  countries  north  of  the  mountains  called  Paropamisus. — The 
Western  includes  Sarmatia,  with  the  countries  between  the  Mare  Caspium  and  Pon- 
tus  Euxinus,  Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Mesopotamia,  with  the 
countries  in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris. 


I.       THE    COUNTRIES    OF    THE    EASTERN    DIVISION    OF    ASIA. 

§  151.  Scythia  was  the  name  applied  to  all  the  northern  and  north-eastern  part  of 
Asia.  Very  little  was  known  respecting  it.  It  was  divided  into  Scythia  intra  Imaum, 
and  Scythia  extra  Imaum,  separated  by  the  mountains  called  Itnaus,  now  Belur  Tag, 
which  unite  with  the  modern  Altai  on  the  north,  and  Himmaleh  on  the  south. — Scy- 
thia extra  Imaum  included  the  Regio  Casia  (Kashgar  in  Tartary),  and  the  Regio  Se- 
rica  (the  north-west  part  of  China) ;  in  the  latter  was  the  city  Sera,  the  thoroughfare 
of  ancient  commerce  between  eastern  and  western  Asia. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  respecting  the  real  situation  of  the  ancient  Strica. — Cf.  ITAnville,  and  Gosselin,  sur  la  Seriqoa 
des  Anciens,  in  the  Man.  Acad.  Inter,  vol.  xxxii.  p.  573,  and  xlix.  p.  713.— Class.  Journal,  vol.  vi.  p.  204.  vii.  32.— Anthon'i 
Lempriere,  article  Seres. 

The  SiNjE  occupied  the  most  eastern  portion  of  Asia  known  to  the  ancients;  sup- 
posed to  be  the  country  now  named  Cochin  China.  Their  capital  was  Thynce,  on  the 
Cotiaris,  a  branch  of  the  Senus. 

§  152.  India  included  the  territory  extending  from  the  mountains  called  in  their 
northern  part  Parueti,  on  the  west  of  the  river  Indus,  to  the  river  Serus  or  Menan, 
which  empties  into  Magnus  Sinus  (Gulf  of  Siam).  It  was  divided  by  the  ancients 
#nto  India  intra  Gangem,  and  India  extra  Gangem  :  the  boundary  between  them  be- 
ing the  Ganges,  which  discharged  into  the  Sinus  Gangeticus  (Bay  of  Bengal).  This 
country  was  but  little  known  before  the  expedition  of  Alexander.  The  southern  part 
of  India  intra  Gangem,  or  Hindostan,  was  called  Promontorium  Comaria  (cape  Como- 
rin).  Several  places  on  the  coast  were  known.  North  of  the  riv°r  Chaberis  (Cavery), 
was  the  Regio  Arcati,  the  modern  Arcot. — In  India  extra  Gangem  was  the  Aurea 
Chersonesus  (the  peninsula  of  Malaya),  its  southern  point  being  called  xdagnum  Pro- 
montorium (now  cape  Romania). 

§  153.  Persia,  in  its  more  limited  meaning,  was  the  country  lying  east  of  the  river 
Tigris,  between  Media  on  the  north  and  the  Persian  gulf  on  trie  south.   But  the  name 


44  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

is  someiimes,  and  is  here,  employed  to  comprehend  the  whole  territory  south  of  the 
Paropamisus  chain  of  mountains,  from  the  Zagros  chain  and  the  river  ligns  on  the 
Wl  3|  to  the  Parut  >i  and  Arbiti  Monies  separating  it  from  India  on  the  east.  1  nus  it 
includes  sevt  ral  provinces.  .  . 

ma  was  the  most  western  on  the  Tigris,  containing  the  cities  Elymais  and 
the  latter,  called  in  the  Bible  Shushan,  was  the  winter  residence  ot  the  Per- 
Bian  kings;  it  was  situated  upon  the  river  Choaspes,  which  flowed  from  the  Orontes 
mountains  into  the  Tigris.— Per  sis  was  directly  east  ot  Susiana,  bordering  upon  the 
Sinus  Pt  rsicus,  and  corresponding  to  Persia  in  its  limned  and  proper  sense.    Its  capi- 
tal was  /'■  rsepolis,  represented  as  a  city  of  great  splendor;   the  royal  palace  was  set 
on  lire  by  the  order  of  Alexander,  when  inflamed  with  wine  and  instigated  by  his 
3S  Thais. 
The  ruins  of  Persepolis  still  excite  admiration.     It  was  situated  on  a  beautifiil  plain  six  miles 
•  vi. le  and  100  lone  from  N.  W.  to  8.  E   which  is  now  crowded  with  numerous  villages.— Through 
tin-  flowed  the  Atoms,  now  Bendemir  or  Bend  Emir  discharging  into  Lake  Baktegian.    The 
principal  ruin  is  the  palace  called  by  the  natives  Chehul-Minar,  Ctiil-Minar,  or  Shehel-Mmar,  or 
palace  ot  forty  columns. 

ion,  »  ill.  plates,  in  Rol.  Kn  Porter't  Travels.— 0.  Kqppel,  Journey  from  India  to  England,  by  Persia,  &c  in  1824. 
327.   ;  -J.  E  Altxander,  Traveta  from  India  to  England,  through  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  &c.  in  1826.    Lond.  1827.  4.— Cf. 
|  i       Unw  Uiltory,  *c.  ciled  ^  211.  VI. 

Previously  to  the  founding  of  Persepolis,  the  royal  residence  was  at  Pasargada,  which  was  in 
Ccele-Persis,  on  the  river  Cyrus,  flowing  southerly  into  a  small  lake;  here  king  Cyrus  is  said  to 
have  erected  a  tomb  for  himself,  in  a  high  narrow  tower. 

A  monument  sldl  exists,  which  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  tomb  of  Cyrus :  it  is  represented  in  our  Plate  XVIII.  fig.  1.— Cf. 
P.  III.  5  181    I. 

The  other  provinces  were  Carmania  (Kerman),  south-east  of  Persis,  also  border- 
ing on  the  Sums  Persicus  ;  G  e  d  r  o  s  i  a  (now  Mekran),  lying  on  the  Erythrantm  Mure 
and  extending  from  Carmania  to  India ;  Arachosia  and  Drangiana,  which  in- 
clude the  whole  remaining  territory  on  the  north  and  east  between  Gedrosia  on  the 
south  and  the  Paropamisus  on  the  north. — This  latter  territory  was  watered  by  the 
Elymander,  which,  with  tributaries  from  the  mountains  on  the  north,  east,  and  south, 
I  into  the  Aria  Palus,  a  lake  or  sea  on  its  western  limits  ;  the  whole  territory  was 
often  included  under  Aria,  which  properly  belongs  to  the  contiguous  country  north  of 
the  Paropamisus. 

§  154a.  Media  was  situated  south  of  the  Mare  Caspium;  its  northern  limit  was  the  rivei 
Araxes  flowing  to  that  sea  from  Armenia;  on  the  south  were  Susiana  and  Persis.  Its 
principal  river  was  the  Mardus  or  Amardus,  rising  in  the  south-western  part,  where  the 
Orontes  chain  of  mountains  is  connected  with  the  Zagros  chain,  and  flowing  by  a  cir- 
cuitous course  into  the  Caspium  Mare  in  the  country  of  the  Mardii.  Media  was  sepa- 
rated from  Armenia  on  the  west  by  Mons  Imbarus,  a  chain  extending  from  Mt.  Ararat 
on  the  north  to  the  Zagros  on  the  south  The  capital  was  Ecbalana  (now  Hamadan), 
in  the  region  south  of  the  mountains  termed  Orontes. 

Ei  batana  was  made  the  summer  residence  of  the  Persian  monarchs,  and  afterwards  of  the 

Parthian      Two  tombs,  with  inscriptions  in  the  Hebrew  character,  are  still  shown  to  traveler! 

aa  i"  i  "  those  of  Mordecai  and  Esther.— Kaga,  or  Rages,  mentioned  in  the  apocryphal  book 

bit,  was  a  place  of  some  importance,  north-east  from  Ecbatana. 

See  RtiintU.  Geng.  of  Herod,  sect  v.  II,  as  ciled  P.  V.  §  241.  b.—Hdck,  Vet.  Med.  et  Pers.  Monumenta,  cited  P.  IV.  §  171.— Mai 

aAm.  as  ciled  $211.  VI. 

$  154  6.  The  northern  portion  of  Media,  lying  on  the  river  Araxes,  was  formed,  after 
the  death  of  Alexander,  into  an  independent  kingdom,  by  the  satrap  Atropates,  and 
thence  called  Atropatene;  having  as  its  capital  Gaza  (now  Tebriz  or  Tabreez), 
and  nexl  perhaps  in  importance  Atropatene  or  Atropatia  on  a  stream  flowing  into  the 
Mardus.  In  the  western  part  of  this  province  was  the  Lacus  Spauta  or  Marc ianus 
(lake  of  Oroomiah),  near  which  on  its  western  side  was  Thebarma  (Oroomiah),  said 
to  be  the  native  place  of  Zoroaster  or  Zerdusht. 

Tlu>  region,  now  a  part  of  Aderbijao,  and  belonging  to  Persia,  has  become  intensely  interesting,  on  account  of  the  American  mi* 

the  Mettoriui  Christians,  who  reside  in  the  plains  of  Oroomiah  and  in  the  mountains  on  the  west,  and  whose. 

PTl    Brat  mi  '  known  to  the  weslern  world  aboul  the  year  1826.— See  Smith  and  DwizM,  Researches,  &c.  as  ciled  P.  IV 

1.  xii.  p.  II.  mciiv.  p  2S9.— A.  Grant,  The  Nestorians,  or  the  Lost  tribes.    N.  York,  1841.  12.— J.  Per 

It'sidence  in  Persia,  &c.    Most.  1843.  8   wilh  colored  plates.    (See  Plate  VI  a.) 

I  fndei  Parthia  we  include  the  region  lying  at  the  souih-eastern  corner  of  the 
Caspian  Bea;  between  Media  on  ihe  south  and  the  river  Oxus  (Gihon),  which  flows  to 
the  north  into  the  sea  of  Aral,  although  it  was  once  supposed  to  flow  into  the  Caspian, 
ind  i-  so  delineated  on  sown  maps.  It  was  originally  but  a  part  of  Hyrcania,  a  pro- 
vince belonging  to  the  Persian  i  mpire.  By  Arsaces,  after  the  limeof  Alexander,  it  wag 
made  the  seal  of  a  new  state,  which  under  his  successors,  called  Arsacidm,  grew  into 
a  considerable  empire,  and  opposed  effectual  resistance  to  the  Romans  (§  211.  vin.,. 
Ore  of  its  principal  plaa  s  was  Niscea  (Mesa),  on  a  northern  branch  of  the  river  Ochu» 
Mnrgab),  which  empties  into  the  Caspian.  Hyrcania  (Corcan)  was  a  considerable  place 
hi  the  small  river  Socanda. — But  the  royal  residence  of  the  Arsacidae  was  Hecalompylos, 


PLATE  VI  a. 


This  MAr   gives  the 
modern   names  of  vil- 
lages, Sic.  in  Hie  Va  k-y  of 
.„e    ancient    THERARMA.       37 

TlieMts.  nn  the  West,  a  part  of      

the  Zagros  chain,  are  occupied 
by  Koords  or  Curds,  the  ancient 
CarJuchi  (cf  5  17U).  Supposed 
monuments  of  the  ancient  fire- 
wonlup  exist  in  the  valley  ;  cl. 
J.PcrKni,v.8,i  " 


ited  i  1 51  0. 


46  CLASSICAL    GZOGRAPHY. 

'■n  the  south-western  part;  although  the  later  Parthian  monarchs  sometimes  resided  at 

Ctesiphon  on  the  Tigris.  .  , 

The  remaining  countries,  between  Partlna  and  Scythia,  were  Ana,  Bactnana,  and 

ma  —Aria  was  cast  oi  Parthia  and   Media,  and  north  of"  the  Paropamisus,  al- 

,  ,ne  name  was  o  o  include  ($  153)  a  large  region  south  of 

twin  of  mountains.     The  principal  place  was  Artacoana  (now  Herat). — Bactri 

n  „  a  md  south  of  the  river  <  >xus  ;  its  capital  was  Zariaspa  or  Buclra 

(Ralki,  on  a  tributary  of  the  ( >xus  —  S  0  g  d  i  a  n  a  includes  the  territory  between  the 

rartesorSir;  corresponding  nearly  to  the  modern  country  Al-Sogd. 

s  Maracanda  Samarcand),  on  the  Polytimetus,  a  branch  oi  the  Oxus. 

place  founded  by  Cyrus  on  the  Jaxartes.     Various  tribes  occupied  thw 

.   in  the  north-eastern  part  were  the  Sac<s. 

II.    THE    COUNTRIES    OF   THE    WESTERN   DIVISION   OF    ASIA. 

$  156.   Beginning  on  the  northern  limits  we  notice  first  Sa  r  m  at  i  a,  called  Asiatics 

tinguish  it  from  the  country  of  the  same  name  in  Europe,  from  which  it  was  sepa- 

ranais.  Its  boundary  on  the  south  was  the  Caucasus.   It  was  inhabited 

by  roving  and  uncivilized  tribes;  particularly  the  Alani,  and  the  Cimmerii:  from  the 

latter,  the  strait  connecting  the  Talus  Moeotis  with  the  Euxine  received  its  name  of 

Bospliorus  Cimmericus. — South  of  Sarmatia,  and  between  the  Pontus  Euxinus  on  the 

west,  and  the  Mare  Caspium  or  Hyrcanium  on  the  east,  were  the  three  countries,  Col- 

•his.  Iberia,  and  Albania.     Colchis  was  on  the  Euxine  ;  one  of  its  chief  places  was 

river  Ptosis  (Faz-Reone).— A  I  bania  was  on  the  Caspian,  extending  south 

i<  far  as  the  river  Cyrus  (or  Km).     An  important  place  was  one  of  the  two  celebrated 

-  of  the  Caucasus,  called  Pylee  Albania  or  Caucasia,  between  a  northern  spur  of 

the  Caucasus  and  the  Caspian,  "as  is  generally  supposed  ;  afterwards  the  strong  ctty 

of  Derbend.— I  b  e  r  i  a  was  between  Colchis  and  Albania,  a  high  valley,  watered  by 

the  Cyrus  and  its  numerous  tributaries.     The  other  celebrated  pass  of  the  Cjacasua 

led  from  this  valley  over  into  the  declivity  of  the  Euxine;  it  was  the  detilejp-ou^ 

which  the  river  Aragus  (Arakui)    flows  into  the  Cyrus;   it  is  now  called  JWritl.— 

3es,  and  others  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  are  sometimes  termed 

Pyla  Caspia  ;  but  the  pass  properly  so  termed,  is  supposed  to  be  the  modern  pass 

ot  Gurdock,  about  90  miles  from  Teheran. 

On  thwe  passes,  cr.  IValckenar,  de  Portes  Caspiennes,  Caucasiennes,  et  Albaniennes,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnstitut,  Classe  d'Hist. 
t!  /.it  .inc.  vol.  vii.  p.  210,  with  a  map.— SiSL  Repository,  No.  xxii.  p.  370. 

<*  157.  Armenia  was  immediately  south  of  Colchis  and  Iberia,  extending  to  mount 
Mas  ins  and  the  Carduchi  Monies  on  the  south,  and  from  Media  on  the  east  to  the 
northern  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  which  separated  it  from  Asia  Minor.     It  presents 
three   great  valleys,  extending  nearly  east   and  west;   first,  that  on  the  north-east, 
wati  red  by  the  Araxes,  also  called  Phasis  (now  Aras),  flowing  to  the  Caspian;  second, 
rial,  separated  from  the  first  by  the  chain  of  mountains  in  which  is  the  summit 
called  Ararat,  and  watered  by  the  southern  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  which  rises  in 
tstern  part  and  flows  westerly,  containing  also  the  lake  called  Arsissa  Pains  ; 
third,  the  south-western,  smaller,  separated  from  the  central  by  the  Niphates  Monies, 
and  watered  by  the  Tigris,  which  rises  in  its  western  part  and  flows  through  it  in  an 
te  of  the  principal  places  were  Artaxata,  on  the  Araxes,  the  an- 
cient capital  :   Arza  (Erze  Roum),  near  the  sources  of  the  northern  branch  of  the  Eu- 
phrates;    Imida,  on  the  Tigris  near  its  source;  and  Tigrauocerla,  taken  by  Lucullus 
tlithridatic  war,  and  plundered  of  vast  riches. 

The  lummil  called  Ararat  is  commonly  supposed  tn  be  that  on  which  Noah's  ark  rested;  this  is  said  to  have  been  ascended,  for  the 
i  ,  by  Prof.  Parrot,  Id  1829.    See  Bill.  Repos.  No.  xxii.  p.  390. 

Minor  is  a  term  not  used   by  classical   authors,  but  invented   in  the 
middle  ages.     In  general,  the  Roman  writers  confined  the  term  Asia  to  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  rropontis  and  JEgean,  and  divided  it   into  Asia  intra  Taurum  and 
i  ■  a  'l'a  a  rum.     The  large  peninsula  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  Asia  Mi- 

nor, included  a  great  number  of  petty  states,  whose  boundaries  varied  at  different 
feriods. — The  northern  provinces  of  \--ia  Minor,  beginning  at  the  iEtrean  sea,  were 
'hr\  I     i  i.   Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  and  Pontus. — The  middle  provinces 

Lydia,  Pnryeia  Major,  Galatia,  Lycaonia  and  Isauria,  Cappadocia, and  Armenia 
Minor.  -The  southern  provinces  wi  re  Caria,  Lycia,  Pisidia,  and  Pamphylia, 

■suO,  Qeofraphy  of  Wetl  1831.  S  vole  8. 

dmor.  orTroas,  is  celebrated   for  tin1  Trojan  plains  at  the  en- 
trance ot  the  Hellespont,   The  lapse  of  ages  has  produced  such  changes,  that  modern 
I  about  the  situation  of  the  city  of  Troy,  called  also  Ilium. 

(Hum  ivai  liuflt  al  lome  riiatai from  the  sea,  aimve  the  J  ti  net  inn  of  tin;  Seamavder,  or  Xan- 

'hui,  and  8tmoU,  two  - II  itreama,  rising  from  mnunl  Ida,  and  falling  into  the  Hellespont;  the 

Otadfll  was  ral'«td  Per/ramus,  mill  was  erected  on  a  little  hill  included  within  the  walls.     The 


P.I.  ASIA.       WESTERN    DIVISION.       ASIA    MINOR.  47 

plain  between  the  city  and  the  sea  was  intersected  by  the  rivers  Scamander  and  Siimis,  and 
there  the  battle?  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  were  fought.  At  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  plain  was 
the  mount  Ida,  the  summit  of  which  was  called  Garffarus;  the  west  was  bounded  by  the  Helles- 
pont,  which  here  forms  an  extensive  bay,  between  the  promontory  of  Rhmteum  on  the  north,  ana 
Sigeum  on  the  south.  Here  lay  the  Grecian  fleet,  and  at  a  little  distance  on  tin  shore  was  the 
camp.  Ajax  was  buried  on  the  Rhanean  and  Achilles  on  the  Sigean  promontory. 
See  P.  II.  §  132,  and  P.  V.  §  50.— Renndl,  and  others,  on  (lie  Topography  of  Troy,  as  cited  P.  V.  §  50.  7. 

My  si  a,  divided  into  Minor  and  Major,  extended  from  the  Hellespont  to  Bithynia. 
The  principal  towns  of  the  former  were,  Abydos  (§  73);  and  Lampsacus,  dedicated  lo 
Priapus,  celebrated  for  its  wealth  and  luxury. — The  principal  city  in  Mysia  Major 
was  Cyzicus,  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same  name  in  the  Propontis,  and  joined  by 
two  bridges  to  the  continent ;  celebrated  for  the  gallant  resistance  it  made  when  be- 
sieged by  Miihridates ;  near  this  is  the  river  Granicus,  where  Alexander  defeated 
the  army  of  Darius,  and  where  Lucullus  obtained  an  equally  important  victory  over 
Mithridates. 

§160.  Bithynia,  at  first  called  Bebrycia,  lay  between  the  Thracian  Bosphorus 
and  the  river  Parthenias.  Its  chief  towns  were,  Apamea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Rhyndacus;  Nicomedia,  on  a  gulf  of  the  same  name  ;  Ckalcedon  (Kadi  Keui,  or  Cadi's 
village),  called  the  City  of  the  Blind,  because  its  founders  neglecied  the  more  eligible 
site  Byzantium,  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  Bosphorus;  Chrysopolis  (Scutari,  directly 
opposite  to  Constantinople),  where  the  Athenians  stationed  a  fleet  imposing  tribute  on 
all  vessels  from  the  rjuxine  ;  Libyssa,  where  Hanniba'  was  buried;  Calpas  and  Hera- 
clea,  on  the  Euxine ;  Nica:a  (Nice),  where  the  first  general  council  was  assembled; 
and  Prusa,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olympus,  where  Hannibal  for  a  short  .time  found 
refuge  with  king  Prusias. 

Prusa  attained  great  importance  under  the  name  of  Bursa,  when  Othntan,  founder  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  made  it  his  capital.  It 
continued  to  he  the  chief  resideuce  of  the  Sultans  until  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453.  It  still  retains,  in  the  modern  Broosa, 
an  important  rank  among  the  cities  of  Asiatic  Turkey      (See  Plate,  VI  b.) 

Paphlagonia,  lay  between  the  rivers  Parthenias  and  Halys.  The  chief  towns 
were  Sinope  (Sinube),  the  birthplace  of  Diogenes,  and  capital  of  the  kingdom  o' 
Mithridates;  and  Carambis  (Karempi),  near  a  promontory  of  the  same  name,  opposite 
the  Criu-Metopon,  a  cape  in  the  Tauric  Chersonese. 

Pnntus,  the  kingdom  of  the  celebrated  Mithridates,  extended  from  the  river  Halys 
to  Colchis.  The  principal  towns  were  Amisus,  near  the  Halys;  Eupatoria,  on  the 
confluence  of  the  Iris  and  Lycus,  named  by  Pompey  Megalopolis  ;  Amaaitt,  the  birth- 
place of  the  geographer  Strabo ;  Themiscyra,  on  the  river  Thermodon,  where  the 
Amazons  are  supposed  to  have  resided  ;  Cerasus,  whence  Lucullus  brought  the  first 
cherry-trees  that  were  seen  in  Europe  ;  and  T/apezus  (Trebisond),  on  the  borders  of 
Colchis,  greatly  celebrated  by  the  romance-writers  of  the  middle  ages.  Near  the  river 
Halys  the  Leleges  and  Chalybes,  famous  for  their  skill  in  iron- works,  resided. 

The  Christian  scholar  will  feel  a  peculiar  interest  respecting  Pontus  and  Bithynia,  from  the  circumstance  that  here  occurred  those 
bitter  persecutions  of  the  early  converts  to  Christianity  which  are  noticed  in  the  letters  of  Pliny  the  younger,  governor  of  these  pio- 
vinces  under  the  Emperor  Trajan.     See  P.  V.  §  441.  1. 

§  161.  Lydia,  called  also  Maeonia,  lay  to  the  south  of  Phrygia  Minor  and  Mysia,  and 
to  the  east  of  the  JEgean  sea.  The  northern  part  of  the  coast  was  called  iEolia,  and  the 
southern  Ionia,  from  the  number  of  Greek  colonies  which  settled  there. — iEonA  was 
colonized  by  the  iEolians,  soon  after  the  termination  of  the  Trojan  war ;  its  chief 
towns  were  Adramyttium,  founded  by  an  Athenian  colony;  Pergamus  (Bergamo),  the 
capital  of  a  small  territory,  greatly  enlarged  by  the  Romans  after  the  defeat  of  Milhri 
dales,  and  bequeathed  to  them  by  Attalus  its  last  king;  its  port  was  called  Elea;  be- 
tween Elea  and  Adramyttium  was  Lymessus  ;  south-west  from  Pergamus,  Thya- 
lira  :  and  Cana,  a  town  built  on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name,  near  which  are  the 
iEginusan  islands,  where  Conon,  the  Athenian  admiral,  completely  defeated  the 
Spartans. — Ionia  contained  several  remarkable  cities,  of  which  ihe  principal  were 
Smyrna,  on  the  river  Meles,  near  which  Homer  is  said  to  have  been  born  ;  a  cave 
here  used  to  be  shown  to  travelers  as  his  birthplace,  and  another  as  the  spot  where 
he  wrote  his  poems  (cf.  P.  V.  §  50) ;  north  and  east  of  Smyrna  was  Mt.  Sipylus,  the 
residence  of  Niobe  (cf.  P.  II.  $  131);  Clazomenae,  on  a  peninsula  of  the  same  name, 
celebrated  for  its  wealth  ;  Erythra.  near  mount  Mimas,  the  residence  of  one  of  the 
Sybils  ;  Corycus,  near  which  the  fleet  of  Antiochus  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  ; 
Teas,  the  birthplace  of  Anacreon. — South  of  the  peninsula  of  Clazomenae,  were  Colo 
phon,  on  the  river  Halesus,  celebrated  for  the  grove  of  Claros,  sacred  to  Apollo, 
Ephesus,  on  the  river  Cayster,  the  most  splendid  of  the  Asiatic  cities,  now  degene- 
rated into  a  paltry  village,  remarkable  for  the  splendid  temple  of  Diana;  Mycale, 
opposite  Samos,  where  the  Persian  fleet  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Greeks;  Priene, 
on  the  Mcpander,  a  river  noted  for  its  winding  course  ;  and  Miletus,  the  birthplace  or 
Thales. — In  the  interior  of  Lydia  was  Sardis,  the  capital,  situate  at  the  fool  of  mount 
Tmolus,  on  the  river  Pactolus,  a  branch  of  the  Hermus.  Not  far  east  from  Sardis 
was  Thymbra,  celebrated  for  the  victory  there  gained  by  Cyrus  over  Croesus.     On 


48  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  BermUH  was  Magnesia,  where  Aniiochus,  king  of  Syria,  was  overthrown  by  the 
Romans.  .  .  ,. 

Witti,  lb.  Umi,.  which  ~  have  above  ?ive„  !o  Lydta,  were  .,1  of  the  »  ctarrte,  «tari«  «*  ^W™  {  «  '»  ««• 
0rJ„  .„  .bid.  lb.  .po.ll.  John  introduce,  -hen.-K,,!,. ,»,  Smyn.  i,  Pergunu.,  Thyatira,  Sard*,  and  Philadelphia  |  .he  other,  Lao 
|je-i„  ,     ,r_Srt  .„,/„„.  H  i  18»2.  S.-.*™mWl,Vls,.  to  .h.  Seven  Uurche. 

of  Asia.     L  '         I  the  ruins  of  Sard  is,  cf.  Mitt.  Herald,  for  IS39,  p.  208. 

cj  ],  •    e  sl  0f  Lydia  was  Phrygia  Major,  extending  from  the  river  Lycus  on  the 

to  the  Sanearius  on  the  north.     Its  chiei  towns  were  Pessinus,  near  the  foot 

ol    noun)  Vindyiius.  sacred  to  Cybele,  the  mother  of  the  gods,  whose  image  was 

.    to  Rome  al  the  end  of  the  second  Punic  war  (P.  II.  $  21) ;  Gordvum, 

for  the  Gordian  knot  cut  through  by  Alexander ;  Apamea,  on  the  river 

Apollo  flayed  alive  his  musical  competitor  Marsyas;  Laodicea,_ ce-le- 

story,  on  the  river  Lycus;  and  CoUssa. Galatia,  or  Gallo- 

,    lay  north  of  Phrygia,  of  which  it  originally  formed  a  part.      1  he  chiei  towns 

a),  where  Bajazel  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Tamer- 

,  jidenceoi  king  Deiotarus,  a  great  triend  of  Cicero  ;  and  Tavium, 

Trocmi. South-east  of  Phrygia  were  Isauria  and  Lycaonia. 

The  principal  towns  of  the  former  were  Isaurcs,  the  capital;  Lystra  and  Derhe,  men- 
I   in  the  Aets  of  the  Apostles  (xiv.  6).     The  principal  town  of  the   latter  was 
Iconium.     Both  of  these  provinces  were  intersected  by  the  chain  of  Mount  Taurus. 

§  163.  C  a  p  p  a  d  oc  i  a  lay  between  the  Halys  and  the  Euphrates-  Its  most  remark- 
able towns  were  Comana,  celebrated  for  a  temple  of  Bellona,  plundered  by  Antony; 
t,  the  birthplace  of  the  impostor  Apollonius  (cf.  P.  V.  %  255  b) ;  and  Mazaea, 
nun.  .1  by  Tiberius,  Casarea  ad  Argaium,  to  denote  its  situation  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Argaus,  from  whose  summit,  as  ancient  writers  assert,  the  Euxine  and  the  Mediter- 
in  might  both  be  seen.— The  north-eastern  pari  of  Cappadocia  was  known  by  the 
name  of  Lesser  Armenia,  and  contained  Cabira  or  Sebaste,  a  well  fortified  city  captured 
by  Pompey;  th<  Btrong  fortress  Novas,  where  Mithridates  kept  his  treasure ;  and  M- 
topolis,  built  by  Pompey,  to  commemorate  his  victory  over  Mithridates. 

The  Greeks  described  the  Cappadocians  as  the  worst  of  the  three  bad  Kappas,  or  nations  whose 
names  began  with  that  letter  ;  the  other  two  were  the  Cretans  and  Cilicians. 

'■  164.  The  south-western  province  of  Asia  Minor  was  C  aria.  Its  chief  towns  were 
Halicarnassus,  the  capital,  celebrated  for  having  given  birth  to  the  historians  Dionysius 
and  Herodotus,  and  for  the  Mausoleum,  a  splendid  monument,  one  of  the  seven  won- 
ders of  the  world,  erected  by  Artemisia,  queen  of  C'aria,  to  the  memory  of  her  hus- 
Mausolus;  Cnidus,  in  the  peninsula  of  Doris,  sacred  to  Venus;  Alabanda,  on 
the  Vlrjeander;  and  Stratanicea,  on  thosouthern  coast. 

Lycia  lay  to  the  east  of  Caria.     Its  chief  towns  were  Tdmessus,  on  a  gulf  of  the 
li  d  also  Sinus  Glaucus,  from  the  river  Glaucus flowing  into  it  ;  Xanth.ua, 
rated  for  its  obstinate  resistance  to  Brutus,  the  inhabitants  having  destroyed  them- 
selves by  fire  to  avoid  surrendering  ;  and  Patara,  sacred  to  Apollo. — Near  the  gulf  of 
Telmessus  ran  the  chain  of  Mount  Cragus,  sacred  to  Diana;  in  this  chain  was  the 
ino  Chinuera,  fabled  by  the  poets  to  have  been  a  monster  subdued  by  Bellerophon 
(ci    P.  II.  (>  117).     Some  hills  at  the  Promontorium  Sacrum  were  usually  esteemed  the 
commencement  of  Mount  Taurus,  and  a  little  beyond  it  is  a  part  of  the  same  ridge 
adjoining  the  sea,  round  which  Alexander's  army  were  compelled  to  march  up  to  their 
middle  in  water. 

See  Fclhwtt,  Account  of  Discoveriei  in  Lycia.— Cf.  Jtmer.  Eclectic,  Jan.  1841. 

%  165.  ,\'e\t  to  Lycia  were  P  i  s  i  d  i  a  and  P  a  m  ph  ylia,  two  mountainous  districts, 
whoso  boundaries  are  indeterminate.  The  chief  towns  of  Pisidia  were  Ant  lochia; 
nessus,  the  capital  of  the  Solymi,  a  people  mentioned  by  Homer;  and  Cremna,  a 
Roman  colony.  The  principal  towns  in  Pamphylia  were Perga,  the  capital ;  Aspendus 
on  the  river  Eurymedon,  near  which  Cimon  defeated  the  Persian  fleet ;  and  Cor  aces  ium, 
where  Pompey  destroyed  the  nesi  of  pirates  who  had  so  long  infested  these  seas. 

!  i  lay  to  the  east  of  Pamphylia,  and  south  of  Isauria,  and  was  divided  into 
two  portions,  the  western  called  Tracheitis  or  rough,  and  the  other  Campestris  or 
level. — The  chief  towns  of  Trachentis  w<  re  Si  linns,  where  the  emperor  Trajan  died; 

niiriiim.  opposite  Cyprus;  and  Seleucia  (Seletkeh),  on  the  river  Calycadnus. — In 
Cilicia  Campestris  were  Soli,  a  colony  ol  the  Athenians;  Tarsus,  said  to  have  received 
its  name  | mm  one  of  the  wings  of  the  horse  Pi  gasus  being  dropped  there ;  the  birth- 
placi  oi  the  Apostle  Paul  ;   Jssus,  where  Alexander  obtained  his  second  triumph  over 

the  Persians:  and  Alexandria  (Scander t),  erected  by  the  conqueror  to  perpetuate 

the  iin  mory  oi  hie  victory. — <  >n  the  confines  of  Syria  was  the  mountain  Amanus,  be- 
tween  which  and  the  Bea  were  Pyla  Syria,  a  celebrated  puss. --The  river  Cydnus  is 

irkable  for  the  coldness  of  its  waters,  by  «  Inch  \  lexander  was  almost  killed,  ana 
!or  the  splendid  festivities  celebrated  on  its  hanks  when  Antony  visited  Cleopatra. 

166.  Sybia  was  bounded  on  the  nortb  by  Mount  Amanus;  on  the  east  by  the 
Fluohraies;  on  '.he  south  by  Arabia;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean.     It  was 


50  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

divided  inn.  five  provinces,  Comagene,  Seleucis,  Ccelo-Syrin,  Phoenicia,  and  Judea, 

"r  Pali  ~  !     i^     i  u    «_■  .i    i 

The  principal  city  oi  Comagene  was  Samosata,  on  the  Euphrates,  the  birthplace 

of  Lucian.— In  Seleucis,  or  Syria  Propria   were  Hierapolis,  the  city  of  the  Syrian 

„,„!,;.  p.I]  on  the  Euphrates ;   Beraa,  previously  Chalybon  (now 

I  lhalcis,  flowing  into  a  small  lake  ;  Antiockia,  where  Christians  hrst 

ir  Dame,  <>n  the  river  Orontes;  near  it  Daphne,  with  its  delightiul  grove 

|    .   .    .  rher  up  the  l  (rontes,  which  rising  in  the  ele- 

thi    eastern  side  ol    Libanus,  flows  by  a  north-west  course  to  the 

still  further  up,  I  city  oi  Heliogabalus,  the  worst  of  the 

Roman  i  mperors;  and  "on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Orontes,"  near  the  limits  ot  this 

province,  Heliopolis  (Balbec),  sacred  to  the  Sun.  whose  magnificent  ruins  still  attract 

admiration. 

,',   '  imon'i  Researches,  Balbec  appears  lo  he  on  the  Leonles.— "  Among  the  cities  whiclv 

>rc  a,    ,  ,    in  the  geography  of  Syria,  we  may  distinguish  Emesa  or  Hems,  and  Heliopolis  or  Bat 

Creora,  they  were  strong  and  populous;  the  turrets  glittered  from  afar;  an  ample  space  was  covered 

-  ;  lines  ;  and  the  citizens  were  illustrious  by  their  spirit,  or  at  least  by  their  pride  ;  by  their  riches,  or  at 

heir  luxury.    Iclhedayai  .<   addicted  to  the  worship  of  Baa!,  or  the  sun  ;  but 

itijn  and  splendor  has  I  ten  marked  by  a  singular  variety  of  fortune.     Not  a  vestige  remains  of  the  temple 

1 1 led  in  poetic  style  lo  the  summits  of  mount  Libanus;  while  the  ruins  of  Balbec,  invisible  to  the  writers 

e  the  curiosity  and  » ler  of  the  European  traveler.     The  measure  of  the  temple  is  two  hundred  feet  in  length, 

111 :  the  front  is  adorned  with  a  double  purlieu  of  eight  columns  ;  fourteen  may  be  counted  on  either  side  ; 
■..  forty-five  feet  in  height,  is  composed  of  three  massy  blocks  of  marble.     The  proportions  and  ornaments  of  the 
Corinthian  order  exptren  the  archiieclure  of  the  Greeks."— See  the  view  given  in-Plate  VII.— It.  Wood,  Ruins  of  Balbec.     Lond. 
1767.  t  l.-C.  II.  Elliott,  Travels  in  Austria,  Russia, and  Turkey.     Lot  d.  1898.  2  vols.  8. 

Ccelo-Syria  was  so  named   because  it   lay  between  the  two  parallel  chains  of 

mountains,  Libanus  and  Anti- Libanus ;  and  the  name  is  sometimes  applied  so  as  to 

.   valley  of  the  I  Irontes,  and   also   the  whole  valley  of  the  Leontes,  which 

rises  stern  BOurces  of  the  Orontes,  and  Hows  by  a  south-western  course 

to  the  Mediterranean.     Bui  ii  is  limited,  in  our  division,  to  the  upper  part  of  the  latter 

mount  III  niimi .  thi    principal  peak  of  Anti-Libanus ;  including  also 

another  valley  on  the  easl  (now  railed  Gouteh  Demesk,  or  Orchard  of  Damascus), 

watered  by  the  rivers  Chrysorrhoas  (Pharphar)  and  Abanu,  flowing  into  a  large  lake 

In  low  Damascus,  winch  was  the  chief  town  of  the  province. — The  territory  east  and 

north-east  of  these  valleys  as  far  as  the  Euphrates,  is  mentioned  in  connection  both 

with  Seleucis  and  with  Ccelo-Syria  5  but  more  commonly  under  the  general  name  of 

ces  in  it.  on- the   Euphrates,   should   be   mentioned;    as  Tkapsacus 

d  ford,  passed  by  Cyrus  in  his  expedition  against  Artaxer.xes, 

by  Darius  alter  his  defeat  by  Alexander  at  Issus,  and  by  Alexander  in  pursuit  of  Da- 

and  Orouros  (Gorur),  fixed  by  Pompey  as  the  boundary  of  the  Roman  empire 

he  reduced  Syria  to  a  province  :  but  the  chief  place  in  this  extensive  region  was 

Palmyra,  or  "  Tadmor  in  the  d<  Bert,"  said  to  have  been  built  by  Solomon,  the  resif* 

I    P.  V.  §  124),  and  of  Zenobia,  who  so  bravely  defied  the  em- 

pern'  ii  i-  j  i 'i  marked  by  celebrated  architectural  ruins. 

t  Palmyra,  see  R.  Wood,  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  243.  3.— The  Modern  Traveller.— My  and  Mangles.  Travels  in  Egypt, 

P  h 'i'  n  icia  contained  the  cities  of  Tyrus  (Tyre)  and  Sidon,  famous  for  their  exten- 

:ommerce.     The  siege  of  Tyre  by  Alexander  is  celebrated  for  the  obstinate 

le  by  the  besieged,  and  the  unconquerable  perseverance  of  the  besiegers. 

north  of  Sidon,  was  the  seat  of  a  distinguished  school  for  the  study 

oi  law  :  ii  Justinian. 

Brim*  has  been  for  several  years  a  very  interesting  missionary  station.     In  its  vicinity,  on  mount  Lebanon,  dwell  the  Maronite 
i  in.— See  Jbwttt't  Researches. — Wait  nary  Herald,  fr the  year  1S23,  passim.— Bond's  Memoir  of  Winy  Fish. 

.1  it  da- a.  or  Pa  Isesl  i  n  a,  is  called  in  Scripture  the  land  of  Canaan,  of  Israel, 

ifJudah.     Ii  was  at  first  divided  among  the  twelve  tribes;   it   was  afterwards 

separated  into  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  andJudah;  ami  finally  the  Romans  divided  it 

into  four  regions,  GaliTa  a,  Samaria,  Judaea  Propria,  and  Peraea  or  Transfluviana,  the 

country  beyond  Jordan. 

lilaea  was  again  subdivided  into  Inferior,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Jews;  and  Su- 

ir   which,  from  its  proximity  to  Ccelo-Syria,  was  called  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles.— 

chiel  towns  of  Upper  Galilee  were  Cmsarea  Philippi,  so  called  to  distinguish  it 

from  another  town  of  the  same  name  in  this  province ;  its  original  name  was  Laish, 

i   to   Pan  iall]  called  Csesarea  Philippi,  by  Herod's  son 

I*'"1-  id  Jot  opal  a,  bravely  defended  by  the  historian  Josephus,  when  be- 

.  ■  Bpaaian.     'I  hi    principal  cities  in  Lower  Galilee  were  Ace,  or  Ptolemai* 

■   forks    i ■  I  v  Richard  Coeurde  Lion  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades; 

Conte ;  Sepphoris,  afterwards  called    Dio  Csesarea;  Nazareth  and  Jezreel. — A  large 
lake  in  Galilee  was  called   the   Sea  of  Tiberias  or  Gennesareth ;  at  its  northern  ex 

iremity  was  C/io-o  in;  at  tl ide  were  Capernaum,  Tiberias,  and  Bethsaida; 

hi  the  opposite  side  was  Gadara. — The  chief  mountains  of  Galilee  were  Caimel  and 


P.  1.  ASIA.       WESTE  IN    DIVISION.       JUDAEA.  51 

Uabyrms  or  Tabor,  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  transfiguration. — Between  Galilee  and 
Samaria  stood  Bethsan,  the  ch'pf'  of  the  ten  confederate  cities  called  Decapolis,  which, 
dreading  the  power  of  the  .!  '3,  entered  into  a  confederacy  against  the  Asmonean 
princes,  who  then  governed  j     iea. 

§  168  a.  Samaria  lay  south  of  Galilee.  Its  chief  towns  were  Samaria,  the  capital, 
destroyed  by  the  Asmonean  princes,  but.  rebuilt  by  Heroi,  who  called  it  Sebaste,  in 
honor  of  Augustus;  Cmsarea,  first  called  Ttirris  Stralo7iices,  a  celebrated  seaport,  the 
residence  of  the  Roman  governors ;  Joppa,  a  seaport  south  of  Caesarea,  where  An- 
dromeda was  delivered  from  a  sea-monster  by  Perseus  (P.  II.  §  122);  Sichem,  in  the 
interior,  the  ancient  capital,  between  the  mountains  Ebal  and  Gerizim;  it  was  in  later 
times  called  Neapolis  ;  Lydda,  called  by  the  Greeks  Diospolis;  and  Arimathea. 

Judaea  was  situated  south  of  Samaria,  between  the  Lake  Asphaltites,  or  Dead 
Sea,  and  the  Mediterranean. — The  capital  was  Hierosolyma  (Jerusalem),  which -we  ^ 
shall  notice  particularly  in  the  next  section.  North-west  from  Jerusalem  was  Em- 
maris  or  Nicopolis,  where  the  Jews  were  defeated  by  Vespasian;  directly  north  was 
Bethel;  north-east  was  Jericho;  south  from  Jerusalem  was  Bethlehem,  the  birthplace 
of  Christ;  further  south,  Hebron,  where  Abraham  was  buried;  still  further,  some- 
what to  the  west,  Beersheba,  often  mentioned  as  the  southern  limit  of  the  country  of 
Israel ;  south-west,  Eleutheropolis,  a  very  flourishing  city  in  the  time  of  Eusebius. 

$  168  b.  Hierosolyma,  or  Jerusalem,  originally  belonged  to  the  Jebusites,  from  whom  it  wai 
taken  by  David,  who  made  it  his  residence.  The  Arabians  now  call  it  El-Kuds,  the  Holy. — It  is 
situated  on  a  broad  elevation,  having  higher  hills  all  around  it ;  the  Mount  of  Olives  on  the  east ; 
on  the  north  a  ridge  extending  from  the  Mt.  of  Olives  and  bending  around  to  the  west,  at  the 
distance  of  more  than  a  mile  :  on  the  west,  hills  at  a  greater  distance  sloping  gently,  beyond  a 
ain  ;  on  the  south,  the  Hill  of  Evil  Counsel  rising  directly  on  the  further  side  of  the  Valley  of 
Hinnom. 

It  is  surrounded  by  walls  presenting  a  stately  appearance,  of  hewn  stone,  with  towers  and 
battlements,  of  a  height  varying  according  to  the  inequalities  in  the  ground,  from  twenty  to  fifty 
feet;  in  circumference  about  two  and  a  half  geographical  miles.  The  ancient  icalts  formed  a 
larger  circuit  of  about  three  and  a  half  geographical  miles  accordingto  Josephus  ;  and  Jerusalem 
is  said  to  have  been  anciently  fortified  by  three  walls  ;  but  this  statement  must  not  be  understood  to 
mean  that  there  were  three  walls  around  the  whole  city,  one  within  another;  since  the  two 
inner  walls  were  merely  walls  intersecting  the  city  and  joining  the  outer  wall ;  the  hill  of  Zion 
was  first  of  all  enclosed  within  a  wall:  then  Moriah,  with  Ophel,  was  added,  and  afterwards 
Akra,  and  a  second  wall  was  extended  from  the  old  one  so  as  to  include  these  ;  subsequently 
Bezetha  was  annexed,  and  to  protect  this  a  third  wall  was  constructed  joining  the  others. 

Of  the  eight  former  gates,  only  the  four  larger  are  now  open  :  the  Gale  of  the  nilar,  or  Da- 
mascus Gafe,  on  the  north  ;  the  Gate  of  the  Pilgrims,  or  Bethlehem  Gate,  on  the  west ;  the  Gate 
vf  David,  or  Zion  Gate,  on  the  south;  and  the  Gate  of  the  Tribes,  or  St.  Stephen's  Gate,  on  the 
last.     The  principal  streets  now  run  nearly  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

The  surface  of  the  ground  is  diversified  by  five  hills  :  the  largest  is  Zion,  in  the  southern  part, 
rising  abruptly  from  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  ;  north  of  this  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  city  is 
Jlkra,  separated  from  Zion  by  the  valley  of  the  Tyropoeon  ;  north-east  from  Akra  and  east  of  the 
Damascus  Gate  is  Beiet.ha,  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  city  ;  south-east  from  this  and  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  city  is  Moriah,  which,  with  Bezetha,  rises  from  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  ; 
Booth  of  Moriah,  and  at  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  city,  is  Ophel:  Bezetha,  Moriah,  and 
Ophel  may  he  considered  as  parts  of  one  ridge  which  extends  to  the  south  beyond  the  walls. 

These  hills  are  closely  encompassed  on  three  sides  by  narrow  valleys  ;  on  the  east  the  Valley  of 
Jehoshaphat  ;  on  the  west,  the  Valley  of  Gihon,  which  is  continued  Into  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  on 
the  smith  :  at  some  distance  from  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  city,  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat 
and  that  of  Hinnom  are  connected.  The  Brook  h'iilron  is  but  the  bed  of  a  torrent  which  during 
the  rains  of  winter  flows  through  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  to  the  south.  The  valley  in  which 
was  the  bed  of  the  ancient  Tyropmon  commences  in  the  depression  between  Zion  and  Akra  (near 
the  western  or  Hebron  or  Bethlehem  gate),  and  descending  easterly  bends  to  the  south  between 
Zion  and  Ophel,  and  meets  with  the  other  two  valleys  at  their  common  point  of  junction. 

The  hill  Zion  was  the  part  first  occupied  by  David,  and  hence  called  "the  city  of  David." 
Only  the  northern  part  of  it  is  now  within  the  walls  ;  much  of  the  rest  is  literally  "a  ploughed 
field;"  on  the  north-western  partis  the  present  citadel,  the  lower  portionsof  the  walls  ofwhicll 
are  probably  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Tower  of  Hippie  us. — On  the  summit  of  Akra  is  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  on  the  spot  designated  by  doubtful  tradition  as  being  the  Golgotha  and 
the  Calvary  of  the  Scriptures.— Bezetha  is  mostly  covered  with  low  buildings  or  hovels,  with  no 
obvious  traces  of  ancient  ruins. — On  Moriah,  which  at  the  first  was  apparently  a  mound  of  solid 
rock,  the  Temple  of  Solomon  was  built ;  the  surface  of  the  rock  being  leveled  for  the  purpose  ; 
and  then  immense  walls  were  erected  from  the  base  of  the  rock  on  the  four  sides,  and  the 
interval  between  filled  in  with  earth  or  built  up  with  vaults  so  as  to  make  on  the  top  a  large 
area,  which  formed  the  Court  of  the  Temple.  To  this  the  present  area  of  the  grand  Mosque  of 
Omar,  or  enclosure  called  "  EI-Haram-esh-Sherif,"  nearly  if  not  wholly  corresponds ;  being  a 
plateau  or  terrace  neatly  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  supported  by  and  within  massive  walls 
built  up  from  the  lower  ground  on  all  sides;  the  lower  portions  of  the  walls  are  probably  the 
very  walls  on  which  the  ancient  Temple  rested ;  as  seems  to  be  shown  by  some  remains  of  an 
immense  arch  which  supported  the  Bridge  that  formerly  extended  from  the  Temple  across  the 
Tyropoe  >n  to  a  celebrated  Xystus  or  portico  on  Mount  Zion. — In  the  northern  part  of  the  present 
area  of  the  Mosque  of  Omar  was  the  fortress  called  the  Tower  of  Antonia,  rendered  memorable 
in  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  who  captured  the  city,  A.  D.  70;  at  which  time  the  TempUj 
was  utterly  destroyed  by  fire.  The  Mosque  now  on  its  site  was  built  by  Omar  in  the  seven^ 
tentury. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  depended  for  water,  as  do  the  modern,  chiefly  on  cisterns  ;  almost 
every  house  having  now  one  or  more  excavated  in  the  limestone  rock  on  which  the  city  stands. 
Immense  cisterns  also  still  exist  within  the  space  under  the  area  of  ^e  Temple.    Large  oper 


52  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

,<■-  r\  niri  or  tanks,  or  pools,  were  likewise  constructed  in  and  around  the  city.     The  Upper  Poo, 

an,l  ,,  .  |  still  exist ;  the  former  west  of  the  city,  in  the  Valley  of  Gihon  ;  the  latter, 

„„  ,,,.  in  the  Valley  of  Hinnom.    The  Pool  of  Bathsheba,  the  Pool  of  ttezekiah,  and 

tlll.  ;  .  are  names  given  to  three  reservoirs  within  the  present  walls :  the  latter  is 

al  ,|,,  of  the  Haram-esb-Sherff;  bul  there  is  no  evidence  thai  it  is  the  pool 

„„.„,  \,  „  Testament  by  the  same  name  {Bndeoda),  having  five  porches.— The  only 

n  ater  m  w  accessible  are  three;  that  now  called  the  lleli  oj  Nehemiak,  pro- 

/.     ei  of  the  Old  Testament  (Josh.  xv.  7,  8;  .win.  16),  a  deep  well  just  below  the 

junction  of  Ibe  Valley  of  Hinnom  with  that  ot  Jehosbaphat;  the  Fountain  and  Pool  of  Siloam, 

which  Is  in  the  valley  of  the  TyropcBon,  jusl  above  its  junction  with  the  Valleys  of  Hinnom  and 

Jeboshaphal  ;  and  Ibe  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  which  is  some  distance  from  that  point  of junc- 

.  of  Jehosbaphat :  the  water  of  the  latter  is  accessible  only  by  descending 

i.  an  excavation  in  the  solid  rock;  and  an  artificial  subterranean  passage 

it  through  Mount  Ophel  to  the  Fountain  of  Siloam,  winding  so  as  to  make  the 

distance  1750  feet,  by  which  the  wains  of  Siloam  proceed  from  the  Fountain  of  Mary  the  Vir- 

lin  i-  said  lo  exist  al  the  depth  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet  below  the  area  of  the 

(.•rami  mosque,  flowing  by  Borne  artificial  passage. 

An  Aqueduct,  supposed  to  be  ancient,  carries  water  across  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  around  the 

•\1  ,unl  /. ,  and  conveys  it,  as  is  supposed,  to  the  Harani-esh-Sherif,  or  urea  of  the 

mosque. 

if  Moriab,  on  the  rocky  elevation  just  beyond  the  Brook   Kidron,  are  the  sepulchral 
monuments  •ailed'  the   Tomb  of  Absalom  or  Absalom's  Pillar  (cf.  P.  III.  #  187.  5),  ami  Tomb  of 
Soulb-easl  of  these,  on  the  south-western  declivity  of  the  Mount  of  olives,  are  the 
lbs  of  the  Prophets. — Those  called  the  Tombs  of  the  Judges, 
urlher  up  the  Valley  of  Jehosbaphat,  rather  west  of  north  from  the  city.— The  remarkable 
excavations  ci  mmonly  called  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  are  about  north  from  the  city, on  the  nearer 
of  the  valley  :  they  are  probably  the  celebrated  sepulcher  of  the  mother  of  Constantine,  the 
Empress  Helena,  who,  having  embraced  Christianity,  spent  the  latter  part  of  her  life  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  died  there  at  the  age  of  eighty,  about  A.  D..325. 


The  above  outlines  of  the  Topography  of  Jerusalem  will  be  of  service  lo  the  student  in  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  the  intensely 
ntercsting  story  of  the  siege  and  destruction  of  the  city  by  the  Romans.— See  Jnsephus  (cf.  P.  V.  ^  248).— Hitman,  as  cited  §  21 1.  ii 

For  fuller  deuils  as  to  the  Topography,  see  F.  G.  Ctome,  Jerusalem,  in  £>JcA  und  Gruber's  Encyclofiddie.—E.  Rolnruon, 

Biblical  Rr-t  arches,  u  ri'ed  5171.    In  vol.  iii.  is  a  fuM  list  of  works  on  Palestine. For  details  respecting  the  Temple,  with  Plans, 

tc  ,  see  H.  Prideaux,  Connexions,  &c.     N.  York,  1S40.  2  vols.  8.  with  engravings  —  Calmel,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  Fragments  242— 
249.  vol.  iii.  p.  346.    Cnarlesl.  1813.  4  vols.  4.— For  Plan  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  Stc,  see  also  Calmet,  vol.  iii.  p.  164. 

$  169  a.  The  southern  district  of  Judaea  was  called  Idumea,  or  the  land  of  Edom ; 
he  chief  towns  were  Gera,  Zoar,  and  Bozra  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Seir.  But  this  dis- 
.rict,  or  the  principal  part  of  it,  is  included,  perhaps  more  properly,  under  Arabia  Pe- 
:■  \'\  i. — The  sea-coast  was  called  Philislcsa,  or  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  from 
.vhom  the  whole  country  is  now  called  Palestine ;  its  chief  towns  were  Gath,  Ekron, 
rVzotus  or  Ashdod,  Ascalon,  and  Gaza. 

§  169  b.  Peraea  is  separated  from  the  other  provinces  by  the  river  Jordan.  The 
chief  towns  were  Ramoth-Gilead,  in  the  land  of  the  Gileadites ;  Gadara,  on  the  tor- 
-ent  Hieromas,  where  the  Christians  were  severely  defeated  by  the  Saracens;  Gaulon, 
a  fortress  of  remarkable  strength;  Gamala,  near  the  .Sea  of  Tiberias  ;  and  Rabboth- 
Ammon,  in  the  district  Ammonias,  afterwards  called  Philadelphia. — The  Jordan 
rlermon,  and  passing  through  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  falls  into  the  lake 
Atphaltites,  whence  there  is  no  exit  lor  its  waters. 

This  lake  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  situation  of  the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  It  has 
been  said  that,  from  its  extren  e  BRltness  or  other  properties,  it  is  destructive  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  and  thai  neither  fish  nor  weeds  are  found  in  its  waters.  Dr.  K.  Robinson,  who 
d  the  region  in  1838,  stales  that  the  water  is  intensely  salt  and  bitter:  but  that  trees  and 
bushes  grow  bj  il  ;  no  pestiferous  vapor  was  perceived,  and  many  birds  were  singing  among 
the  trees,  and  some  flying  over  the  waters.     Bibl.  Rcpos.  Apr.  1839,  p.  419. 

uia  was  south  of  Armenia,  between  the  rivers  Tigris  and  Eu- 
■  <•      lis  chiei  towns  were  Nisibis,  on  a  branch  of  the 
rigri  bulwark  oi  the  Romans  againsl  the  Parthians;  Edessa,  near  Syria; 

SeZei  Bagdad,  on  th<  confluence  oi  the  Tigris  with  a  branch  of  the  Euphra- 

ed  in  Scripture  Charran,  for  a  time  the  residence  of  Abraham, 
und  •  overthrow  of  Crassus.     On  the  borders  of  Chaldaea 

wen     hi    ;      n     oi   Cunaxa,  where  Cyrus  was  slain  by  his  brother  Ar.taxerxes,  and 
where  lh<  tt  :.  thousand  Greeks  commenced  that  retreat  so  memorable  in  history. 

I  Cb  rids  separate  from  Mesopotamia,  lying  below  it 

to  th(  t.     Their  chief  town  was  Babylon,  the  most  ancient  and  remarkable 

il  antiquity. 

ommenci  d  his  building  near  the  lower  of  Babel,  which  by  profane  writers 

name  ;  bul  to  s,  miramis,  the  widow  of  his  descendant  Minis,  the  grandeur 

B  ibj  Ion  i-  attributable.    She  enclosed  the  city  with  a  wall  of  brick  cemented  by  bitumen,  of 

llmosl  no  redible  dimensions,  and  nrnami  ntl  d  it  With  one  hundred  bra/en  gates.     The  circuit 

.  i  to  have  been  more  than  sixty  miles;  and  so  great  was  its  length,  that  when 

^  \  rui  had  i  apttired  one  eitn  n  it}  oi  I  Inhabitants  of  the  other  were  ignorant  of  the 

I  null!  the  following  rning  —The  river  Euphrates  (lowed  through  the  city,  and  Cyme 

having  diverted  ihe  rivei  Into  another  channel,  led  in-  troops  through  the  vacant  bed,  and  sur- 

d  the  Bnhylonlans,  who,  u  Ith  theii  irch  Belshazzar,  were  at  thai  moment  celebrating 

\  fe-»i  hi  lumor  ol  Hi  u  gods,  ami  consequently  made  but  a  feeble  resistance. — The  C'haldeeant 


P.I.  AFRICA.       .AEGYPTUS.  53 

were  celebrated  astronomers,  but  they  debased  the  science  by  the  admixture  of  judicial  astro, 
logy,  for  which  perversion  of  intellect  they  were  greatly  celebrated. 

On  the  topography  and  ruins  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  see  J.  M.  Kinneir,  Geographical  Memoir  on  Persia. —Rcnnell,  Remark* 
on  the  Topography  of  Babylon.  Loud.  1816.— Rich,  Memoir  on  Babylon,  &c.  Lund. 181*.— DM.  Repos.  No.  xxii.  3uj  ;  No.  ixiii. 
158,246;  No.  xxv.  139. 

East  of  the  Tigris  lay  Assyria,  now  called  Kurdistan  from  the  Carduchi,  a  tribe 
that  inhabited  the  northern  part  of  the  country;  they  are  mentioned  by  Xenophon  as 
having  opposed  the  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  ;  they  are  supposed  still  to  exist  in  the 
modern  Koords,  various  tribes  of  whom  occupy  the  mountains  of  this  country,  and 
who  are  generally  of  a  savage  character. — Its  chief  towns,  Ninus  or  Nineveh,  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  Scripture  ;  the  ruins  of  this  celebrated  city  lie  opposite  the  mo- 
dern Mosul;  and  Arbela,  near  which  is  the  village  Gaugamela,  where  Alexander 
overturned  the  Persian  empire,  by  the  defeat  of  Darius. 

§  171.  The  only  country  of  Asia  remaining  to  be  noticed  is  Arabia,  which  was  the 
large  peninsula  between  the  Sinus  Persicus  (Persian  Gulf),  and  the  Sinus  Arabicus 
(Red  Sea).  It  was  divided  into  three  parts ;  Deserta  (desert),  Petrcea  (stony),  and 
Felix  (happy). 

Arabia  Deserta  lay  between  Syria  and  Chaldnea,  and  extended  along  the  Sinus 
Persicus. — Arabia  Felix,  celebrated  for  its  fertility,  was  in  the  southern  part  border- 
ing on  the  Sinus  Arabicus  and  the  ocean.  The  most  remarkable  among  its  inhabitants 
were  the  Sabcei,  who  cultivated  frankincense.  Macoraba  was  the  name  by  which  the 
Greeks  knew  Mecca,  which  is  illustrious  in  the  Mohammedan  history ;  here  is  the 
famous  building  called  Kaba  or  Kaaba,  with  the  fabulous  black  stone  of  Gabriel. — 
Arabia  Pet  rasa  was  a  smaller  portion  lying  south  of  Judea  and  at  the  head  of  the 
Sinus  Arabicus  or  Red  Sea,  which  is  here  divided  into  two  bays,  the  eastern  called 
JElanites  Sinus,  and  the  western  Heroopolites  Sinus.  Between  these  bays  or  arms 
were  the  mountains  Horeb  and  Sinai.  On  the  eastern  was  the  seaport  Berenice  or 
Asiongaber,  the  Ezion-Geber  of  Scripture.  The  most  remarkable  place  was  Petra 
(called  Sela  by  the  Hebrews),  embosomed  in  rocky  mountains  just  south  of  Judea,  in 
the  district  called  Idumea. 

The  ruins  of  Petra  have  been  discovered  recently,  and  have  excited  great  interest  from  their 
striking  peculiarities  (heing  entirely  excavations  from  the  solid  rock),  and  from  the  evidence 
they  furnish  of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy. 

See  Labordes  Journey  to  Arabia  Petrasa,  Lond.  1836.  2  vols  8.  with  65  plates  — Cf.  Loud.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  cxvii. — iVbrIA  Jn\er 
Rev.  for  Jan.  1837.— Bill.  Repository,  vol.  ix.  p.  431. — .Sfepfteris,  Incidents  of  Travels,  &c— B.  Robinson,  Biblical  Researches  in 
Palestine,  Mt.  Sinai,  and  Arabia  Petraa,  Bost.  1841.  3  vols.  8. 

The  observations  ana  inquiries  of  Robinson  seem  to  have  settled  the  question  as  to  the  mountain  on  which  the  Ten  Command- 
ments were  given  by  God  to  Moses ;  showing  satisfactorily  that  it  was  not  the  summit  pointed  out  by  tradition  under  the  name  o( 
Sinai  or  Jebel-Musa,  but  another  summit  a  little  north-west  from  it,  belonging  to  what  is  called  Horeb.— See  the  very  interesting 
account,  vol.  i.  p.  87-212. 

The  celebrated  Sinaitic  Inscriptions,  which  have  attracted  the  attention  of  travelers,  in  an  unknown  and  peculiat  alphahet,  have 
lately  been  deciphered  by  Beer,  of  Leipzic— See  Robinson,  vol.  i.  p.  188,  552.— Grey,  in  the  Transact,  of  the  Royal  Sx  of  Litera- 
ture, vol.  iii.     Lond.  1832. 

"5>  172.  The  Asiatic  Islands  were  not  very  important,  except  those  in  the  Mare 
JEgseum  already  named  (^  147).  The  principal  other  in  the  Mediterranean  was  C  y- 
prus,  sacred  to  Venus;  the  chief  towns  of  which  were  Paplios,  where  stood  the 
celebrated  temple  of  Venus,  infamous  for  the  debauchery  and  prostitution  it  sanc- 
tioned ;  Citium,  the  birthplace  of  Zeno,  the  Stoic,  on  the  west  coast ;  Salamis  (Fama- 
gusta),  built  by  Teucer,  on  the  east  ;  Lapethus,  Arsinoc,  and  Soli,  in  the  north  ;  and 
Tamassus,  celebrated  for  its  copper-mines,  in  the  interior. — The  other  islands  were 
Proconnesus  (Marmora),  in  the  Propontis;  Taprobane  (Ceylon),  and  Jabadi  (Sumatra), 
in  the  Indian  ocean. 


HI.     OF  AFRICA. 


S  173.  The  name  Africa  was  applied  strictly  and  properly  by  ancient  geographers, 
at  least  until  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  to  a  small  part  of  that  vast  peninsula  of  the  eastern 
continent  which  it  now  designates ;  and  by  them  Egypt  was  reckoned  among  the 
Asiatic  kingdoms.  But  we  here  use  the  term  as  including  all  that  was  known  to  the 
ancients  of  'that  whole  country.  We  shall  consider  it  under  the  following  divisions : 
/EotYptus,  or  Egypt,  ^Ethiopia,  Libya,  Africa  Provria,  Numidia,  Mauritania, 
and  Africa  Interior. 

§  174.  The  general  boundaries  of  ^Egyptus  were  the  Mediterranean  on  the  north, 
Syria  and  the  Sinus  Arabicus  on  the  east,  Ethiopia  on  the  south,  and  Lybia  on  the 
west.  The  limit  between  it  and  Syria  was  the  Torrens  JEpypti,  or  river  of  Egypt  as 
called  in  the  Bible,  which  flowed  into  the  arm  of  the  sea  called  Palus  Sirbmis.     The 


54  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

limit  between  Egypt  and  Lybia  on  the  west  was  the  great  declivity  and  narrow  pass 
termed  Catabathmos  {Kara&aBnii)-     Its  southern  4imil  was  the  smaller  cataract  of  the 

i  the  most  striking  lea-  pi  was  its  river,  Nilus.   This  has  two  pnn- 

■  rising  in  the  mountains  of  the  country  now  called  Abys- 
sinia, and  the  western  in  I  lontes,  or  Mountains  of  tkt  Modi/.   Having  passed 
through  the  ancient  Ethiopia,  it  flows  through  the  whole  length  of  Egypt  to  the  Medi- 
gle  tributary  for  the  last  1000  miles  oi  its  course,  and  at 
last  dividing  into  two  meat  arms  and  forming  the  triangular  island  called  Delta  from 
seven  mouths ;  the  most  western  was  the  Ostium  Canopicum;  the 
others  in                                 ding  towards  the  east,  were  the  Balbytinum,  Sebemiiti- 
cum,   Phatnicum,  Mendesium,   faniticum,  and  Pelusiacum. — Its  annual  inundations 
s<   <>i  fertility,  and  n  servoirs  and  canals  were  formed  in  great  num- 
convey  the  watei  over  the  whole  country;  where  the  land  was  too  high  to 
o     onvey  it,  pumps  were  used  for  raising  the  water ;   almost  every  vil- 
lage, it  is  said,  had  its  canal,  although  there  were  in  the  narrow  valley  of  Egypt  many 
thousand  cities  and  villa] 

$  175.  There  were  three  principal  divisions  of  Egypt ;  the  northern  part  on  the  Me- 
diterranean was  called  JEgyptus  Inferior;  the  southern  part  on  the  confines  of  Ethio 
I , ; •  i  was  JEgyptus  Superior  or  Thebais;  and  the  portion  between  these,  Heptanomis. — 
al  oi  Lower  Egypt  was  Alexandria,  the  greal  mart  of  Indian  merchandize 5 
the  middle  ages,  caravans  continually  passed  from  thence  to  Arsinoe  (Suez), 
on  the  Red  Sea,  wh<  nee  goods  were  conveyed  by  sea  to  India.  In  front  of  the  har- 
bor was  an  island  named  Pharos,  on  which  a  celebrated  lighthouse  was  built ;  south 
ot  the  city  was  the  lake  Mareotis,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  the  best  Egyptian  wine  was 
made.  In  Alexandria  was  the  celebrated  library,  said  to  have  been  buined  by  the 
Saracens.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  76). — In  the  interior  of  the  Delta  was  Sais,  the  ancient  capi- 
tal, remarkable  for  its  numerous  temples.  Between  the  Delta  and  Sinus  Arabicus 
wi  re  //<  roopolis,  the  city  of  the  shepherd  kings;  and  Onion,  founded  by  a  colony  of 
Jews,  who  fled  hither  under  their  high-priest  Onias,  from  the  cruelties  of  Antiochus, 
and,  by  the  permission  of  Ptolemy,  built  a  city  and  temple. 

In  Lower  Egypt,  cast  of  (lie  Delta,  was  the  land  of  Goshen,  according  to  tlie  views  of  the  best  modern  authors.— Cf.  £.  JSVimon, 
on  the  Exodus  of  Ihe  Israelites,  &c.  Bill.  Repot,  vol.  ii.  744.     Also,  Researches,  vol.  i. 

'-  17fi.  In  the  middle  portion  or  Heptanomis,  one  of  the  chief  places  was  Memphis, 
near  the  spot  where  Grand  Cairo  now  stands;  it  was  the  ancient  metropolis  of .  all 
Egypt;  in  its  vicinity  are  the  stupendous  pyramids.  ArsinoS  south-west  of  Memphis 
was  an  important  place  ;  near  this  was  the  famous  lake  Mmris,  said  to  have  been  exca- 
vated by  order  of  an  Egyptian  king  as  a  reservoir  to  contain  the  waters  of  the  Nile 
i  onvi  v.  il  into  it  by  a  greal  canal,  now  the  kike  Birket-el-Kwun.  and  believed  to  have 
Seen  wholly  or  chiefly  the  work  of  nature;  at  the  southern  end  of  this  lake  was  the 
s'ill  mon  ci  Ii  brated  Labyrinth. —  Oxyrynchus  was  a  considerable  place,  said  to  have 
derived  -     rom  a  sharp-nosed  fish  (&l$s  fiiyx°s)  worshiped  by  the  inhabitants.— 

■  Egypt,  the  most  important  place  was  Thebes,  which  gave  the  nameol  Thebais  to 
this  division;  called  also  by  the  Greeks  Diospolis,  and  Hecatompylos ;  although  de- 
imbyses  500  years  before  Christ,  its  ruins  still  excite  admiration,  occupying 
in  circumference,  including  the  modern  Karnak,  Luxor,  and  othei 
villages;  near  it  was  the  famous  statue  of  Memnon. —  Tentyra  (Denderah),  was  nortl* 
es,  and  also  presents  interesting  ruins;    especially  the  large  temple  of  Isis, 
from  the  ceiling  of  which  was  taken  the  famous  Zodiac  transported  to  France  and 
made   the    subject   of   much  speculation  (c|.   Amer,   Quart    Rev.  vol.  iv). — Between 
ind  Tentyra,  nearer  the  former  and  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Nile,  was  Cop- 
ii  ibis  place  a  mad  was  constructed  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphia  across  the  desert 
lice  mi  the  Sinus  Arabicus.     Considerably  to  the  south  of  Thebes  was  Omhi 
"Mo  i-  by  Juvenal  (Sat.  xv.)  for  its  quarrels  with  Tentyra  respecting  the  wor 
icodile.     Sui  a,  was  the  extreme  town  on  the  borders  of  Ethiopia;  the 
I  u\    rial's  exile  :  where  also  was  the  wMl  sunk  to  mark  the  summer  solstice,  its 
bottom  1"  a  ;  then  illumined  by  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  directly  perpendicular  over 
n.     \ii<  fai  from  Syi  ne  was  the  island  mi  which  Elephantine  stood,  of  which  interest- 
still  remain.     Near  Syene  was  also  the  Mons  Basanites,  mountains  of  touch- 
•  in  which  the  Egyptians  used  to  malic  ornamental  vases. — South  of  Syene 
oi  the  Nile:  mighty  terraces  of  red  granite  (Syenite)  cross  the  bed 
<  i .  and  throw  its  waters  into  an  impetuous  and  foaming  torrent.     In  this  region 
-I  oi..  lisks  ami  colossal  st  aiues  and  blocks  of  i  he  Egyp- 
tian  t.  n-  mImh.     Tin  re    were    three   places    on    the   Sinus    Arabicus,  which 
should  be  mentioned;   Berenice,  in  the  southern  extremity  of  Egypt;  ArsinoS  (now 
'   'be   head  ol  the  Sinus    Heroopolites,  the  western  arm  of  the  Red  Sea;  and 
Muoshormut.  called  also  Portus  Veneris,  midway  between  them  :  they  were  commercial 
transported  from  them  to  the  Nile.     A  canal,  called  Fossa  Trajani 
nrnmerted   Vrsinoe*  with  that  river. 


"\V  ILiLil 


-^y '/^Y^ ■   ^".- 


yw  \ 


^awwa^QfeP^  -T 


iiiiiiii!!!':''.'  ■'i^^yq:^''1  "■.''  ","[T  "  f^ O^0K^;!i'!'f 'If :;'^ ' 


P.  I.  AFRICA.       .ETHIOPIA.  50 

In  the  vast  deserts  on  the  western  or  Lybian  side  of  Egypt  were  the  cultivated  and 
inhabited  spots  called  Oasis  Magna,  and  Oasis  Parva,  the  Great  and  the  Little  Oasia. 
The  latter  was  in  the  division  termed  Heptanomis,  south  of  lake  Mceris.  The  Great 
Oasis  is  in  he  part  that  was  called  Thebais.  It  was  a  place  of  banishment  in  the  timf 
of  the  later  Roman  empire;  yet  said  to  have  been  a  delightful  residence,  and  some 
times  r-alled  by  the  Greeks,  the  isle  of  the  blessed. 

§  177.  The  ruins  and  antiquities  of  Egypt  have  ever  awakened  the  deepest  interest 
in  the  traveler  and  the  scholar.  Besides  ihe  various  temples  and  other  edifices,  of  which 
splendid  remains  are  found  in  various  places,  the  following  rank  high  among  the  objects 
of  curiosity.  1.  Obelisks  an  1  Pillars;  several  of  these  were  removed  to  Rome;  of 
the  n  laining,  the  most  noted  are  the  Pillar  of  On  at  Heliopolis,  the  two  obelisks 
called  Cleopatra's  Needles  at  Alexandria,  and  Pompey's  Pillar,  also  at  Alexandria.  An 
obelisk,  nearly  70  feet  in  length,  wis  brought  to  Paris  in  the  year  1836,  to  be  erected 
in  that  city,  by  Louis  Philippe. — 2.  The  Pyramids,  ranked  by  the  Greeks  among  the 
seven  wonders.  They  are  numerous  at  Djiza,  or  Gize,  near  Cairo  and  the  ancient 
Memphis,  and  at  Sacehara,  18  miles  south  of  Gize.  Those  at  Gize  ate  the  most  cele- 
brated. One  of  them  has  been  open  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  account. 
Several  others  have  been  opened  in  recent  times  They  all  contain  chambers  evidently 
used  for  sepulchral  purposes.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  <i  231.  P.  II.  §  %.  3.)— 3.  Catacombs.  These 
are  subterranean  burying  places.  They  are  found  in  several  places;  but  the  most  re- 
markable are  near  Thebes,  at  a  place  now  called  Gournou.  a  tract  of  rocks  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  west  of  the  Nile.  The  tombs  are  excavated  in  the  rocks,  and  extend, 
n  is  siid.  over  the  space  of  two  miles.  From  these,  many  mummies  have  been  taken. — 
The  labyrinth,  which  Herodotus  considered  more  wonderful  than  the  pyramids,  included 
mum  rous  subterranean  chambers  designed  as  repositories  for  the  dead ;  over  these  was 
an  immense  pile  of  splendid  buildings.  Some  rums  of  this  structure  near  lake  Mceris 
(l>  176)  have  been  discovered. — 4.  Colossal  images  and  statues.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  colossal  images  of  the  sphinx  (cf.  P.  II.  §  117)  is  near  the  great  pyra- 
mids. A  very  celebrated  colossus  is  that  commonly  called  the  statue  of  Memnon  (cf. 
P.  II.  §  74.  P.  IV.  §  169.  2.  §  231.  1) — The  Egyptian  monuments  are  covered  with 
inserip'ions  in  Hieroglyphics  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  16). 

Much  research  has  heen  employed  in  modern  times  upon  Egyptian  Antiquities  and  Remains.  A  new  decree  of  interest  was 
awakened  in  the  "hole  subject  by  the  celebrated  expedition  of  Bonaparte  in  1798.  In  this  invasion  "f  Egypt,  he  took  with  him  a 
delacl  menl  f  do  less  than  one  hundred  mm  who  had  cultiva'ed  'he  arts  and  sciences  (lauani)  selected  for  the  purpose.  "This 
body, the  first  of  th*  kind  which  ever  accompanied  an  invading  army,  was  liberally  supplied  with  books,  philosophical  instruments, 
ami  all  Hie  means  of  prosecuting  the  several  departments  of  knowledge."— The  splendid  work,  published  under  the  emperor's 
patronage,  and  ttyle  I  Description  de  CEgypte,  was  the  result  of  their  labors  (cf.  P.  IV.  5  169). 

Many  othei  valuable  works  illus'rating  the  history  an  1  monuments  of  Egypt  have  been  published  during  the  present  century, 
some  from  members  of  the  company  of  savins  above  named.  That  of  Denon  holds  a  high  rank  ;  entitled  Travels  in  Upper  ana 
Lower  Enypt  during  the  Campaigns  of  Fnnapa  V  ;  with  folio  plates. — The  following  works  relate  to  'his  subject.  Leigh's  Travels 
in  Egypt. — Belzoni's  Travels. — Jontarit's  Desci  ption  de  I'Egypte. — Hamilton's  ^Egyptiaca. — Letronne.  Recherches  sur  1'F.gypte. 
— Rut<  "s  Vi  v  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Egypt,  in  Harper's  Fain.  Library.  No.  xxxiii. — J.  Miot.  Memoires  de  ('Expedition  en 
Egypte,  &c.  Per.  1SI4. — >/.  O.  Wilkinson,  T.  ngl  .1  hj  >f  I  ;.ebes.  and  eeneral  View  of  Egypt  Lond.  1835.  8.—/.  G  Wilkinson, 
Mi  rs  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  Lond.  1837.  3  vols.  8.  — We  may  add,  the  Travels  of  Claike,  Harden,  Shaw, 
Pocacke.  Cf.  Supplement  to  Encyclop  Britann.  irlicle  E  ,yi  I  —Land.  Qui-  t.  Rtv.  vol.  xiii.  1.  xvi.  I.  xvii.  181.  xix.  178.  xxiv. 
p.  139.— Jlmtr.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  vii. — Fur.  Quart  Rv  Nns.  xxxii  and  xxxiii.—  Am.  BUI  Repot.  No  xxiii.— See  also  references 
given  P.  IV.  5  216.  1.  §  230.  1.  5  238.  3.  $  243.  3.— A  history  of  Pompey's  Pillar  is  given  in  J.  White's  Egyptiaca,  Part  I.  Oxf.  1821. 

§  178.  ./Ethiopia  was  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  very  indefinitely  to  the  coun- 
try lying  s'luth  of  Egypt ;  the  modern  countries  of  Nubia  and  Abyssinia  particularly 
were  included. — Various  uncivilized  tribes  are  represented  as  dwelling  here  in  ancient 
times:  on  the  coast  were  the  Troglodytes,  said  to  inhabit  caves  of  the  earth.  It  seems 
also  to  have  contained  inhabitants  equally  advanced  in  refinement  with  the  Egyptians. 

The  most  important  places  were  Napata,  Meroe,  Auxume.  and  Adulis. — Auxume 
(Axitui)  >vas  on  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Astaboras  (Tacazze),  the  eastern  branch  of 
the  Nile.  Its  ruins  still  exist.  "  In  one  square,  Bruce  found  40  obelisks,  each  formed 
of  a  single  piece  of  granite,  with  sculptures  and  inscriptions,  but  no  hieroglyphics.  One 
of  the  obelisks  was  60  feet  high." — Here  was  found  the  monument  usually  called  the 
Inscription  of  Axum  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  92.  5.). — Adulis  (Arkiko)  was  on  a  bay  of  the  Sinus 
Arabicus;  having  some  celebrity  from  two  inscriptions  there  found  (cf.  P.  IV.  §92. 
5). — Meroe  was  on  or  near  the  Nile  south  of  its  junction  with  the  Astaboras ;  near  the 
:i  Shendy,  as  is  supposed.  It  was  the  capital  of  a  large  tract  between  these 
rivers  called  by  'he  same  name,  and  was  celebrated  in  ancient  times,  being  the  grand 
emporium  of  the  caravan  trade  between  Ethiopia  and  Egypt  and  the  north  of  Africa. 
The  remains  of  temples  and  other  edifices  of  sandstone  still  mark  its  site. — Napaia  was 
i  north  or  lower  down  on  the  Nile,  and  was  next  in  rank  to  Meroe. 

Tl  ce  regions  have  also  been  explored  in  modern  times,  an  '  splendid  ruins  have  been  found  scattered  along  the  valley  or  ,i,e  Nile 
n     I  ing  are  some  of  the  sources  of  information  on  the  si, tied.    Bruce' s  Travels  in  Abyssinia,  cited  P.  IV.  §  118,  1. — Travsli 

■>(  Sal;  ..  r  "  ;  of  Burckhardt:  Franc,  tiau  (P.  IV.  §243.  3),  and  especially  of  Cailliaud  —  Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rtv, 

rol.xvi.  13    xix.  174— -Haskins1  Travels  in  Ethiopia,  Lond.  1835,  8. 

$  179.  Under  Libya  we  include  the  whole  extent  from  JEgyptus  on  the  east  to  the 
Syrtis  Minor  (Gulf  of  Cabes),  together  with  an  indefinite  portion  on  the  south.     The 


5fi  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

leim  was  used  by  the  ancient  poets  to  signify  Africa  in  general.   In  its  strict  and  mos! 

limited  sense,  it  included  only  the  region  between  Egypt  and  the  Syrtis  Major  (Gulf 

mi  Sidra). — In  the  latter  sense,  it  comprised  on  the  coast  only  the  two  districts  Mar- 

marica  and  Cyrenaica.     We  include  under  Libya  also  the  portion  farther  west  called 

-,,,;.  from  the  two  Syrtes  on  the  coast  already  named. 

Marmarica  was  on  the  east   nearest   to  Egypt.     The  inhabitants  were  said  to 

n  '  charm  against  the  poison  of  serpents;  some  of  them,  named 

i,  made  it  then  profession  to  heal  such  as  had  been  bitten,  by  sucking  the  venom 

onto)  the  wound.     In  an  Oasis,  now  El  Wah,  south  of  Marmarica,  stood  the  cele- 

ij  Jupiter  Amnion  (P.  III.  §  71),  and  near  it  the  fountain  of  the  sun. 

win. -i-  waters  were  said  to  be  warm  in  the  morning,  cool  at  noon,  hot  in  the  evening. 

and  scalding  at  midnight.    Alexander,  after  having  encountered  great  difficulties,  suc- 

m  visiting  tins  oracle,  and  was  hailed  by  the  priest  as  son  of  Jupiter. 

•'  Belzoni,  previously  to  his  leaving  Egypt,  made  a  tour  to  El  Wah  (the  bushes),  the  northern 

II.'  found,  as  Hornemann  had,  the  tups  of  the  hills  of  the  desert  encrusted  with  salt,  and 

wells  of  sweel  water  risimr  nut  of  a  surface  overspread  with  masses  of  salt,  as  Herodotus  related 

two  md-twentj  centuries  ago.     He  found  also  the  remains  of  what  has  lieen  considered  as  the 

temple  nf  Jupiter  Amnion  ;  bul  tin   natives  were  as  jealous  and  as  unwilling  to  let  him  see  this 

'work  of  tli.   infidels,'  as  Hornemann  had  found  them  to  be.     The  fine  rivulet  of  sweet  water, 

whose  source  tin-  traveler  describes  as  being  in  a  prove  of  date  trees,  and  which  Brown  was  told 

by  tin-  people,  was  sometimes  cold  and  sometimes  warm,  was  also  visited  by  Belzoni ;  who  says 

hi-  proved  the  truth  of  what  is  stated  by  Herodotus,  that  this  spring  is  warm  in  the  mornings  and 

t.\  imiiiil's.  i h  more  so  at  midnight,  and  cold  in  the  middle  of  the  day.     Had  Mr.  Belzoni  pos- 

l  a  thermometer,  lie  would  have  found  that  it  was  the  temperature  of  the  air  which  had 
Changed,  while  that  of  the  fountain  of  the  6iin  remained  the  same." — Lund.  Quart.  Rev.  xxiii.  95. 

Cyrenaica,  or  Penlavolis  (Barca),  lay  between  Marmarica  and  the  Syrtis  Major, 
or  altars  of  the  Philaeni.  It  contained  five  cities;  Cyrene,  founded  by  a  Greek  colony, 
the  birthplace  of  the  philosopher  Carneades;  Ajtollonia,  a  celebrated  seaport  ;  Ptole- 
tnais,  at  first  called  Barce  ;  Arsinoe,  and  Berenice  or  Hesperis,  near  which  were  the 
gardens  ol  the  Hesperides,  famous  for  iheir  golden  apples,  and  the  residence  of  the 
ons,  so  celebrated  in  fable.  (Cf.  P.  II.  §  115.  Ed.  Rev.  No.  95,  p.  228).— West 
id  this  was  Regio  Syr  tic  a,  also  called,  from  its  three  cities,  Tripoli  tana  (Tripoli); 
its  cities  were  Leptis,  called  major,  to  distinguish  it  from  a  town  of  the  same  name 
near  Carthage  ;  (F.u,  the  present  city  of  Tripoli ;  and  Sahrata,  a  Roman  colony;  and 
Tysdrus,  now  Elgem.  A  people  called  by  Homer  the  Lotoplmgi  dwelt  on  this  coast; 
he  says  thai  they  fed  on  the  lotos,  a  fruit  so  delicious,  that  whoever  tasted  it  imme- 
diately forgol  his  native  country.  On  the  coast  were  the  Syrtes,  two  dangerous  quick- 
sands, which  frequently  proved  fatal  to  hapless  mariners;  here,  also,  was  the  lake 
Tritonis,  sacred  to  .Minerva. 

There  are  interesting  ancient  remains  in  these  regions,  particularly  at  Leptis  and  Cyrene. — The 
situation  of  Cyrene  is  described  as  exceedingly  beautiful. — "It  is  built  on  the  edge  of  a  range 
of  hills,  risinL'  about  800  feet  above  a  fine  sweep  of  high  table  land,  forming  the  summit  of  a 
lower  chain,  to  which  it  descends  by  a  series  of  terraces.  The  elevation  of  the  lower  chain  may 
he  estimated  al  looo  feel  ;  so  that  Cyrene  stands  about  1800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  of 
which  it  commands  an  extensive  view  over  the  table  land,  which,  extending  east  and  west  as 
far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  stretches  about  five  miles  to  the  northward,  and  then  descends  abruptly 
to  the  coast,  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  natural  terraces,  to  shape  the  ledges  into  roads 
leading  along  the  face  of  the  mountain,  and  communicating  in  some  instances  by  narrow  flights 
of  steps  .  in  in  the  rock.  These  roads,  which  may  he  supposed  to  have  been  the  favorite  drives 
of  the  citizens  of  Cyrene,  are  very  plainly  indented  with  the  marks  of  chariot  wheels,  deep  fur- 
rowing Ihe  smooth,  stony  surface.  The  rock,  in  most  instances  rising  perpendicularly  from  these 
galleries,  has  been  excavated  into  innumerable  tombs,  generally  adorned  with  architectural 

facades.     Tl uter  Bides  of  the  roads,  where  they  descended  from  one  range  to  another,  were 

omami  nted  w  ith  sarcophagi  and  monumental  tombs  ;  and  the  whole  sloping  space  between  the 
gallerus  was  filled  up  with  similar  structures.  These,  as  well  as  the  excavated  tombs,  exhibit 
very  superior  taste  and  execution.     In  two  instances,  a  simple  sarcophagus  of  white  marble, 

orna nted  w  Hli   flowers  and  figures  in  relief  of  exquisite  workmanship,  was  found  in  a  large 

excavation.  In  several  nf  the  excavated  tombs  were  discovered  remains  of  paintings,  repre- 
senting historical,  allegorical,  and  pastoral  subjects,  executed  in  the  manner  of  those  of  Hercu- 
laneum  and  Pompeii  (Cf  P  IV,  }  226). — In  the  region  of  Cyrenaica  are  several  caverns  con- 
tainlng  stalactites,  presenting  of  course  various  fantastic  shapes.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
this  fact,  together  with  the  existence  of  the  ruins  and  excavations  in  the  vicinity  of  Cyrene,  may 
ha\  e  given  ri-e  I.,  ihe  story  of  the  pel  rifled  city,  of  which,  under  the  name  of  Has  Sent,  marvelous 
nee its  have  been  related  to  travelers  in  Africa." 

i'  i  I  R  |  //.  Baehy,  Eipeditiou  to  Northern  Coasl  of  Africa.  Loud.  1828.  4. 
'rii.i  are  still  found  ruins  of  Unman  structures  ;  particularly  of  a  spacious  amphitheatre, 
"consisting  formerly  of  four  rows  of  columns  in  tiers  one  above  another,  and  sixty-four  arcades." 
Thi  Inni  I  irea  li  -  lid  lo  be  300  feel  in  length  and  200  in  breadth  ;  and  the  whole  circumference 
1570  feet;  the  height  is  estimated  tn  have  been  at  least  105  feet.  The  upper  tier  of  columns  is 
nearly  taller  ;  the  three  lower  are  preserved. 
MSBa*.  '     /    BwaU rj     A  drawing  ii  given  in  The  Penny  Magazine,  Jan.  13,1838. 

v  180.  Next  to  Tripolitana  was  the  province  of  Africa  Propria,  of  which  the  capi- 
ta, was  c.iriinii;!,.  This  city  w  as  founded  by  a  Tynan  colony,  led  by  queen  Dido,  and 
>v  us  extensive  commerce  became  one  of  the  most  opulent  cities  of  antiquity.  Its 
iftadel  was  called  Bursa,  because  it  was  said  that  Dido,  on  coming  here,  purchased 


P.  I.  AFRICA.       NUMIDIA.       MAURITANIA.  57 

as  much  ground  as  she  could  encompass  with  a  Pvpna,  or  hide,  and  then,  having  cut 
the  hide  into  strips,  took  in  the  space  originally  covered  by  the  city. 

Carthage  is  immortalized  by  poets  and  historians  on  account  of  the  three  wars  which  it  sus- 
tained against  the  Romans.  The  last  of  these  wars  resulted  in  the  total  destruction  of  the  city 
by  S(  ipio  Africanus  the  younger,  B.  C.  146.  The  city  is  said  to  have  been  above  iwenty  miles 
in  circumference:  it  being  set  on  fire  by  the  Romans,  the  conflagration  lastnd  seventeen  days. 
A  new  city  was  built  by  the  emperor  Augustus  at  a  small  distance  from  the  s  te  of  the  ancient. 
The  new  Carthage  was  taken  from  the  Romans  by  Genseric,  A.  D.  4:<9,  and  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury afterwards  was  the  capital  of  the  Vandal  empire  in  Africa.  It  was  finally  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens  towards  the  end  of  the  seventh  century.  A  single  aqueduct  is  said  to  be  tiie  chief  trace 
of  it  found  in  modern  times. 

The  other  remarkable  towns  in  this  district  were  Tunes  or  Tunela  (Tunis),  where 
Regulus  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner;  Clupea,  near  the  Promontorium  Mercurii 
(Cape  Bona);  Adrumetum;  Thapsus,  where  Caesar  defeated  Scipio  and  Juba;  and 
Ulica,  where  Cato  the  younger  slew  himself;  near  Utica  was  the  river  Bagradas, 
where  Regulus  slew  an  enormous  serpent,  that  had  destroyed  many  of  his  soldiers. 

§  181.  Numidia  was  at  one  time  divided  into  the  kingdom  of  the  Massyli,  ruled  by 
Massinissa,  and  that  of  the  Masssesyli,  under  the  government  of  Syphax  ;  but  after 
the  third  Punic  war,  they  were  united  into  one  kingdom  under  Massinissa.  The  capi- 
tal was  Cerla.  The  principal  towns  on  the  sea-coast  were  Tabraca,  remarkable  for 
its  groves;  Hippo  Regius,  near  the  small  river  Rubricatus,  the  episcopal  seat  of  Saint 
Augustine ;  and  Rusicade.  In  the  interior  were  Vaga;  Sicca;  and  Zama,  where  Han- 
nibal was  defeated  by  Scipio.     On  the  confines  of  the  desert  were  Thala  and  Capsa. 

§  182.  Mauritania  was  separated  from  Numidia  by  the  river  Ampsagas. — Its 
chief  towns  were  Cmsarea,  whence  the  eastern  part  was  called  Caesariensis;  and 
Tinsis  (Tangiers),  from  which  the  western  received  the  name  Tin  git  ana.  This 
country  extended  from  the  river  Ampsagas,  separating  it  from  Numidia,  to  some  dis- 
tance on  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  Romans,  after  their  conquest  over  these  regions, 
planted  in  them  numerous  colonies,  and  constructed  fortresses  and  roads,  of  which 
some  traces  yet  remain.  The  most  southern  Roman  settlement  was  that  called  Ex- 
ploratio  ad  Mercurium,  on  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic.  The  waters  west  of  this  terri- 
tory were  named  Oceanus  Allanticus,  from  the  chain  of  mountains  called  Atlas, 
which  bounded  Mauritania  on  the  south,  and  terminated  at  two  different  points  on 
the  coast,  the  northern  ridge  being  termed  Atlas  Minor,  and  the  southern  Alias 
Major. — Mons  Abyla  was  the  elevated  summit  near  the  strait  connecting  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Atlantic.  This  and  Calpe  on  the  European  side  formed  the  fabled 
pillars  of  Hercules  (Herculis  Columnar). 

§  183.  All  the  remaining  countries  of  the  land  may  be  included  under  Africa  In- 
terior, to  which  it  is  impossible  to  assign  any  definite  boundaries. — The  Gaetuli,  and 
Garamantes,  and  other  tribes,  are  represented  as  dwelling  within  it.  The  Nigrita 
were  placed  about  the  river  Niger.     The  Great  Desert  was  called  Dtserla  Libya;  In- 

terioris. On  the  coast  west  of  this  were  the  Insula  Fortunata;   called  also  Cana- 

ria,  from  the  number  of  large  dogs,  as  some  suppose,  found  upon  them,  and  thence 
their  modern  name  Canaries. — South  of  these  were  the  Insults  Hesperidum,  the  mo- 
dern Cape  Verd  islands,  on  which  some  have  placed  the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides 
(cf.  §  179). — West  of  this  coast  the  ancients  also  placed  the  island  Atlantis,  said  to 
have  existed  once,  and  to  have  been  afterwards  submerged  in  the  ocean.  It  was  re- 
presented as  larger  than  Asia  and  Africa,  and  as  very  fertile  and  powerful. 

Some  have  considered  the  whole  account  of  Atlantis  as  a  mere  fable  ;  others  have  conjectured 
that  the  Canaries,  Madeira  Isles,  and  Azores,  once  formed  parts  of  a  vast  island  thus  described; 
and  others  have  maintained  that  the  land  referred  to  must  have  been  the  continent  of  America. 

The  la'ter  opinion  is  maintained  in  an  Essay  entitled  as  follows:  An  Attempt  to  show  that  America  must  be  known  to  the 
Ancients,  SfC  by  an  American  Englishman,  Pastor  of  a  Church  in  B  -ston.  Boston,  New  England,  MDCCLXXIII  — Some  have 
imagined  that  this  island  was  situated  in  the  Northern  regions ;  Bailly,  Lettres  sur  I'Atlantide  de  Platon,  &c.  Paris,  1779.  8.— 
gee  Malte-Brun's  Geography—  Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  Essai  sur  I'antique  Atlantide.  Far.  1804.  4.— The  ancieU  itory  is  g'veo  is 
Dae  Critiai  or  Ailanlicus  of  Plato, 


I.:n,| 


'J.11VJ    IlXxlOg 


INTRODUCTION  TO  CLASSICAL  CHRONOLOGY. 


Preliminary  Remarks. 

§  184.  Chronology  treats  of  the  computation  of  time  and  of  the  dates  of  events.  It 
is  comparatively  a  modern  science.  Among  the  ancients  there  was  scarcely  any  sys- 
tematic attention  to  the  subject.  Yet  it  is  a  highly  important  science.  Accurate  chro- 
nology is  esseniial  to  all  reasoning  from  historical  facts;  the  mutual  dependence  and 
relations  of  events  cannot  be  traced  without  it ;  with  the  greatest  propriety  it  has  been 
called  one  of  the  eyes  of  history,  while  geography  with  equal  propriety  has  been  said 
to  be  the  other.  Chronology  is  also  an  important  aid  to  the  memory,  if  properly  con- 
sidered, in  studying  history  and  biography. 

In  treating  this  subject,  although  nur  design  requires  a  special  reference  to  Classical  Chronology, 
yet  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  we  must  introduce  some  things  which  belong  rather  to  the 
science  in  general.  We  shall  explain  the  Greek  and  Roman  divisions  of  time  and  modes  of  com- 
puting it ;  and  endeavor  to  present  all  that  the  student  will  need  as  preparatory  to  a  full  study 
of  the  classical  historians  and  of  ancient  history. 

Chronology  may  be.  considered  as  consisting  of  two  parts;  the  first,  measuring 
time  and  adjusting  its  various  divisions;  the  seco?id  fixing  the  dates  of  historical  events 
and  arranging  them  in  order.  • 


I. — Of  measuring  Time  and  adjusting  its  divisions. 

§  185.  The  most  obvious  measures  and  divisions  of  time  are  those  suggested  to  all 
men  by  the  revolutions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  These  are  three;  days,  months,  and 
years ;  the  day  from  the  revolution  of  the  earth  on  her  axis,  or  the  apparent  revolution 
of  the  sun  around  her;  the  month  from  the  periodical  changes  in  the  moon;  the  year 
from  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth  in  her  orbit  round  the  sun. — These  three  divisions 
are  not  commensurate,  and  this  has  caused  the  chief  embarrassment  in  the  science  of 
Chronology ;  it  has,  in  point  of  fact,  been  difficult  so  to  adjust  them  with  each  other  in 
a  system  of  measuring  time  as  to  have  the  computed  time  and  the  actual  time  perfectly 
in  agreement  or  coincidence. 

$  186.  The  day.  This  was  undoubtedly  the  earliest  division,  and  originally  was  dis- 
tinguished,  it  is  likely,  from  the  night ;  extending  from  sunrise  to  sunset  only.  It  was 
afterwards  considered  as  including  also  the  night,  or  time  between  sunset  and  sunrise. 
But  the  beginning  of  the  day  has  been  reckoned  differently  by  different  nations,  for 
civil  purposes;  at  sunrise,  by  the  Babylonians,  Persians,  Syrians  and  inhabitants  of 
India;  at  sunset,  by  the  Jews,  Athenians,  ancient  Gauls,  and  Chinese;  at  midnight, 
by  tin-  Egyptians,  Romans,  and  moderns  generally. — Astronomers  in  their  calculations 
consider  the  day  as  beginning  at  noon,  after  the  manner  of  the  Arabians  according  to 
Priestley. There  have  also  been  various  modes  of  subdividing  the  day — "The  di- 
vision of  time  into  hours  is  very  ancient :  as  is  shown  by  Kircher  (GEdip.  iEgypt.  t.  ii. 
part  2).  The  most  ancient  hour  is  that  of  the  twelfth  part  of  a  day.  Herodotus  ob- 
serves that  the  Greeks  learnt  from  the  Egyptians  [Babylonians,  1.  ii.  c.  1091  among 
other  things,  the  method  of  dividing  the  day  into  twelve  parts  ;  and  the  astronomers 
of  Cathaya  still  retain  this  method.  The  division  of  the  day  into  twenty-four  hours 
was  not  known  to  the  Romans  before  the  Punic  war."      (Tegg.) 

<s>  187.  The  Greeks,  in  the  time  of  Homer,  seem  not  to  have  used  the  division  into 
hours  ;  his  poems  present  us  with  the  more  obvious  parts  of  the  day,  morning  (>?i>s), 
noon,  (j*£>oi  rifiap),  and  evening  (*Jt<>»7).  But  before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  they  were 
accustomed  to  the  division  of  the  day,  and  of  the  night  also  probably,  into  12  parts. 
They  were  acquainted  also  with  the  division  of  the  day  and  night  into  four  parts  each, 
according  to  the  Jewish  and  Roman  custom. 

The  Romans  subdivided  the  day  and  night  each  into  four  parts,  which  were  called 
vigils  {vigiliee)  or  watches.  They  also  considered  the  day  and  the  night  as  each  di- 
vided into  12  hours;  three  hours  of  course  were  included  in  a  vigil. — The  day  vigils 

59 


60  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

were  designated  simply  by  the  numerals  prima,  secunda,  tenia,  quarla;  but  as  the 
second  \i "il  commenced  with  the  third  hour,  the  third  vigil  with  the  sixth  hour,  and  the 
fourth  with  the  ninth  hour,  the  terms  -prima,  terlia,  sexta,  and  nona,  are  also  used  to 
Blgnjfj  ,hi  oi  the  day.      1  he  night  vigils  were  designated  by  the  names  ves- 

. ,  ra,  media  tium,  conticinium. 

]l  is  sometimes  Mated,  that  the  first  vicil  and  first  hour  of  the  day  commenced  at  what  we  cat 
R o'clock  \  M  •  Hi-  third  vigil  («v>'to  terlia),  and  sixth  hour  (hora  sexto),  al  12  o'clock,  noon ; 
rhe  corresponding  vigils  and  hours  of  night,  al  what  we  call  6  o'clock  P.  M  ,  and  12  o'clock,  mid- 
night     This  slate nt  may  be  sufficiently  aci  male  in  general ;  but  it  must  he  remembered, that 

rhe  Romai r>  and  watches  were  of  unequal  lengths  Hie  first  hour  of  the  day  began  with  sun- 

rise  and  the  twelfth  ended  at  sunset;  and  the  first  hour  of  the  night  began  at  sunset,  and  Hie 
twelfth  ended  al  sunrise.  Of  course,  the  hours  of  Ihe  day  in  summer  were  longer  than  those  of 
the  night,  »nd  in  the  winter  they  were  shorter.    Cf  P.  III.  }  228. 

Differeni  devices  have  been  employed  for  marking  and  making  known 
these  pans  ol  the  day.  The  sun-dial  was  used  by  the  Babylonians  and  Jews;  and  by 
thelatter  watchmen  were  maintained  to  announce  the  time.  The  Greeks  borrowed 
the  sun-dial  from  the  Babylonians,  and  called  it  the  Heliotrope  (>)XioTf,6ntcv),  or ■  G no- 
yvtiniav);  but  the  latter  term  properly  designates  the  needle  or  index  which  cast 
th.  shadow  on  the  dial.— The  Romans,  besides  the  dial  (horologium,  solatium),  em- 
ploy d  also  the  Clepsydra,  for  some  account  of  which  see  P.  III.  $  228. 

Several  specimens  of  the  ancient  sun-dial  are  still  preserved;  one  is  said  to  be  still  remaining 

nearlj  in  its  original  situation,  on  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens.     "Upon  each  side  of  the 

mal  building  commonly  called  Hie  tower  of  the  winds,  was  also  placed  a  vertical  sun-dial; 

t'ie  vnomon  or  index  projected  from  the  side,  while  the  lines  indicating  the  hour  were  cut  upon 

the  wall.     'Ihe  lines  of  the   dial   upon  Hie   wall  are  distinctly  extant  at  Ihe  present   day:  and 

although  the  » ions  have  disappeared,  the  places  where  they  were  inserted  are  still  visible." 

Resides  stationary  dials,  ihe  ancients  had  portable  ones  of  metal,  which  were  termed  Phurtwa- 
lira.  (if  Stuart's  Diet,  of  Architect,  vol   ii.)— An  instrument  called  a  water-clack  was  in  consi- 
derable  use  in  some  parts  of  Europe  a  few  centuries  ago.     Striking  clocks  are  said  to  have  beer, 
by  Hie  Arabians  about  A.  D.  bllll.  —  Watches  were  first  made  in  Germany,  A.  D.  1477. 

SetBolhu.l.  Hisloire  &k  la  Mesure  du  Temps  |i»r  les  Horologes.  Far  1802  I  v  .Is.  A.-Emati,  de  Solsnis,  in  bis  Oprucula  — 
<;.  II.  Martini.  Abtnndlung  von  den Sonnenuhren  der  Allen.  Ltipz.  1777  —.Solder  an  I  Falconet,  Sur  les  horologes  des  Anciens.  in 
Ihe  Mffi.  de  I. lead,  des  Inter  vol.  iv.  p  148;  and  vol.  xi.  p.  410.  Cf.  vol.  iii.  p.  174,  on  the  Gnomon,— Smith,  Did  of  Anti- 
quilira,  art  Horii  ffiunu— Gov  eh,  on  a  Roman  Horologium  found  in  Paly,  Archxoloeia  (as  cited  P.  IV.  §  243.  3),  vol.  i.  p.  172, 
with  a  plale— For  delineations  of  several  aucieut  sun-dials,  see  Calmet,  as  cited  §  168  b.  vol.  iii  p.  363. 

§  189.  The  month.  This  division,  without  much  doubt,  had  its  origin  in  the  various 
phases  or  changes  in  the  moon.  It  included  the  time  of  the  moon's  revolution  round 
the  earth,  or  between  two  new  moons,  or  two  successive  conjunctions  of  the  sun  and 
moon.  The  mean  period  is  29  days,  12  hours,  44  minutes;  it  was  considered  to  be 
lavs;  and  the  ancients  commonly  reckoned  the  month  as  consisting  alternately 
of  29  and  30  days. 

The  Greeks  thus  reckoned  their  months,  and  termed  those  which  had  30  days, 
wXtlpcts  (full),  and  6ikati>0tvoi  {ending  on  the  10//;  day) ;  those  of  29  days  they  termed 
•roiAoi  (hollow  or  deficient),  and  ivva<j>titvo\  (ending  on  the  9th  day).  Twelve  lunations 
thus  computed  formed  the  year ;  but  it  fell  short  of  the  true  solar  year  by  about  11  days 
and  a  quarter,  making  in  tour  years  about  45  days.  To  reconcile  this  and  bring  the 
computation  by  months  and  years  to  coincide  more  exactly,  another  month  was  inter- 
calated every  two  years;  ind  in  the  first  two  years  a  month  of  22  days;  and  in  the 
next  two,  a  month  of  23  days;  thus  after  a  period  of  four  years  the  lunar  and  solar 
would  begin  together;  this  was  called  the  Tero<«£r>j/>iy.  But  the  effect  of  this 
6ystem  was  to  change  the  place  of  the  months  relatively  to  the  seasons;  and  another 
system  was  adopted.  This  was  based  on  the  supposition  that  the  solar  year  was  365 
days  and  a  quarter,  while  the  lunar  was  354  ;  which  would  in  a  period  of  8  years  give 
a  difference  of  90  days;  the  adjustment  was  made  by  intercalating,  in  the  course  ot  the 
period,  three  months  of  30  days  each  ;  the  period  was  called  'Ovracrr/iok.  Its  invention 
was  attributed  to  Cleostratus  of  Tenedos  ;  it  was  universally  adopted,  and  was  followed 
in  civil  matters,  even  alter  the  more  perfect  cycle  of  Meton  was  known;  one  reason 
may  have  been  the  reciprocal  adaptation  between  the  Octaetens  and  the  Olympiad,  the 
former  including  exactly  two  of  tne  hitter. 

"  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  Grecian  months,  together  with  thoso 
<j\  the  corresponding  Julian  months,  as  near  as  they  can  be  given.  In  this  list  Scali- 
ger's  account  has  been  followed,  which,  upon  the  whole,  we  believe  the  most  cor- 
rect. ..\s  the  first  month  of  the  Athenian  year  comprised  but  a  few  days  of  the  latter 
part  ol  our  Jun«  .  and  the  greater  part  of  July,  the  latter  month  will  be  giver  as  the 
corresponding  one. — 1.  "EKaroitfiaiibv,  July;  so  called  from  the  great  number  of  Heca- 
tombt  which  were  nsualiv  sacrificed  in  this  month. — 2.  Mcrayeirvtbjv,  August;  so  called 
from  the  sacrifices  which  were  then  offered  to  Apollo  Ksrayetrvios,  because  on  this 
mouth  the  inhabitants  of  Melite  li  It  their  island  and  removed  to  Attica. — 3.  lion^popiiojv, 
September;    which  was   so  called   from   the   festival   termed   Bo^eprffjiu. — 4.   IlvavcUnaiv, 

i),  i r,h,  ,■;  bo  called  because  in  this  month,  after  the  fruits  of  the  year  were  gathered, 
i  '1  up,  the  clue'  of  which  consisted  in  boiled  pulse  [eaten  in  memory 
n(  the  food  oi  Thest  us  on  the  tost  day  of  his  voyage  from  Crete]. — 5.  Matixanrriptoj 


P.  I.  DIVISION    OF    TIME.       THE    MONTH.  61 

November;  so  called  from  Jupiter  MaipaKrns,  the  boisterous,  because  in  this  month  the 
weather  was  very  tempestuous. — 6.  Uoactoeoiv,  December;  in  which  month  sacrifices 
were  offered  to  liooti&wv,  Neptune;  as  if  it  were  called  Neptune's  month. — 7.  VapnXiuv, 
January;  which  was  sacred  to  Juno  Ta^/jAioj,  (he  goddess  of  marriage. — 8.  'AvOeorn. 
piuiv,  February;  which  took  its  name  from  the  festival  of  the  sa  ne  name. — 9.  'EXo- 
<pnl3o\ta>i>,  March;  so  called  from  the  festival  'EXaajr/BoXia,  which  was  sacred  to  Diana 
'EAd<£r;/?<jAuf,  the  huntress,  because  this  was  the  month  for  hunting  stags. — 10.  Moui/u- 
X'-^i  April;  in  which  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Diana  Moowxia,  trom  the  harbor  of 
this  name,  in  which  she  had  a  temple. — 11.  QanyriXiiiv,  May;  in  which  month  sacri- 
fices were  offered  for  the  ripening  of  the  earth's  fruits. — 12.  XKif/pudupttov,  June;  so 
called  from  a  festival  of  the  same  name  celebrated  in  this  month  in  honor  of  Mi- 
nerva.  Every  month  was  divided  into  rpia  Sexipepa,  three  decades  of  days.     The 

first  of  which  was  called  pivot  apxopivov  or  lorapivov,  the  decade  of  the  beginning  ;  the 
lecond,  pivot  peoovvToc.,  the  decade  of  the  middle;  and  the  third,  pivot  <pVivoi>rot,  or 
tavupivoo,  the  decade  of  the  end.  The  first  day  of  the  first  decade  was  called  vtopivia, 
because  it  happened  on  the  new  moon  ;  the  second,  ievripa  laraptvov,  and  so  on  to 
icxiiTT)  larapivov,  the  tenth  day  of  the  month.  The  first  day  of  the  second  decade,  or  the 
eleventh  day,  was  called  ^qojti)  ptaovvrot,  the  first  of  the  middle,  or  irpdrr]  Iwi  fiiKa,  the 
first  after  ten;  the  second,  ievrepa  pcoovvrot,  and  so  on  to  the  twentieth  day  («»*««)>  or 
the  last  day  of  the  second  decade.  The  first  day  of  the  third  decade  was  called  ^n^Ti 
In'  eU&St,  or  itpo>rr\  ipBhovTOi,  and  so  on.  The  last  day  of  the  month  was  denominated 
by  Solon  hi  koX  via,  the  old  and  nev>,  as  one  par'  of  the  day  belonged  to  the  old,  and 
the  other  to  the  new  moon.  But  after  the  time  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  the  last  day 
of  the  month  received  from  him  the  name  of  Aipi-rpio-t-"    (Cleaveland.) 

On  the  Allic  months,  cf.  Classical  Journal,  IX  324,  559—  L.  Idela,  cited  P.  V.  5  7.  7.  (c). 

%  191a.  The  Romans  are  said  to  have  had  under  Romulus  only  10  months;  but 
Numa  introduced  the  division  into  12,  according  to  that  of  the  Greeks. — But  as  thia 
formed  only  a  lunar  year,  a  little  more  than  11  days  short  of  the  solar  year,  an  extia- 
ordinary  month  (mensis  intercalaris,  called  also  Macedonius)  was  to  be  inserted  every 
other  year.  The  intercalating  of  this  and  the  whole  care  of  dividing  the  year  was  en- 
trusted to  the  Pontifices  (P.  III.  §  228),  and  they  managed,  by  inserting  more  or 
fewer  days,  to  make  the  current  year  longer  or  shorter  as  they  for  any  reason  might 
choose  ;  and  this  finally  caused  the  months  to  be  transposed  from  their  stated  seasons, 
so  that  the  winter  months  were  carried  back  into  autumn,  and  the  autumnal  into  sum 
mer  (Cic.  Leg.  ii.  12).  Julius  Caesar  put  an  end  to  this  disorder,  by  abolishing  the  in 
tercalation  of  months,  and  adopting  a  system  which  will  be  explained  in  speaking  of 
the  year  (*  192). — The  names  of  the  Roman  months  were  the  following;  Marlins, 
March,  from  Mars,  the  supposed  father  of  Romulus,  in  whose  arrangement  of  the 
year  this  month  was  the  first  ;  Aprilis.  derived  by  some  from  the  verb  aperio,  the 
month  in  which  trees  and  flowers  open  their  buds;  Mains,  May,  from  Maia,  mother 
of  Mercury;  Junius.  June,  from  Juno;  Quintilis,  the  fifth  month,  afterwards  named 
Julius.  July,  from  Julius  Caesar;  Sextilis,  sixth,  afterwards  Augustus,  August,  trom 
Augustus  Caesar;  September,  seventh  month;  October,  eighth;  November,  ninth;  De- 
cember, tenth;  Januarius,  Januarv.  from  Janus;  Februarius,  February,  so  called  from 
the  purifications  Ftbrua  performed  in  this  month  (F.  III.  §  230),  being  the  last  of  the 
year. 

The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  personified  the  Months  and  the  Seasons  as  well  as  the  Hours  , 
a  further  account  of  these  personifications  is  given  in  P.  II.  $  105. 

In  Plate  IX.  are  representations  of  the  Four  Seasons,  as  sculptured  on  the  Arch  cf  Severus  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  186.  2). 

$  191  b.  The  Romans  divided  the  month  into  three  parts  by  the  points  termed  Ka 
lenda-  or  Calenda,  Nona,  and  Idus.  The  Calends  were  always  the  1st  of  the  month ; 
the  Nones  were  the  5th,  and  the  Ides  the  13th  of  each  month,  excepting  March,  May, 
July,  and  October ;  in  which  four  months  the  Nones  fell  on  the  7th,  and  the  Ides  on 
the  15th  day.  In  marking  the  days  of  the  month,  the  Romans  counted  backwarus 
from  these  three  fixed  points,  including  always  the  day  from  which  the  reckoning  began; 
e.  g.  the  last  or  thirty-first  day  of  December  was  called  the  second  from  the  Calends 
of  January,  pridie  [ante]  Kalendas  Januarii;  the  last  day  but  one  or  30th  of  Decem- 
ber, was  called  the  third  from  or  before  the  Calends  of  January,  terlio  [die  ante]  Kal. 
Jan.;  and  so  on  back  to  the  13th  day,  which  was  called  Idus;  the  12th  was  pridie 
Idus,  and  so  on  back  to  the  5th,  which  was  the  Nona;  the  4th,  by  this  plan  of 
reckoning,  would  be  of  course  Pridie  Nonas. 

U'.  La  Stout,  Calendrier  Rnmain,  in  the  Mem  Acad  tnicr.  vol.  uyL  p.  219. 

A  Roman  Calendar,  compiled  from  Ovid,  Columella,  and  Pliny,  which  notes  the  risin?  and  setting  of  the  stars,  the  Roman  rfc.i 
*als,  &c,  is  Riven  in  Pauly'  Eocyclopadie  (cited  P.  III.  §  13.  5)  j  it  may  be  seen  in  Smiths  Diet,  of  Antiq.  art.  Calendar.—  See  llsc 
foggmi,  as  cited  P.  IV   §  133.  6. 

The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  had  no  division  properly  answering  to  our  weeks  ;  although 
the  foimer  had  their  decade  of  davs  (>  \90) ;  and  the  latter  their  nundinal,  or  market  days  occur 
ring  every  ninth  day  (P  III.  $  229).  But  the  Egyptians  and  oriental  nations  had  a  ueek  of  sever 
days.  This  division  (hebdomades)  was  introduced  among  the  Romans,  it  is  said,  not  far  from  "ft* 


ft2  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

et>e\/inine  nf  the  third  century  after  Christ.  The  days  were  named  after  the  planets  or  pagan 
Sunday;  Luna,  Monday;  Martis,  Tuesdays  Mereurii,  Wednesday;  Joins, 
Thursday;  Veneris,  Friday ;  Saturni,  Saturday.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  our  names  for  the 
days  had  a  similar  origin,  as  is  -  en  bj  observing  their  Saxon  derivation  ;  Sunnadag,  Sun's  day; 
JH  ,  Moon's  day;  Tuesdag,  da\   of  fuisco  (i.e.  Mars);   fVodensdmg,  day  of  Wodin  <>r 

Odin,  a   northern  deity;  Thorsdag,  day  of  1  hor,  a  deity  answering  to  Jupiier ;  Frigdag,  day  of 
.  the  Venus  of  the  north  .  daj  of  Sauer  or  Sealer  (i.  e.  Saturn,  cf.  P.  II.  J  1(5.  2.) 

%  192.  The  year.  This  division  was  probably  not  formed  until  some  considerable 
advances  had  been  made  in  astronomical  3cience;  and  il  was  long  after  its  first  adop- 
tion before  it  attained  to  any  thing  urate  form. — The  most  ancient  year  oi 
wlm  h  we  know,  was  thai  consisting  of  12  months  supposed  to  contain  30  days  each, 

thus  am iin<*  to  360  days.     It  has  been  conjectured  that  this  gave  rise  to  the  divi- 

l  equal  pans  or  degrees,  which  is  still  preserved.     But  it 
was  soon  found  that  this  lei  I  short  of  the  actual  year,  or  the  time  of  a  revolution  of  the 
Idition  oi  :>  days  was  made,  so  that  the  year  consisted  of  365  days ; 
this  to  the  Thebans.     The  Grecian  year,  however,  as  established  by  So- 

lon and  continued  to  the  time  of  Meton  and  even  after,  consisted  of  365  days  and  a 
quarter. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Greeks  made  their  compulation  by  the  lunar  months  to  agree  with  the  solar  year,  has  already  been 
(§  1^9) Cf.  GiLcrt,  L'aunee  Grecque,  in  lhe  Man.  Acad.  Inter,  vol.  xxxv.  p.  133. 

The  Roman   year  stems  to  have  consisted  of  365  days  until  the  time  of  Julius 
he  method  employed  by  the  Romans  of  previous  ages  to  adjust  their  com- 
putation by  lunar  months  to  the  solar  year  has  also  been  mentioned  (§  191),  and  like- 
wise  the  confusion  which  resulted  from  it.     This  Caesar  attempted  to  remedy  (cf.  P. 
\  1        He  instituted  a  year  of  365  days  6  hours.     To  remove  the  error  of  80 

davs.  which  computed  time   had  gained  of  actual  time,  he  ordered  one  year  of  445 
[us  -(i  ,  which  was  called  ihe    Year  of  confusion.     And  to  secure  a  proper 
allowance  lor  the  6  hours  which  had  been  disregarded,  but  which  would  amount   in  4 
vears  to  a  day,  be  directed  that  one  additional  day  should  he  intercalated  in  ihe  reckon- 
I  (  very  4th  year;  thus  each 4th  year  would  have  366  days,  the  others  365. — This 
is  called  the  Julian  year.    In  ihe  Roman  calendar  the  intercalated  day  was  placed  alter 
the  6th  (sextus)  of  the  Calends  of  March,  and  therefore  called  bissextus;   hence  the 
se  bissextile  year  still  in  use. 

Bui  m  this  plan  iliere  was  still  an  error.  The  day  was  intercalated  too  soon  ;  i.  e.  before  a  whole  day  had  been  gained  ;  because 
conipuv  i   gaining  6  hours  a  year,  sained  only  5  hours  4S  in.  57  sec.  and  in  four  years  would  gain  only  23  A.  15  m. 

.  v>  ihe  intercalated  day  was  inserted  too  soon  by  II  minutea  and  12  seconds ;  of  course,  computed  time,  by  this  plan,  losl 
44  m.  I J  lee,  every  four  years,  or  II  m.  3  sec  every  year.  In  131  years  Ibis  makes  a  loss  of  computed  lime,  of  one  day  ;  i.  e.  com- 
pu.'t't  time  would  be  one  day  behind  actual  lime.  In  A.  I).  1582  this  loss  bad  amounted  to  len  days,  and  Pope  Gregory  I3(h 
attempt!  I  vil  I  y  a  new  expe  lient     This  was,  to  drop  the  intercalary  day  or  Ihe  bissertile,  every  100th  year  exrept- 

/njeach  400th  year.     By  the  Julian  year,  computed  lime  loses  II  to.  3  sec.  a  year,  which  nnkes  about  19  hours  in  100  years;  drop- 
pins  Ihe  intercalary  day  on  Ihe  lOOlh  year  makes  up  this  lots  of  19  hnurs,  and  gives  also  a  gain  of  about  5  hours ;  dropping  il  on  Ihe 
neil  lUOlh  year  gives  anolher  gain  of  5  hours  to  computed  time  ;  so  nf  lhe  third  lOOlh  ye:ir;  and  in  this  way  computed  time  gains 
•factual  'line,  in  300  years,  15  hours;  if  on  the  next  100th  year,  i.  e.  i  lie  fourth,  the  intercalary  day  be  inserted,  computed  time 
loees  for  Ibal  rentnrv  10  hours;  bul    (0  meet  tins  loss,  it  had  in  Hie  three  preceding  cenlnries  gained  5  hours  in  ea'-h,  and  in  all  15 
e  loss  is  only  (19—15)  I  hours  ll  Hie  end  of  100  years      By  this  method  ihe  difference  between  computed  and  aclual 
time  cannot  amount  to  a  day  in  2500  years.     In  thistsystem,  called  the  Grecian  Calendar,  the  years  1600,  2000,  2400  are  inte:'- 
Uld  'he  year,  1700,  l«00,  1900,  2100,  2200,  230U,  tic.,  not  —The  Gregorian  year  was  immediately  adopted  in  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, and  Italy  ;  and  during  the  sum-  year  i1   France ;  in  Catholic  Germany,  in  1583;  in  Protestant  Germany  and  Denmark,  in  1700 ; 
In  England  it  -  i  -'.  by  acl  of  Parliament  directing  Ihe  3d  nf  September  Ic  l"-  styled  the  14th,  as 

compote  I  lime  had  lost  1 1  daya,    'this  irai  railed  the  change  from  Old  toNew  Style. — In  1832,  Russia  was  said  to  he  the  only  counts} 
where  the  Julian  year  or  ihe  Old  S'yle  was  used.     Il  is.  however,  retained  in  the  Greek  and  Armenian  churches.  (Miti.  Herald,  foi 
l    —  Bn  the  Gregorian  Calendar,  see  Ck.  ClavilU,  Rnmani  Calendar'!!  a  Gregorio  XIII.  P.  M.  resliluti  F.xplicalio. 

Different  nations  have  begun  the  year  at  different  seasons  or  months.  The  Romans  at  one  time 
considered  it  as  beginning  in  March,  bul  afterwards  in  January,  The  fireeks  placed  iis  com- 
mencenient  in  Hecatombtenn,  ai  the  summer  solstice  The  Christian  clergy  used  n>  begin  it  at 
tbe  25th  nf  M  ireh.  The  same  was  practiced  in  England  a  nil  the  American  colonies  until  A.  D.  1752, 
•  hi  lhe  change  from  old  to  New  St)  le,  when  the  first  of  January  was  adopted. 

( 'ycles.     In  adjusting  the  different  methods  oi  computing  time,  or  the  division 
of  time   into  davs,  months,  and  years,  great   advantage  is  derived    from  the  inven- 
tion of  Cycles.     Tnese  are  periods  of  time  so  denominated  from  the  Greek  kv/cAos,  e 
i    their  compass  a  certain  revolution  is  completed.     Under  ihe  term 
we  may  properly  include  the  Grecian  Olympiad,  a  period  of  4  years ;  the  Octae- 
1         or  period  ol  ind  lhe  Roman  Lustrum,  a  period  of5  years;  and  also  ihb 

Julian  year,  or  period  "1  I  years  as  jusl  described.  The  period  of  400  years,  compre- 
hended in  tin  system  ol  Gregory  already  explained,  may  justly  be  termed  the  cycle  of 
Gregory — Besides  these,  il  seems  important  to  mention  the  Lunar  Cycle,  the  Solar 
Cycle,  the  I'mh  of  Indict  ion,  and  lhe  .Julian  Period. 

Seel  "lius  i,  Decorum  Romanorumque  Cyclil,  die.  Dissert,  decern.  Lond.  1701.  4  .— 

I  ular  Cycle,  in  his  //ni  oj  Same,  vol.  i  p.  2  9.  ad.  Phil.  1835. 

The  Lunar  Cych  is  a  period  of  19  years.  lis  object  is  to  accommodate  the 
computation  ol  time  by  the  moon  to  the  compulation  by  the  sun  or  adjust  the  solar 
mri  lunii:  vears.     The  nearest  division  of  the  year  by  months  is  into  twelve;  bul  twelve 


P.  I  MEANS    OF    ASCERTAINING    DATES.  63 

lunations  (which  make  the  lunar  year)  fall  short  of  the  solar  year  by  about  11  days. 
Of  course,  every  change  in  the  moon  in  any  year  will  occur  eleven  days  earlier  than  it 
did  on  the  preceding  year;  e.  g.  if  in  September  of  the  present  year  full  moon  occurs 
on  the  16th,  the  corresponding  full  moon  of  the  next  year  will  occur  on  the  5th  oi  Sep- 
tember.— Hence  every  year  the  various  changes  in  the  moon  fall  back  as  calculated  by 
the  days  of  the  year.  At  the  expiration  of  19  years  they  occur  again  nearly  at  the 
same  time. 

This  Cycle  was  invented  by  Metnn,  an  Athenian  astronomer,  who  flourished  about  B.  C.  430. 
Many  attempts  had  before  been  made  to  adjust  the  solar  and  lunar  years  (}  189),  and  this  im- 
provement was  at  the  time  received  with  universal  approbation  ;  but  not  being  perfectly  accu- 
rate, it  was  afterwards  corrected  by  Eudnxus,  and  subsequently  by  Calippus.  The  Cycle  of 
Meton  was  employed  by  the  Greeks  to  settle  the  time  of  their  festivals  ;  and  the  use  of  it  was 
discontinued  when  these  festivals  ceased  to  be  celebrated.  "The  Council  of  Nice,  however, 
wishing  to  establish  some  method  for  adjusting  the  new  and  full  moons  to  the  sparse  of  the  sun, 
with  a  view  of  determining  the  time  of  Easter,  adopted  it  as  the  best  adapter  ;br  the  purpose; 
and  from  its  great  utility  they  caused  the  numbers  of  it  to  be  written  on  the  calendar  in  golden 
letters,  which  has  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  the  Golden  Number."  The  name  of  GuUen  Num- 
ber is  still  applied  to  the  current  year  of  the  Lunar  Cycle,  and  is  always  given  in  the  Almanac. 

§  195.  The  Solar  Cycle  is  a  period  of  28  years.  Its  use  is  to  adjust  the  days  of  the 
week  to  the  days  of  the  month  and  the  year.  As  the  year  consists  of  52  weeks  and 
one  day,  it  is  plain  that  it  must  begin  and  end  on  the  same  day.  Let  the  seven  letters 
A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  represent  the  seven  days  of  the  week,  A  being  always  applied 
to  the  first  day  of  the  year.  Let  January  begin  with  Monday.  Of  course  A  will  stand 
for  Monday,  and  Sunday  coming  on  the  7th  day  will  be  represented  by  G,  the  7th  let- 
ter. The  year  will  end  with  Monday,  as  it  began  with  it ;  and  A,  the  next  year,  will 
stand  for  Tuesday,  and  Sunday  will  be  on  the  6ih  day  of  the  year,  and  be  represented 
by  F.  Thus  the  year  will  commence  one  day  later  every  common  year,  and  Sunday 
will  be  represented  successively  by  the  letters  taken  in  their  retrograde  order,  G,  F,  E, 
&.C.,  and  if  52  weeks  and  one  day  were  the  exact  year,  or  there  were  no  leap  year,  the 
year  would,  after  seven  years,  again  begin  on  Monday,  the  same  iay  with  the  first 
year  supposed.  But  the  leap  year,  consisting  of  52  weeks  and  two  days,  interrupts  the 
regular  succession  every  fourth  year,  and  the  return  to  the  same  day  of  the  week  is 
not  effected  until  4  times  seven,  i.  e.  28  years. 

This  Cycle  is  employed  particularly  to  furnish  a  rule  for  finding  Sunday,  or  to  ascertain  the 
Dominical  Letter.  Chronologers  employ  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  to  designate  the 
seven  days  of  the  week  ;  and  the  Dominical  Letter  for  any  year  is  the  letter  which  represents 
Sunday  for  that  year.  Tables  are  given  for  the  purpose  of  finding  it  in  chronological  and  astro- 
nomical books. 

§  196.  The  Cycle  of  Indiction  is  a  period  of  15  years.  The  origin  and  primary  use 
of  this  has  been  the  subject  of  various  conjectures  and  discussions.  It  seems  to  have 
been  established  by  Constantine  the  Great,  in  the  fourth  century,  as  a  period  at  the  end 
of  which  a  certain  tribute  should  be  paid  by  the  different  provinces  of  the  empire.  Pub- 
lic acts  of  the  emperors  were  afterwards  dated  by  the  years  of  this  cycle. 

The  cycle,  which  has  been  perhaps  most  celebrated,  is  that  which  is  termed  the 
Julian  Period,  and  was  invented  by  Joseph  Scaliger.  Its  object  was  to  furnish  a  com- 
mon language  for  chronologers,  by  forming  a  series  of  years,  some  term  of  which 
should  be  fixed,  and  to  which  the  various  modes  of  reckoning  years  might  be  easily 
applied.  To  accomplish  this,  he  combined  the  three  cycles  of  the  moon,  sun,  and  in- 
diction, multiplying  19,  28  and  15  into  one  another,  which  produces  7980,  after  which 
all  the  three  cycles  will  return  in  the  same  order,  every  year  taking  again  the  same 
number  of  each  cycle  as  before.  Taking  the  several  cycles  as  settled  in  the  Latin 
church,  and  tracing  them  back,  he  found  that  the  year  when  they  would  begin  together 
was  the  year  710  before  the  creation  as  now  dated,  and  that  the  first  year  of  the  Chris- 
tian Era  as  now  computed  was  4714  of  the  Julian  Period. 

This  invention  would  be  of  great  importance  if  we  had  no  acknowledged  epoch,  or  fixed 
year,  from  which  to  compute  ;  but  since  we  have  such  an  epoch,  it  seem9  to  be  unnecessary 
its  use  is  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  general  adoption  of  the  Christian  era  as  a  fixec 
standard 


II. — Of  fixing  the  Dates  of  historical  events  and  arranging  them  in  order. 

</  197.  To  arrange  events  methodically  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence,  and  assign 
he  proper  dates,  is  the  second  part  of  Chronology.  In  the  consideration  of  this  par'. 
t?e  shall  notice  the  following  topics  ;  (^4)  The  methods  employed  to  ascertain  the  dates 
of  events,  or  the  time  when  they  occurred  ;  (B)  The  epochs  and  eras  which  have  beer, 
employed  or  are  still  in  use  ;  (C)  The  systems  of  arrangement,  and  chronological  tables 
and  charts;  (D)  The  actual  dates  of  the  most  prominent  events  in  classical  Chronology. 

$  198.  (4)  Methods  employed  to  ascertain  the  dales  of  events, — Here  we  observe, 


64  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY- 

that  the  principal  helps  or  sources  are  four.  First,  Vve  will  notice  that  furnished  by 
observations  on  generations  of  men  or  successions  of  Kings. — It  has  been  supposed 
thai  the  average  length  of  a  king's  reign,  or  of  a  generation  of  men,  may  be  estimated 
by  comparing  a  sufficienl  number  oi  tacts.— When  this  average  is  taken,  and  we  ar«. 
lold  by  a  writer  how  many  generations  Lived,  or  how  many  kings  reigned,  between  two 
:    we  CRnai  once  find  tl  ween  them;  and  if  the  date  ot  either  event  is 

knov(  r  will  follow.     This  is  the  only  Chronology  of  the  earliest 

writi  rs,  and  is  used  in  the  Bible.  The  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  used  it.  Gene- 
rally tbey  reckoned  a  generation  and  a  reign  as  of  the  same  length;  three  of  them 
equal  to  100  years.  Sir  Isaac  ZV<  wton  employed  this  means  of  ascertaining  dates,  anc 
maintained  that  the  average  for  reigns  of  kings  is  only  20  years;  and  for  generations, 
39  or  30  years,  if  reckoned  bv  eldest  sons,  and  33.  if  reckoned  by  others.  On  these 
prim  i|  rmpted  to  rectify  ancient  chronology,  giving  to  many  events  a  date 

cent  th».  other  authors. 

It  may  he  desirable  to  give  a  further  explanation  of  this  method  hy  two  illustrations,  (a)  The 
late  of  the  n  turn  of  the  Heraclids  to  Peloponnesus  is  disputed  ;  but  the  date  of  the  Battle  of 
rhermopyls  is  Bettled,  B.  <:.  480.  Now  between  these  two  events  there  reigned  at  Sparta  a  suc- 
cession  of  17  kings  ;  17  multiplied  by  20  gives  340  years  between  the  events,  making  the  return 
Heraclidffl  IS  C.  (480  plus  340)  820 ;  a  date  280  years  later  than  as  given  by  other  chrnno- 
logers. — (6)  The  date  of  the  Argonautic  Expedition  is  disputed  ;  but  the  beginning  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War  Bettled,  H  C.  431.  Now  it  is  found,  that  Hippocrates,  living  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War,  was  descended  the  18th  from  ^Esculapius  by  father's  side,  and  19ih  from 
Hercules  by  mother's  side,  and  that  jSEsculapius  and  Hercules  were  both  Argonauts;  that  is, 
there  were  17  generations  in  one  line  and  18  in  another,  between  the  two  events.  Taking  the 
medium  17'  and  multiplying  by  29  gives  .r>67;  making  the  date  of  the  Argonautic  Expedition, 
li   (     (431  pins  .r>t"i7)  998  ;  326  later  than  by  other  chronnlogers. 

But  there  are  two  grand  objections  to  ibis  method  of  ascertaining  dates.  First,  the  inaccuracy 
and  uncertainty  of  the  average  ;  it  cannot  be  very  satisfactorily  or  exactly  determined.  Secondly, 
the  fact  that  ancient  writers^  in  naming  a  succession  of  kings  or  giving  a  genealogy,  often  omit 
several  of  the  series.  This  is  done  in  Matthew,  ch.  i.,  for  the  sake  of  reducing  the  number  of 
generations  between  the  great  epochs  mentioned  in  the  17th  verse,  to  exactly  fourteen. 

§  199.  A  second  help  is  found  in  celestial  appearances  and  changes.  This  method  is 
in  general  more  safe  and  certain,  as  it  depends  on  strict  astronomical  principles  perfectly 
1      The  appearances  employed  are  eclipses  and  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes. 

(a)  Eclipses.  The  ancients  were  very  superstitious  as  to  eclipses.  Many  are  re- 
corded, and  mentioned  as  happening  at  the  same  time  with  important  events  in  history, 
and  described  so  thai  they  may  be  recognized  by  the  astronomer,  who  can  calculate 
wiih  perfect  accuracy  the  time  of  every  eclipse  that  has  happened. 

We  will  give  illustrations.  Thucydides,  in  relating  the  attempt  of  the  Athenians  on  the  Syra- 
cusans,  savs  that  Nirias,  finding  the  Syracusans  reinforced  and  himself  in  danger,  determined 
to  sail  nut  of  the  harbor  of  Syracuse;  but  when  everything  was  ready  for  sailing,  the  moon  was 
eclipsed,  for  it  was  then  full  moon  ;  by  this  appearance  the  Athenian  soldiers  were  filled  with 
alarm,  and  besought  Nicias  not  to  proceed  ;  and  in  consequence  tbey  almost  to  a  man  perished. 
This  evenl  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  about  B.  C.  413.— Now  it  is  found  by  calculation, 
that  the  moon  was  full  at  Syracuse  the  27th  day  of  August,  B.  C.  413,  and  that  there  must  have 
been  a  total  ellipse  there,  visible  from  beginning  to  end,  and  likely  to  produce  on  the  soldiers 

the  effect  which  Thucydides  mentions. The  date  of  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  B.  C.  747,  is  also 

determined  by  a  record  of  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  in  Ptolemy's  Almagest  (cf.  P.  V.  $  218) . 

In  a  Bimilir  way,  Ftrgtaon,  in  his  Astronomy,  propose*  to  fix  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  It  is  evident  from  Matthew  ii.  1J- 
15,  20,  21,  that  Christ  was  born  only  some  months  before  the  death  of  Herod  ;  and  from  Josephus  (B.  xvii.  ch.  8)  we  learn  that  there 
was  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  at  the  lime  of  Herod's  last  sickness  ;  astronomical  calculation  shows  that  the  eclipse  occurred  March  13, 
in  the  year  4710  of  the  Julian  Period ;  hence  the  birth  of  Christ  could  not  have  been  later  than  about  the  close  of  the  4709th  of  the 
Julian  Period. — The  same  author  refers  to  the  mention  made  by  Phlegon  (cf.  P.  V.  \  239)  of  a  most  extraordinary  eclipse  of  the  sun 
as  occurring  in  the  4'h  year  of  the  202d  Olympiad,  and  would  employ  it  as  a  help  in  determining  the  date  of  Christ's  death  ;  since  no 
natural  eclipse  could  occur  the  year  specifkd,  which  corresponds,  according  to  Ferguson,  to  the  4746th  of  the  Julian  Period,  he  thinks 

the  nir'  1  l.legon  was  the  supernatural  darkness  that  markec  the  Savior's  crucifixion. In  Playjair's  System  oi 

Chronul'  •     cited  I     V,  ,  7.  7.  (c),  is  a  list  of  eclipses  that  were  observed  before  the  Christian  era,  also,  in  Fergtwon's  Astronomy. 

M<  re  Lunar  awiarances  may  be  employed  in  the  same  way.     By  comparing  Mark  xv.  42.   Luke    xxiii.  5-1.  and  John  xviii.  28, 

ten!  il"i  'lie  crucifixion  was  on  Friday,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Passover;  it  is  kuown  from  other  sources  (cf.  Joit- 

phut,  Ant.  H.  iii.  ch   I0J  that  ttie  Passover  was  kept  en  the  day  of  the  first  full  moon  after  the  vernal  equinox.     Ferguson  says  he 

I  calculation  'hat  ''  Ibe  only  Passover  full  moon  that  fell  on  Friday,  for  several  years  before  or  after  the  disputed  year  of  the 

I     VI  as  on  April  3d,  in  the  4746th  year  of  the  Julian  Period." — Cf.  fkrguson,  as  cited  §  203. 

Precession  of  the  Equinoxes.  The  equinoxes,  being  the  points  where  the  equator 
crosses  the  ecliptic,  are  nut  precisely  the  same  from  year  to  year ;  but  they  move  back- 
ward  i  e.  in  the  west)  50  seconds  every  year,  or  1  degree  in  72  years.  If,  then,  the 
place  "I  'he  equinox  in  the  ecliptic  at  the  time  of  any  event  is  staled,  we  may  determine 
the  date  <>t  the  event,  by  noticing  how  far  the  equinox  has  now  receded  from  the  place 
n  then  held,  ami  allowing  ?'J  years  lor  a  degree.  The  only  objection  to  ibis  method  is 
the  difficulty,  perhaps  impossibility  of  deciding  what  point  the  equinoxes  actually  did 
occupy  at  the  tune  ol  particular  events  in  ancienl  history 

EMr  1  New  inn  applied  this  principle  also  to  settle  the  time  of  the  Argonautic  Expedition. — A 
sphere,  representing  >ae  heavens  with  the  constellations,  is  said  by  ancient  writers  to  have  been 
'.iriin-il  I    r  Hi.-   krgnnnutS,  by  Chiron  ;  mi  this  sphere,  it  is  also  said,  the  equinox  was  placed  in 

i.   ninl. lb-  point  in  the  siyu  Aries.     In  the  year  1089,  the  equinox  had  ttone  back  from  that  point 


P.  I.  EPOCHS    AND    ERAS.  65 

3fi  degress  44  minutes  :  this,  allowing  72  years  for  a  degree,  gives  a  period  of  2645  years  between 
the  year  lfi89  ami  the  Expedition  ;  making  it  B.  C.  'J55 ;  nearly  the  same  as  liy  the  calculatioo 

from  generations  by  the  same  author. II  it  be  stated  how  a  star  rises  or  sets  in  relation  to  the 

sun,  the  place  of  the  equinox  may  be  found,  and  dates  ascertained,  in  the  way  just  mentioned. - 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  others  have  employed  this  to  ascertain  the  tune  when  llesiod  lived.  In 
a  passHge  in  the  Works  and  Days  [vs.  504],  Hesiod  says,  that  Jlrcturus  rose  at  sunset,  till  days 
after  the  sun  entered  the  winter  solstice,  a  point  90  degrees  distant  from  the  equinox. — Hut  the 
place  of  tbe  equinox  cannot  be  settled  with  certainty  m  this  way  ;  because  it  cannot  be  cer- 
tainly known  whether  th>*  ancient  writer  means  his  own  time  and  residence  or  not,  whether  he 
means  true  or  apparent  rising,  or  even  what  constellation  or  star  he  means  exactly.  Cf.  Losturd, 
in  the  I'liilusuphical  Transactions,  vol.  xlviii    p.  2. 

$  200.  A  third  help  in  the  fixing  of  dates  is  found  in  the  coins,  medals,  monuments,  and 
inscriptions,  which  are  preserved  for  the  benefit  of  succeeding  ages.  These  olien  throw 
great  light  upon  historical  events,  and  afford  important  aid  in  ascertaining  the  time  of 
their  occurrence.  Interesting  facts  are  sometimes  first  made  known,  and  the  period 
when  they  took  place  is  often  indicated,  by  the  face  of  a  medal,  or  the  representations 
on  a  public  monument. — Inscriptions  are  of  still  greater  service.  As  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  these  we  must  mention  the  chronicle  of  Paros,  which  fixes  the  date  ot  the 
chief  events  in  Grecian  hisiory  from  Cecrops  down  to  the  time  of  Alexander.  (See 
I\  IV.  $91.4.) 

§  201.  The  fourth  source  is  furnished  by  the  testimony  of  historians,  who  state  the 
distance  between  events,  or  between  events  and  an  epoch.  The  early  historians  paid 
very  little  attention  to  the  subject  of  chronology  ;  it  was  not  until  a  comparatively  late 
period,  that  they  began  to  think  of  dates  and  distances  of  time.  The  principal  frag- 
ments of  the  earlier  writers,  Eratosthenes,  Apollodorus,  and  Thrasyllus,  are  still  to  be 
found  in  the  Chronicon  of  Eusebius,  and  the  Stromata  ot  Clemens  Alexandrinus.  The 
writings  of  the  Byzantine  Chroniclers  are  also  of  service  ;  particularly  the  chronologi- 
cal work  {"EKhiyri  Xpovoypcupias)  of  Syncellus.  It  is  chiefly  from  this  and  the  above- 
mentioned  work  of  Eusebius,  that  the  details  of  the  commonly  received  Chronology  have 
been  gathered.     (Cf.  $  205;  and  P.  V.  §  236,  239,  288.) 

§  202.  (B)  Epochs  and  Eras  employed  in  Chronology. — It  is  essential  to  correct  and 
exact  chronology  that  there  should  be  some  fixed  epoch,  to  which  all  events  may  be 
referred  and  De  measured  by  their  distance  from  it.  But  it  is  of  comparatively  little 
consequence  what  the  epoch  is,  provided  it  is  fixed  and  acknowledged,  as  it  is  perfectly 
easy  to  compute  in  a  retrograde  manner  the  time  before  it,  as  well  as  in  a  direct  man- 
ner the  time  after  it.  An  epoch  is  distinguished  from  an  era.  Epoch  is  the  point  of 
time  which  is  taken  as  a  starting-place  from  which  to  reckon,  and  taktu  usually  be- 
cause signalized  by  some  important  event.  Era  is  the  space  of  time,  that  follows  the 
epoch ;  the  series  of  years  computed  from  it. — The  two  terms  may  be  interchanged  as 
nearly  synonymous,  because  every  era  has  its  epoch  and  every  epoch  its  era. 

§  203.  The  following  are  the  most  important  eras,  which  are  noticed  in  Chronology. 
—  (a)  Era  of  Olympiads-  The  Greeks  for  a  long  time  had  no  fixed  epoch  ;  but  after- 
wards reckoned  by  Olympiads,  periods  of  4  years.  They  began  776  B.  C.  A  new 
Olympiad  era,  however,  came  into  use  under  the  Roman  emperors,  beginning  A.  D. 
131. — (o)  Era  of  Rome.  The  Romans  often  reckoned  by  lustrums,  often  by  the  year 
of  the  consul  or  the  emperor.  The  building  of  the  city  was  their  grand  epoch.  This 
was  752  B.  C.  (It  is  placed  by  some  753  or  754.) — (c)  Era  of  Nabonassar  (or  Belesis). 
Used  by  some  historians;  the  commencement  of  Nabonassar's  reign  at  Babylon,  747 
B.  C. — (d)  Era  of  the  Seleucida.  From  the  reign  of  Seleucus  and  his  descendants  in 
Syria.  The  Jews  chiefly  used  this.  The  Nestorians  still  compute  from  it.  (Researches 
of  Smith  and  V wight,  vol.  ii.  p.  257.)  It  is  usually  dated  312  B.  C.  when  Seleucus 
recovered  Babylon,  10  years  before  the  real  commencement  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria. 
— (e)  Era  of  Diocletian.  This  was  founded  on  the  persecution  of  Christians  in  the 
reign  of  Diocletian.  It  was  used  by  Christians  until  the  Christian  era  was  adopted. 
It  began  284  A.  D. — (/)  The  Mahometan  Era  or  Hegira  ;  founded  on  the  flight  of 
Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  A.  D.  622. — (g)  The  Persia?i  Era,  or  Era  of  Yezde- 
jerd;  founded  on  the  reign  of  a  Persian  king,  named  Yezdejerd,  A.  D.  632. — (//)  The 
Christian  Era  ;  Annus  Domini;  the  year  of  our  Lord.  This  era  is  founded  on 
the  birth  of  Christ,  but  chronologers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  year  of  his  birth ;  some 
placing  it  s"ven  years  before  the  received  epoch,  others  four  years.  This,  however,  is 
of  no  consequence  as  respects  the  utility  of  the  era  in  chronology,  because  all,  who 
adopt  the  Christian  era,  agree  to  call  the  same  year  by  the  same  numerical  date  ;  al! 
meaning  [e.  g.)  identically  the  same  year  by  A.  D.  1836.  The  era  began  to  be  used 
about  A.  D.  360,  according  to  some  writers;  but  others  state  tha*  ;t  was  invented  by 
Dionysius,  a  monk,  A.  D.  527. 

Oo  'he  Christen  Era,  see  J,  Priestley,  Lectures  on  Hisiory,  L.  xn.—J.  Guil.  Jani,  Historid  iErae  Dionysianse  —  G.  Hambergei,  De 
Epochs  Christiana?  ortu  et  auctore.— Manne.  Dissertation  on  the  Birth  of  Christ.— Cf.  Lard-ier,  Credibility  of  the  Gospel,  &c  Part 
vol.  ii  p.  196.— Ferguson's  Astronomy,  by  D.  Brewster,  Phil.  1817  2  vols.  8.  i.  460-65. 

Perliaps  we  should  mention  here  the  Era  oj  the  French  Republic,  which  the  revolutionists  attempted  to  establish.  This  was  intro- 
duced ic  1793,  with  a  fornftl  rejection  of  the  Sabbath  and  of  the  hebdom'raal  week,  and  a  novel  arrangement  and  pedantic  nomen- 
clature of  the  months.  The  twenty-second  of  September  was  fixed  as  the  beginning  of  the  year.  Tbe  year  consisted  of  twelve 
months  o!   dirty  days  each ;  which  were  divided,  not  by  weeks,  but  into  three  decades,  or  periods  of  ten  days.    As  this  would  coa> 


66  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

or.se  but  360  hys  /rer  were  added  at  the  close  of  the  last  month  of  the  year,  called  complementary  days  ;  and  at  the  close  of  ever* 

year,  a  ji»/i,  called  the  day  of  Ihc  Republic.     The  cycle  of  the  four  years  was  termed  the  F ranciade.    The 

-    I  A  ii  t  u  in  n  were  named  Vmdaniairt,  Brwnatre,  Frimnire;  those  of  Winter,  NivLise,  Pluvwse,  Pentose:  those 

-if  Spi  i  n  e.  Qammai,  Flortal,  Prairial ;  tb  »e  of  Summer,  Musuior,  Thermidor,  Fructidor.    This  itib.de]  calendar  was  used 

about  Iwrli-e  years.     The  Gregorian  was  restored  January  1,  1S06. 

(C)  S„st,,ns  of   Arrangement  mid  Chronological   Tut/lea. — There  is  a  great 
ncy  between  the  various  systems  of  chronology  which  have  been  advocated  in 
different  nations  and  al  different  times.     Among  t  lie  oriental  nations  there  was  a  strong 
tr  the  honor  ol  the  earliest  antiquity,  and  hence  each  carried  back  its  chronolo- 
gical dates  into  the  regions  of  mere  fable  or  absolute  falsehood,  and  the  Egyptian? 
Babylonians,  Hindoos,  and  Chinese,  present  a  lisi  of  events  happening  hundreds  or 
i-  .'I  years  before  the  creation.     Such  systems  need  not  be  particularly  noticed 
Cf.  I'.'  IV.  5  21.) 
5  '-'(i.">.  There  are  two  systems,  one  derived  from   the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  the 
Other  from  the  Septuagint  Version,  which  are  highly  deserving  of  tne  student's  atten- 
tion.     They  differ   from   each  other  considerably;    that   drawn   from   the   Septuagint 
i  uiany  events  a  date  much  more  ancient  than  that  which  follows  the  Hebrew  ; 
i    former  places  the  flood  some  hundred  years   further  from   the  Christian  era, 
and  the  Creation  at  least  600  years  further  from  the  Flood,  than  the  latter.     There  has 
been  much  discussion  among  the  learned,  concerning  the  respective  claims  of  these  two 
We  only  remark  here,  that  the  Hebrew  chronology  is  generally  adopted. 
The  system  of  Archbishop  Usher  is  the  basis  of  the  principal  sys'ems  for  chronolo- 
gies and  charts  which  are  commonly  used.     The  system  of  Usher  is  in  general 
accordance  with  the  evidence  drawn  from  the  Hebrew  Bible,  the  Arundelian  Marbles, 
and  the  Chronicon  of  Eusebius. 

The  system  of  Sir  Isaac  Mewl  on  has  already  been  mentioned,  and  some  of  the  methods  em- 
ployed by  H ■  in  for  fixing  dates.  This  system  assigns  many  important  events,  particularly  of 
Grecian  history,  to  periods  considerably  later  than  other  s\stetns.  His  chronology  was  at  first 
received  with  some   favor,   but  is  not  usually  regarded,  although  Mitford  adopts  it. 

On  this,  see  Mitford's  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  iii.  Append.— Cf.  Shuckfords  Prof,  and  Sac.  Hist.  Conn.  bk.  vi.  Pref.— For  the  titles  of 
some  of  the  most  important  helps  on  the  subject  of  Chronology,  see  P.  V.  5  7.  7  (c);  1)299.  6.— For  others,  we  tefer  to  Home's 
In'ro.  to  Clit  Study  of  Holy  Script,  vol.  ii.  p.  730. — A  labored  defence  of  the  Septuagint  Chronology  is  made  by  Rev  /.  J  Jackson, 
in  his  Chronological  Antiquities. — See  also  Fred.  Nolan,  on  the  antiquity  and  connection  of  the  early  cycles,  and  their  utility  in 
settling  the  differences  of  chronnlogists,  in  Trans  of  Rrryal  Soc  of  Literature,  vol.  iii.  Lond  1837—  Land.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  v.  p.  4. 
—A.  B.  Chapxn,  Agreement  of  the  true  Biblical,  Egyptian,  and  Chaldean  Chronologies.  New  Haven,  1839.  pp.  16.— Cf.  Chritl. 
Specl.  June,  1837,  and  Dec.  li~3B.—.Marsham,  as  cited  P.  V.  §  236. 

-Mil.  Tables  and  charts  are  among  the  greatest  facilities  in  the  study  of  history  and 
chronology.  They  bring  before  the  eye,  ai  a  glance,  what  can  be  presented  but  gra- 
dually and  slowly  by  description  ;  the  locality  of  events  and  dates  on  the  paper  also 
helps  to  fix  them  more  firmly  in  the  memory.  Every  student  ought  to  avail  himsell 
"J  'be  aid  of  a  historical  and  chronological  chart,  either  by  purchase  or  (which  is  bet 
'   r      v  actually  forming  one  himself. 

J  207.  A  great  variety  of  plans  for  charts  have  been  adopted,  possessing  greater  or  less  degrees 
of  utility  — (a)  One  of  the  most  simple  and  obvious  plans  is  to  form  two  perpendicular  columns ; 
one  for  enents  of  every  kind  ran/red  promiscuously  in  order  of  occurrence  ;  the  other  for  their  cor- 
I  -1'  tiding  date"?  Sometimes  a  third  column  is  added  to  this  plan,  for  Biography. — (6)  Another 
plan  of  similar  nature,  but  improved,  is  to  form  several  perpendicular  columns ;  one  for  dates, 
ami  each  of  the  others  fur  a  class  of  events:  e.  g.  sovereigns  in  one,  remarkable  events  in  an- 
other, b. titles  in  another,  etc.  Such  is  tin  plan  of  Worcester's  Charts.  Both  the  plans  men- 
tioned may  be  marked  fur  centuries  by  horizontal  lines.— ic)  A  third  plan  is  the  contrivance  of  a 
-ort  nf  tree,  whose  branches  represent  nations;  and  events  are  ranged  in  them  according  to 
their  <lat"s.  the  earliest  at  the  bottom.  Such  is  the  plan  of  Eddy's  Chronology  delineated  Con- 
•  nests  iiv  a  nan.  iii  ma  v.  in  devices  of  this  kind,  be  exhibited  by  one  branch  receiving  others  into 
itself,  and  Hie  origin  .'I'  new  states  by  branches  shooting  out  from  others.— (rf)  A  fourth  plan  is 
narked  by  the  peculiarity  of  being  divided  into  periods,  limited  on  each  side  by  prominent  events. 
Such  i-  Goodrich'*  Chart.— (e)  A  fifth  plan,  worthy  of  notice,  is  that  devised  bv  Emma  Willard, 
i  ailed  "  Perspective  sketch  of  the  course  nf  Empire."  It  is  essentially  the  Chronological  Tree 
Inverted  ;  t> rliest  events  being  placed  at  the  topof  the  chart,  and  diverging  lines  being  sub- 
stituted instead  nf  the  trunk  and  brandies.  Light  ami  shade  are  employed  to  indicate  the  com- 
parative rank  and  culture  of  different  nations.     (H'illartl's  Atlas.    Hartford,  183fi.) 

But  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  tliat  in  all  these  plans  there  are  two  grand  faults  ;  1.  equal  length 
of  time  is  not  represented  tiy  equal  spaces  on  the  chart ;  2.  duration  is  represented  by  perpendi- 
cular lines,  while  the  horizontal  line  is  altogether  the  most  natural  and  must  satisfactory  repre- 
sentation.—(/)  \siitlt  plan  adopts  these  two  important  improvements,  with  the  division  into 
periods,  and  the  several  columns  for  different  classes  of  events,  allowing,  where  the  scale  is 

large  >■ gh,  each  event  to  lie  located  in  its  exact  place  in  the  line  of  time.    The  chief  objection 

i'  this  in.  tin,, i  is  the  difficulty  nf  using  a  scale  sufficiently  large  to  include  all  the  important 
events  •')  -'tne  periods  without  increasing  too  much  the  size  of  the  chart,  and  rendering  it  in- 
eoni lent  for  portable  use  —  f»  a  seventh  plan  unites  geography  with  the  history  and  chrono- 
logy This  method  is  exhibited  in  Priestley's  "  Specimen  of  a  New  Chart  of  History,"  given  in 
res  mi  History.— (A)  The  device  of  a  combination  of  streams  "r  rivers  is  employed  in  a 
recent  chart  by  /  /.  Hitchcock,  called  llisionj  made  risible,  Phil.  1839,  54  inches  by  27. 

'i  I*1  [dual  Dates  of  the  most  prominent  in  nix.  Nothing  occasions  more  per 
plexcv  and  discouragement  to  the  student  in  classical  history,  than  tne  difficulty  of  re- 
.►emhering  actual  dates.      Many  have  found  this  so  great  as  to  give  over  in  despair 


P.  1.  BRIEF    OUTLINE    OF    CHRONOLOGY.  (57 

But,  as  lias  been  repeatedly  remarked,  accmate  chronology  is  essential  to  tlie  utility, 
and  it  is  no  less  so  to  the  pleasure,  of  reading  history.  And  the  difficulty  complained 
of  is  by  no  means  insuperable. 

Various  expedients  to  aid  the  memory  have  been  invented  t,}210);  but  on  the  whole, 
the  writer  knows  of  none  hetter  than  10  take  a  glance  over  the  whole  field  of  past  time. 
select  a  few  grand  events  which  stand  out  as  landmarks,  associate  these  events  with 
their  dates,  and  commit  their,  to  memory  with  perfect  exactness,  making  them  as 
familiar  as  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  A?ty  ■person  of  common  capacity  can  do  t/iis  ; 
and  the  student  who  wishes  to  lay  any  foundation  at  a!!  for  historical  knowledge  must 
do  at  least  as  much  as  this.  This  being  done,  he  will  find  it  comparatively  easy  to 
locate  the  various  events,  which  he  may  read  about  or  learn  from  time  to  time,  in  their 
proper  place  between  these  grand  events  whose  dates  are  thus  fixed  in  the  memory. 

§  209.  With  these  views  the  "ollowing  outline,  in  which  it  seemed  desirable  to  include 
modern  chronology,  is  offered  to  the  student,  to  be  perfectly  committed  to  memory. 

The  learner  is  advised  to  draw  it  off  on  a  roll  of  paper  prepared  for  the  purpose ;  using  a  hori- 
zontal line  to  represent  the  flowing  or  progress  of  time.  Let  this  line  be  divided  into  equal  spaces, 
each  representing  an  equal  length  of  time;  let  the  dates  of  the  events  he  distinctly  written 
exactly  «£  the  points  in  the  line  where  they  belong  according  to  this  equal  division ;  and  let  the 
events  also  be  written  directly  above  or  under  the  dates. 

Brief  Outline.  Chronology  is  Ancient  or  Modern.  Ancient  includes  the  whole  time  befort 
Christ,  comprehending  4004  years.     Modern  includes  the  whole  time  since  Christ. 

I.  Ancient  Chronology  is  divided  into  two  portions  by  the  Flood:  Antediluvian  ages,  the 
portion  before  the  flood,  and  Postdiluvian  ages,  the  portion  after  the  flood.— The  Antediluvian 
ages  may  be  considered  as  containing  only  one  period ;  the  Postdiluvian  ages  as  containing  eight 
periods.     The  grand  events  and  periods  are  the  following. 

Of  the  Antediluvian  ages, 

The  one  period  is  from Creation      .... 

to  Deluge     .... 

Of  the  Postdiluvian  ages,  the 
1st  period,  is  from  Deluge   ....        to  Calling  of  Adraha-.i 
id  period,  from  Calling  of  Abraham      .        .    to  Escape  of  Israelites    . 
3d  period,  from  Escape  of  Israelites  .        .        to  Building  of  Temple    . 
ith period,  from  Building  of  Temple       ..      .to  Founding  of  Rome 
3th  period,  from  Founding  of  Rome    .        .        to  Battle  of  Marathon 
6th  period,  from  Battle  of  Marathon       .        .    to  Reign  of  Alexander 
7th  period,  from  Reign  of  Alexander  .        .        to  Capture  of  Carthage 
8t h  period,  from  Capture  of  Carthage    .        .    to  Coming  of  Christ. 

II.  Modern  Chronology  is  divided  into  three  distinct  portions  by  the  Fall  \f  Rome  and  the 
Fall  of  Constantinople:  F.arly  Jiges,  the  portion  before  the  Fall  of  Rome  ;  Middit  Jlges,  the  por- 
tion between  the  Fall  of  Rome  and  the  Fall  of  Constantinople  ;  Recent  Jlges,  the  portion  since 
the  Fall  of  Constantinople. — The  early  ages  may  be  considered  as  containing  two  periods  ;  the 
middle  ages, Jive  periods;  and  the  recent  ages  Jive  periods.  The  grand  events  and  periods  are 
the  following. 

Of  the  Early  ages,  the 
1st  period,  is  from  Christ       .        .        .      to  the  Reign  of  Constantine 

2d  period,  from  Reign  of  Constantine         .  to  Fall  of  Rome 

Of  the  Middle  ages,  the 

1st  period,  is  from  Fall  of  Rome      .        .        .  to  Flight  of  Mahomet  . 

2d  period,  from  Flight  of  Mahomet    .        .  to  Crowning  of  Charlemagne 

3d  period,  from  Crowning  of  Chail»m»gne    .  to  Landing  of  William 

ith  period,  from  Landing  of  William  .        .  to  Overthrow  of  Saracens    . 

5th  period,  from  Overthrow  of  Saracens       .  to  Fall  of  Constantinople 

Of  the  Recent  ages,  the 

1st  period  is  from  Fall  of  Constantinople      .  to  Abdication  of  Charles  Fifth   .     A   D.  1556- 

Id  period,  from  Abdication  of  Charles  5th    .  to  Restoration  of  Charles  Second  A.  D.  1600; 

3d  period,  from  Restoration  of  Charles  2d     .  to  Independence  of  United  States   A.  D.  1776; 
5th  period,  from  Independence  of  United  States  to  Downfall  of  Bonaparte        .        A.  D.  1815; 

5th  period,  from  Downfall  of  Bonaparte  to  the  Present  Time. 

J  210.  But  it  is  perhaps  due  to  the  scholar  to  mention  here  some  of  the  expedients,  abovt 
alluded  to  (J  208),  which  have  been  devised  to  assist  in  the  recollection  of  dates.  We  wiW 
briefly  notice  three  different  systems  of  artificial  memory. 

1.  The  first  is  that  of  Dr.  Grey,  whose  Memoria  Technica  has  generally  met  with  the  most 
favorable  reception.  "As  this  method,"  says  Priestley,  "is  so  easily  learned  and  may  be  of 
such  use  in  recollecting  dates,  I  tl  ink  all  persons  of  a  liberal  education  inexcusable,  who  w:  II 


B.  C 

1004, 

B.  C 

,  2348. 

B.C. 

1921; 

B.C. 

1492; 

B.C. 

1004; 

B.  C. 

752; 

B.  C. 

490; 

B.  C. 

336; 

B.C. 

146; 

A. 

I). 

306; 

A. 

D. 

476. 

A. 

D. 

622; 

A. 

1) 

800; 

A. 

1) 

1066; 

A. 

1) 

1258; 

A. 

I). 

1453. 

68 


CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 


not  take  (he  git  all  desree  of  pains  that  is  necessary  to  make  themselves  master  of  it."  The  ex- 
pedient  is  to  substitute  letters  fur  figures,  ami  form  of  these  letters  a  syllable  or  word,  and  asso- 
ciate it  with  the  name  of  the  persons,  the  date  of  whose  hirih,  reign,  death,  or  the  like,  you 
wish  to  remember,  or  with  a  prominent  term  or  word  connected  with  an  event  to  be  remem- 
bered. The  following  is  Dr.  fJrey's  substitution  alphabet,  in  which  each  of  the  ten  numerical 
characters  has  its  consonant  and  its  vowel  or  diph'hong;  l,ab;  2,ed;  3,  ti;4,/o;  5,  I  u;  6,  s  au 
7  n  »i ;  6,kei;  9,  n  on  ;  0,  :  y.  To  remember  the  date  of  the  founding  of  Rome  by  this  system, 
substitute  for  752  such  letters  as  will,  according  to  the  above  alphabet,  represent  752;  e.  g.  pud, 
ui.l  join  the  syllable  thus  formed  to  the  word  Koine,  or  a  part  of  the  word,  thus  Rom-pud.  The 
very  oddness  and  uncouthness  of  this  combination  will  sometimes  impress  it  on  the  memory.  To 
remember  the  date  of  the  Deluge,  2348,  we  may  form  the  word  Del-elok;  of  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon,  490,  Marath-ony,  or  Man -/,<«:.  Where  a  series  of  dates  of  successive  events  are  to  be 
fixed'  in  memory,  this  system  recommends  the  uniting  of  the  barbarous  words  thus  formed  in 
Hexameter  verses;  which,  however,  the  student  must  understand,  are  to  be  committed  to  me- 
mory ;  these  are  called  memorial  lines. 

SceELGrej1!  Memoria  Talmica,  or  Method  of  artificial  Memory.  (With  Lowe's  Mnemonics.)  Lond.  1812.  8.  Cf.  Land. 
Quart.  Rev.  ix.  ,25. 

2.  The  s>  cond  method  is  a  system  of  topical  memory,  including  also  the  substitution  of  letters 
fur  figures  The  principle  of  the  topical  method  is  to  conceive  a  certain  number  of  places  in  a 
room,  or  in  some  limited  space  marked  by  sensible  objects ;  and  conceive  these  places  as  ar- 
ranged  in  a  certain  fixed  order ;  and  then  whatever  successive  events  or  objects  one  wishes  to 
remember,  throw,  in  imagination,  some  pictures  of  or  concerning  them,  in  their  properorder,  into 
tb.s,-  conceived  places.  Such  is  the  principle  of  Feinai  gle's  Jin  of  Memory.  By  this  a  four- 
sided  mom  is  divided  into  fifty  ideal  squares;  these  who  wish  a  more  capacious  memory  may 

ilso  a  Becond  story  having  50  squares  more,  numbered  up  to  a  hundred  ;  and  one  may  gr. 
on  so  ascending  through  as  many  stories  as  he  chooses.  JVi«e  squares  are  to  be  placed  on  the 
floor  of  the  room,  and  vine  on  each  of  the  four  walls,  thus  making  forty-five;  the  other  fine  on 
the  ceiling  above  :  the  squares  on  the  floor  number  from  1  to  9;  the  square  numbered  10  is  put 
on  the  ceiling  over  the  wall  supposed  to  he  on  your  left  hand,  and  the  next  nine  squares  from  11 
to  19  tire  on  the  left  hand  wall  under  it ;  the  square  20  is  on  the  ceiling  over  the  wall  opposite  in 
front  of  you,  and  the  next  nine  from  21  to  29  on  that  wall  under  it ;  the  square  30,  and  the  next 
nine  from  31  to  39  are  put  in  like  manner  on  the  right  hand  ;  and  the  square  40,  and  the  next 
nine  from  11  to  (9  behind  you;  the  remaining  square  50  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  ceiling.  In 
eachof  these  squares  a  picture  of  some  visible  object  is  located  ;  e.  g.  in  1,  a  pump;  in  2,  a  swan; 
in  3,  a  man  using  a  spade.  This  scheme  of  squares,  numbers,  and  pictures  is  first  to  be  committed 
to  memory  I  hiti  if  one  would  remember  by  aid  of  the  system  the  date  e.  g.  of  the  kings  of  Eng- 
land, he  would  create  in  his  mind  a  picture  in  connection  with  each  one  of  them,  throw  these 
pictures  in  imagination  into  the  squares  in  the  exact  order  of  the  regal  succession,  and  associate 
the  picture  pertaining  to  the  king  with  the  picture  fixed  in  the  square  to  which  he  falls  ;  in  form- 
ing the  new  picture  two  thiol's  tire  important  ;  it  should  he  so  conceived  as  to  have  some  casual 
or  slight  association  suggesting  the  name  of  the  king,  and  suggesting  at  the  same  time  a  word  or 
phrase;  which  is  devised  by  the  person  along  with  the  ideal  picture,  and  which  expresses  the 
date  accord  in  i!  to  an  alphabet  of  letters  substituted  for  figures.  E.  g.  to  remember  the  date  of 
Henry  7th.  it  is  said  the  ideal  picture  of  7  hens  is  a  good  one  for  the  purpose  ;  the  square  to 
which  he  is  assigned  is  29;  the  picture  fixed  in  this  square  (in  the  engraved  illustration  of  the 
system)  is  a  woman  spinning  on  a  small  wheel ;  these  two  pictures  then  are  to  be  somehow  bound 
together,  find  it  may  he  thus,  the  woman  spinning  sees  7  hens;  the  next  thing  is  to  form  a  word 
or  phrase  indicative  of  the  date;  and  by  the  alphabet  adopted  in  this  system,  "  The  oairaii" 
is  such  a  phrase;  the  remaining  step  in  this  process  of  storage  in  the  memory,  is  to  bind  the 
phrase  to  the  pictures,  which  may  be  done  by  imagining  that  the  woman  spinning  sees  7  hens 
on  The  oak  rail. — The  following  is  the  substitution  alphabet;  1,  be;  %df;  'i,gh;  i,jkz;  5,1; 
t'..  m  n;  7,yq;  *.rs;  9,  t  v ;  0,wx;  and  100,  St ;  1,000,  Th  ;  100,000,  Y. 

SetThiNew  I  oj  Mimory,  founded  on  the  principles  of  Fe  i  na  i  gl  e,  illustrated  by  engravings.  Lond.  1813.  8.  2d  ed.  Cf. 
Lond.  Quart    Rev.  i    at  nve  cited. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  here,  that  the  ancients,  particularly  the  Roman  orators,  made  use  of  a 
system  of  topical  memory.  Quintilian  ffives  an  account  of  a  system,  in  which  the  various  parts 
of  a  spacious  mansion  are  employed  somewhat  as  the  several  squares  in  the  method  of  Feinaigle. 
The  things  to  be  remembered  were  connected  by  association  with  certain  types,  and  these  being 
arranged  in  order  were  assigned  to  the  different  parts  of  the  house;  "they  assign,"  says  he, 
'•  ihe  first  ill  t  hey  wish  to  remember  to  the  portico,  ihe  second  to  the  hall ;  then  they  go  round 
the  inner  curls  ;  nor  do  they  only  commit  these  associations  to  the  bedrooms  and  anterooms, 
hut  even  t,,  ill,-  furniture.  When  they  wish  to  recollect  these  associations,  they  recur  mentally 
to  those  pin  ,  s  in  order  from  ihe  beginning,  and  regain  every  sensible  type,  which  they  had  en- 
trusted  t"  each  particular  spot,  ami  this  type  nt  once  suggests  the  idea  connected  with  it." 

3.  The  third  8)  si.- hi  i-  tin  Efficacious  Method  of  Mr.  Hallworth.  In  this  plan  a  substitution  of 
letters  fur  figures  is  employed.  Its  pecttli  irity  a  insists  in  this,  that  instead  of  forming  mere  bar- 
b  irous  -inil  unmeaning  words,  like  thai  of  Grey,  or  words  artificially  associated  with  some  image 
or  picture,  lis-  thai  of  Feinaigle,  a  significant  sentence  is  formed,  which  states  the  event  to  be 
remembered,  and  concludes  with  -i  word  or  phrase  that  expresses  something  characteristic  of 
th  •  event,  and  at  the  same  nun-,  when  interpreted  according  to  the  substitution  alphabet,  denotes 
the  dale.  The  alphabet  of  Hail  worth  is  the  following;  1,6c;  2,  df;  3,g,h,gh;  4,  k  1 ;  5,  m  n  ; 
fi.  p,  r  ;  7,  .-  i  h  ;  8,  '.  rh  ;  't,  ,-  «■  /,  used  as  consonants  :  0,  th  ph  wh,  and  also  ,/  i  y  z.  In  forming 
w-ri's  th.-  vowels  are  used  jtisi  a*,  may  be  convenient,  without  having  any  sienificancv  ;  the  con- 
sonant! al  mo  being  considered  in  expressing  a  date  :  thus  rh  u  rch  [rh  rch]  signifies  868;  irno  p 
I'  rP\.  866  To  recoiled  by  this  method  the  dale  e.  g.  of  the  Flood,  the  following  sentence  is 
formed  ;  Tin  deluge  comes  »»</  »"  o  die  guill  y  :  the  phrase  die  guilty  expresses  the  date,  as  the 
i  onsonatltl  "  e  /  t  represent  2348.-  |-'.,r  ureal.. r  convenience  and  scope  in  forming  the  character- 
istic phi  ibi  9,  the  plan  adutiis  articles,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  10  be  used,  like  the  vowels, 
without  signifl  am  v  :  e  g  it„i  fella  saciifice  to  Cain's  hate  and  sin:  h  t  s  n,  3875.— Mr.  Hall- 
worth  hat  tan  hi  in-  system  by  lectures  in  different  parts  of  the  country.,  and  has  published 
«'-veral  little  bo  >k-  m  which  its  principles  are  explained  and  applied. 

v-  T  Hal'u—-tVt  Eflicaciou»  Method  |  retaining,  md  communicating  Historical  and  Chronological  Knovrledg» 


P.  I  EIGHT    PRINCIPAL    STATES    OF    ASIA.  69 

N  York,  1S24. — ffattwortli't  method  applied  to  General  Jnctcnl  History— Also  to  Sacred  History,  &c— History  of  the  C'n.fca 
Stales 

§211.  We  shall  complete  our  design,  in  reference  to  the  actual  dates  of  events  ill 
ancienl  and  classical  history,  by  a  rapid  glance  ai  the  Chronology  of  the  principal  states 
ol  ancient  times. —  We  will  mention  firsi  those  whose  capitals  wire  in  Asia.  .  he  prin- 
cipal Asiatic  states  or  kingdoms  were  eight ;  the  Assyrian;  ihe  Jewish;  the  Trojan; 
<he  Lydian  ;  the  Phoenician;  the  Persian ;   the  Syrian;  and  the  Parthian. 


I.  The  Assy rian.  This  is  considered  as  having  commenced  with  the  building 
of  Buhi/lon  by  Nimkod,  B.  C.2'217.  The  1st  period  of  its  history  may  be  thai  from 
Nimrod  to  Mini  as,  B.  C.  1945. 

In  this  period  reigned  the  celebrated  queen  Semiramis,  mother  of  Ninias.  tinder  her  the  em- 
pire sained  its  greatest  extent  ;  reaching  on  toe  east  to  the  sources  of  the  O.vns  and  the  Indus, 
including  Persia.  Media,  and  Bactriana :  comprising  on  the  wesl  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
Asia  Minor  to  the  Mediterranean  ;  anil  limited  on  the  north  nniy  by  Mount  Caucasus,  and  on  tile 
south  by  the  deserts  of  Arabia  Generally,  however,  the  Assyrian  empire  included  only  the 
three  countries  in  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  viz.  Mesopotamia,  Assj  ria.  and  Bab)  - 
Ionia 

The  2d  period  may  be  that  from  Ninias  to  Sardanapalus,  who  died  B.  C.  717. 

This  long  period,  of  about  1200  years,  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  During  it  33  kings  are 
said  to  have  reigned. — On  the  death  of  Sardanapalus  three  kingdoms  were  formed  out  of  the  em- 
pire :  the  Jissiinan,  with  Nineveh  as  it-  capital  :  the  Babylonian,  with  Babylon  for  its  capital  ; 
and  the  Median,  with  Kcbatana  for  its  capital.  It  may  he  proper,  however,  to  consider  the 
Assyrian  monarchy  as  still  continuing;  ami 

The  3d  period  may  be  thai  from  Sardanapalus  io  Esarhaddon",  B.  C.  681. 

During  this  period  of66  years,  4  kings  reigned  in  Nineveh,  of  whom  Esarhaddon  was  the  last; 
and  10  kitiL's  reigned  at  Babylon.  During  this  time  the  Assyrian  history  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  that  of  the  Israelites.  In  the  year  B.  C.  681,  Esarhaddon  united  together  two  of  the 
three  kingdoms,  viz,   the  Assyrian  ami  Babylonian. 

The  4ib  and  last  period  extends  from  Esarhaddon  to  Cyrus  the  Great,  I1.  C.  536. 

At  this  time  the  nniied  kingdom  was  subjected  to  Persia  — At  the  same  time,  also,  Cyrus 
.mited  to  p.  rsia  the  kingdom  of  Media,  which  had  continued  its  separate  existence  from  the 
death  of  Sardanapalus 

For  a  eei.eral  view  nf  the  M*\r,:n,  bistory .  R  ilin'i  Anc  enl  History,  '.k.  iii.— AfiHi  t's  Elements  of  History,  vol.  i.  p.  62.  (Ed. 
Edinb.  1823.  5  tola.  8.)— The  En^liih  Mnivtnal  Hutary.  to,  J.  1779-83.  50  vols.  B.  (IS  vols.  Ancient.)  vol  hi  —  Pridemix, 
Connection  nf  the  O  and  N.  Testame  t  ifor  I  he  tunc  front  Sardanapalus  to  Cyrus.)— Rerosus,  &c.  in  Cury,  cited  1'  V.  $  236.— 
fleertn,  Historical  Researches  into  the  Politics       I  Comi        e  of  the  Carthaginians,  Ethiopians,  Egyptians,  &c    Uxf.  1830.  2  vols,  8. 

Iransl.  from  his  Idem,  cited  P.  IV  '  171  -Samte  Croix  I.a  ruinede  Babylon,  in  the  Mem.  .lead.  /user,  vol    ilviii   p.  I For 

Assyria,  and  likewise  for  'he  several  states  and  em p ires  to  be  mentioned,  we  also  refer  to  Huren's  States  of  Antiquity,  riled  ^'215.6. 
-Cf.  also  Meusel.  cited  P  V.  §  240. 


II.  The  Jewish.  The  history  of  this  ration  berrins  with  Abraham.  B.  C.  1921. 
ft  may  be  divided  into  eight  periods.  The  1st  period  extends  from  Abraham  to  the 
entrance  into  Caiman  under  Joshua,  B.  C.  14."  1. 

During  this  period  they  remained  a  nomadic  nation. 

The  2d  period  includes  the  time  from  Joshua  to  the  death  of  Samuel,  B.  C.  lOfiO 

During  this  period  the  nation  was  under  the  government  of  the  judges  and  priests.  Samvet 
was  the  last  of  lhe  judges.  Saul,  the  firsl  kino-,  was  anointed  as  such  some  time  before  Samuel's 
death. 

The  3d  period  is  from  Samuel  to  the  separation  of  the  nation  into  the  two  kingdoms 
of  Judah  and  Isra<  I  by  the  Revolt  under  Jeroboam,  B.  C.  97.5. 

This  was  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the  Jewish  monarchy,  marked  by  the  reigns  of  Dav'd 
and  Solomon,  and  by  the  building  of  t lie  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  the  capital.— Respecting  these 
Kigns,  see  Christ   Spectator,  iv.  131  ;  v   526. 

The  4th  period  may  include  'he  history  from  the  Revolt  until  the  Restoration  from 
the  Babylonian  Captivity.  B.  C.  536. 

The  two  kingdoms  continued  separate  until  their  destruction  by  the  Babylonians.  The  ten 
tribes  of  Israel,  whose  capital  was  Samaria,  were  carried  into  captivity  by  Shalmana/ar,  U.  C.  721; 
the  two  tribes  nt  Judah,  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  B  O.  6n6.  During  this  time  nineteen  kings  reigned 
over  Jndah  al  Jerusalem.  The  seventy  years  of  the  captivity  are  dated  from  the  conquest  of 
Judah  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

The  5th  period  reaches  from  the  Restoration  by  Cyms,  to  the  Submission  of  the 
Jews  to  Alexander,  B.  C.  332. 

During  this  period  the  Jews  had  continued  in  a  state  of  at  least  partial  dependence  on  thf 
throne  of  Persia. 

The  6th  period  is  from  Alexander  to  the  Re-establishment  of  an  independent 
monarchy  under  the  Maccabees,  B.  C.  168. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  and  the  division  nf  his  empire,  made  B.  C.  301,  the  Jews  wer« 
claimed  by  Syria  and  by  E^ypt,  an    exposed  to  the  invasion  or  oppression  of  both     The  peisr- 


70  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

eution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  provoked  the  general  revolt  which  lei  to  the  re-eslablishmenl  of 
Independence. 

I  in   Till  period  is  Irum  the  Maccabees  until  the  time  of  the  Roman  interference  under 

POMJ'EY,   B.   I 

During  this  period  the  monarchy  was  maintained,  but  with  many  unhappy  dissensions. 

•  ii  and  last   pi  riod  is  Irom  the  tirsi  conquests  of  Pompey  to  the  final  Destruc- 
tion ot  J> r a mil> in  by   L'itds,  A.  D   70. 

For  the  Jewish  history  ;   1  he  historical  hooks  of  the  0.  Testament— Jostplnu  (cf.  P.  V.  J  2W.).—Bamtyer,  Hislnire  du  peuple  ie 

Dieu  fcc.    Par.  1742.  10  vols.  9  —  £a»iaer.  Hislnire   Irs  Juifs,  tie.    Haye.  1716.  15  vols.  12.— Prideaux,  Connect.  cf  the  O.  aad 

in, i.     I  he  French  translation,  said  to  be  better  than  the  English  original,  is  entitled  Hiitoire  des  Juifs  «  ties  peuple* 

roisini  depuis  la  decadence  des  Royaumes  d'lsrael  et  de  Jula,  Sic      Anist.  1725.  5  vols.  i.—J.  L.  Bauer,  Handbuch  der  Gesclnchte 

terHebt  NQrob  isoo.  2  vols.  8   valuable.— H  II  Milman,  History  of  the  Jews,  (Am.  ed.)  N.  x*.  1830.  8  tola,  18. 

.  .  Jhntr.  leeo.  vol.  xxiii.  p.  234.— JoAn,  Hebrew  Coniinouweallh.    Transl.  from  German,  by  C.  E  S<mix.     AliJ.  1828.  8. 


Ill  The  Trojan  Its  origin  is  involved  in  darkness  and  fahles,  but  is  placed  as 
early  ai  leasl  as  B.  C.  1400.  <  >t  its  chronology  we  can  only  say  that  the  slate  was 
destroyed  by  the  Greeks  in  the  reign  of  Priam,  about  B.  C.  1184. 

The  history  of  Troy  consists  of  traditions  preserved  by  the  poets.  Cf.  P.  II.  }  132. — Mitford's 
Greece,  ch.  i. 

IV.  TheLydian.  This  commenced  about  B.  C.  1400.  Three  dynasiies  of  kings 
are  said  to  have  reigned,  yet  linle  is  known  of  the  history  until  the  reign  of  Crcesus; 
and  tinder  him  the  kingdom  was  destroyed  by  Cyrus,  B.  C.  53(3. 

The. capital  was  Sardia.  The  kingdom  was  in  the  time  of  Croesus  very  rich  and  powerful ;  its 
fate  was  decided  by  the  battle  of  Tliyiitbra. 

For  the  Lydiau  history  ;  The  English  Universal  History,  vol.  iv.  as  above  cited.— Freret,  on  the  battle  of  Thymbra,  with  a  plate, 
In  the  Mem  de  i.'lcad.  des  Inter,  vol.  vi.  p.  532. 


V.  The  Phoenician.  This  was  in  existence  in  the  time  of  David,  under  a  king 
named  Abikal,  B.  C.  1050-  The  stale  continued  until  the  Capture  of  Tyre  by  Alex- 
ander. B.  C.  332. 

Phoenicia  seems  not  to  have  formed  properly  one  state,  hut  to  have  contained  several  cities 
with  petty  kings  or  princes,  of  which  Tyre  stood  at  the  head. 

On  the  Phoenician  history  ;  Saneonialhon,  &c.  cf.  P.  V.  §  239—  Rets,  Cyclopaedia,  under  Phamice.—Mignot,  Sur  les  Phenicicns 
(several  dissertations),  in  the  Mm.  Acad.  Inter,  vols,  xxxiv-xlii.— The  English  Umv  Hist.— Aho,  lllh  vol.  of  Heeren's  Works. 
Soil  1824. 


VI  The  Persian.  Its  history  is  obscure  and  its  power  insignificant  until  the  time 
of  Ctktjs  ihe  elder,  B.  C.  536.  We  may  include  the  whole  history  after  this  date  in 
two  periods. 

The  1st  period  extends  from  Cyrus  to  Xekxes,  who  invaded  Greece,  and  was  de- 
feated in  the  famous  Bitith  of  Salamis,  B.  C.  480. 

In  this  period,  under  Darius  Hystaspes,  the  father  of  Xerxes,  the  Persian  empire  attained  its 
greatest  extent  ;  reaching  10  lite  Indus  on  the  east,  to  the  Ja.xartes  and  Mount  Caucasus  on  the 
north,  and  including  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Libya  The  capitals  were  Babylon,  Susa, 
Ecb.'itana,  and  Persepnlis  (cf.  <?$  153,  154,  170),  the  royal  court  being  held  sometimes  in  one  and 
sometimes  another  of  these  places. 

The  2d  period  extends  from  Xerxes  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  empire  by  Alex- 
ander, in  the  reign  of  Darius  Codomannus,  B.  C.  331. 

A  limit  the  middle  of  this  period  occurred  the  expedition  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  described  in  the 
Jtnabasit  of  Xenophon  ;  Cyrus  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  B.  C.401.— Alexander  completed  the 
subjugation  "f  Persia  by  the  victory  at  Arbela,  B.  C.  331. 

For  the  fn.im  history  ;  Rutlin's  Aoc  Hist.  hk.  Iv.  and  following  —  Millet's  Elements,  vol.  i.  p.  88,  ed.  before  ci'.H.— The  Um 
aerial  History,  before  ciied,  vol.  iv  and  ix.—Sriuaniut,  de  regno  Persarum.  1591.  S.—Hyde,  Rhode,  Sec.  cited  P.  V.  §  183.  3.— 
Hirdrri  Pertepolis,  in  hit  If  rks  —Hteren,  as  above  cited—  Gtoteftnd,  iic.  cited  P.  IV.  ^  18.  4.—/.  B.  Frazer,  Hist,  of  Persia,  it 
Hariwr'i  Fain   Library.  No.  Ixx.— Sir  J.  Malcolm,  Hist,  of  Persia  from  the  earliest  period  ic.     Lond.  1829.  2  vols.  8.  2d  ed. 


VII,  The  Syrian;  or  the  Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidm.  This  was  one  of  the  four 
monarchies  formed  out  of  the  empire  of  Alexander.  It  was  commenced  after  iho 
balth  of  l/isiis,  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  B.  C.  301.  We  may  include  its  history  in  two 
periods. 

The  1st  peilod  is  from  Seleucus  Nicator  to  the  time  of  the  collision  with  the  Romans 
ii  the  reign  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  B.  C.  190. 

The  capital  oftbia  Kingdom  was  Antinrh.  The  territory  under  its  sway  included  the  northern 
part  of  Syria ;  all  Asin  Miner,  except  Bilhynta;  Armenia,  Media,  Parthia,  Bactriana,  India,  Per- 
sia, and  tin'  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  Antiochus  was  brought  into  a  war  with  the  Romans  espe- 
cially by  pi  itcctins  Hannibal.  His  defeat,  In  the  battle  of  Magnesia,  B.C.  190,  deprived  him  of 
Dixti   if  his  territories  and  greatly  weakened  the  kingdom. 


P.  I.  TWO    STATES    OF    AFRICA.       EGVPT   AUD    CARTHAGE.  71 

The  2d  period  extends  from  Anliovhus  the  Great  to  the  complete  conquest  of  Syria 
by  the  Romans  under  Pompey,  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Asiaticus,  B.  C.  69. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  period  occurred  the  revolt  of  the  Jews  under  the  Maccabees.  B.  C.  168, 
in  consequence  of  the  persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. — The  throne  of  this  kingdom,  on  iia 
overthrow  by  the  Romans,  had  been  held  by  twenty-three  successive  kings,  most  of  them  lawful 
heirs  of  the  house  of  the  Seleucidte. 

For  (he  Syrian  history ;  Vaillant,  linperium  Seleuciilarum,  cited  P.  IV.  $  93.  1. — Frtilich,  Annates  rerum  Syria:.  Vienn.  1754.— 
The  Univatal  Hist,  above  cited,  vol.  8th  of  the  Ancient 


VIII.  The  Parthian;  or  Kingdom  of  the  Arsacida.  The  Parthians  occupying 
the  country  on  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Caspian,  were  subject  to  Persia  when  con- 
quered by  Alexander.  On  the  division  of  his  empire,  they  fell  to  the  share  of  Seleucus 
Nicator.  But  under  the  third  king  of  Syria  they  revolted  and  established  an  independ- 
ent kingdom  under  Arsaces,  B.  C.  256. 

The  Parthians  were  constantly  at  war  with  the  Syrians,  and  afterwards  with  the  Romang  j 
but  could  not  be  conquered.  They  obtained  dominion  from  Armenia  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
from  Syria  to  the  river  Indus;  including  Baciriana,  Persia,  the  countries  in  the  vallev  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  Armenia.     Their  capital  was  Hecalompylns. 

The  Parthian  kingdom  continued  until  the  revolt  of  the  Persians,  who  dethroned  the 
Arsacidae,  and  established  the  kingdom  of  Modern  Persia,  A.  D.  223. 

For  the  Parthian  history  ;  t^ailtant,  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  93. — C.  F.  Richter,  Historisch-kritischer  Versuch  Qber  die  Arsacideu-und* 
Sassanideu  U)  nastie,  &c.     Lpz.  1804. 

$  212.  We  will  notice  next  the  states,  whose  capitals  were  in  Africa.  Of  these  we 
have  but  two  of  importance  ;  the  Egyptian  and  the  Carthaginian. 

I.  The  Egyptian.  The  first  king  named  in  ttte  Egyptian  dynasty  is  Menes, 
generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Mizraim,  son  of  Ham  and  grandson  of  Noah; 
he  settled  in  Egypt  about  B.  C.  2200,  With  this  date  the  real  chronology  of  Egypt 
commences. 

A  high  antiquity,  in  part  surely  fabulous,  was  assigned  to  this  kingdom  by  two  Egyptian 
works  now  lost ;  one  was  the  Old  Chronicle,  cited  by  Syncellus  (cf.  }  201);  the  other,  the  work 
o(Manetlu>,  cited  by  Eusebius  (cf.  P.  V.  $  236). 

The  1st  period  in  the  Egyptian  history  may  be  that  extending  from  Mates  to  the 
Escape  of  the  Israelites,  B.  C.  1492. 

Of  this  period  profane  history  gives  us  no  connected  or  satisfactory  account.  Most  that  can 
be  relied  on  is  to  lie  drawn  from  the  incidental  notices  found  in  the  Bible.  Some  chronologera 
place  the  celebrated  Se.iostris  at  the  close  of  this  period  ;  some  consider  him  to  be  the  Pharaoh 
that  was  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea. 

The  2d  period  includes  the  lime  from  the  Exodus  to  the  reign  of  Psammeticus,  B.  C. 
670,  when  the  history  begins  to  be  authentic. 

No  connected  history  has  been  preserved  of  this  period,  and  we  are  here  also  much  indebted 
for  what  we  know,  to  the  accounts  in  the  Scriptures.— Twelve  different  governments  under 
twelve  different  chiefs,  are  said  to  have  been  united  under  Psammeticus. 

The  3d  period  extends  from  the  time  of  Psammeticus  to  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by 
the  Persian  king  Cambyses,  son  and  successor  of  Cyrus,  B.  C.  525. 

The  Egyptian  history  now  becomes  more  luminous.  Herodotus  is  Hie  principal  authority 
The  art  of  writing  and  the  use  of  the  papyrus  as  a  material  were  now  common 

The  4th  period  includes  the  portion  of  time  from  Cambyses  to  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
by  Alexander,  B.  C.  332. 

After  the  time  of  Cambyses,  Egypt  had  been  made  a  Persian  satrapy,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  instances  of  revolt,  in  one  of  which  the  throne  was  partially  re-established,  had  con- 
tinued subject  to  Persia  until  it  now  changed  masters. 

The  5th  period  is  from  Alexander  to  the  subjection  of  the  country  to  the  Romans, 
resulting  from  the  victory  of  Augustus  in  the  battle  of  Actiutn,  B.  C.  31. 

Alexander  appointed  Ptolemy,  one  of  his  generals,  govprnnr  of  Egypt ;  and  Ptolemy,  after  the 
death  of  Alexander,  became  king  of  the  country,  B.  C  323,  and  commenced  the  dynasty  of  the 
Ptolemies,  who  retained  the  throne  until  Cleopatra,  associating  her  fortunes  with  Antony,  los' 
it  by  the  success  of  her  lover's  rival. — Thebes  and  Memphis  had  been  the  capitals  iti  the  previous 
periods.  In  this,  Alexandria,  founded  by  Alexander,  was  made  the  seat  of  the  new  court. — 
Egvpt  remained  a  part  of  the  Roman  empire  until  it  was  wrested  away  by  the  Saracens. 
A.  D.  640. 

For  the  Egyptian  history;  Ratlin's  Anc  Hist.  bk.  i.—Marshant.  as  cited  P.  V.  \  iX.—Champnllion  le  jeune,  L'Eayple  sow 
les  Pharaons.  &c.     Par.  1HI4.  2  vols.  8.  (for  period  before  Canibises.)— For  the  period  after  Alexander,  Vaillant.  Hisb.na  Plole 

imeorum,  cited  P  IV.  5  93.  I.— Champoltion  Figaac,  Annalts  des  Lagides,  kc.     Par.  1819    2  vols.  8. Cf.  Afaw.1'1  Universal 

History,  vol.  i.  (ed.  N.  Y.  1804.  25  vols    12.)— Also,  the  Universal  History  before  ciled,  vol.  i.  and  viii.— .W.  Russel,  View  of  Egypt 

-Cf.  §  177,  also  P.  IV.  H»i  §  91.  8;  $231. 

II.  The  Carthaginian.  The  chronology  of  Carthage  may  be  naturally  divided 
into  //We  periods. 


72  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

The   l&l  period  ia  from  its  Foundation  by  Dido,  B.  C.  880;  to  the  beginning  of  the 
wars  of  Syracusi  111  the  time  oi    hi      yracusan  king  Gelon,  B.  C.  480. 


Mi  liierrnnean,  and  they  gained  Sardinia,  Ci)rsica,  the  Baleares,  also  the  Canary  Isles  ana 
Madeira  in  ilie  Atlantic,  and  many  piar.es  in  Spain,  and  ihe  nnrlhern  coast  of  Africa ;  the  chief 
conqu  sts  were  effected  bj  Mago,  and  his  sons  and  grandsons;  (d)  the  form  of  government;  it 
»  i^  :i  republic,  but  of  a  slrnnglj  aristocratic  character;  ilie  executive  consisting  of  two  chief 
magistrates  called  Snffetes,  and  the  legislative  consisting  of  a  Senate  of  select  grandees,  and  an 

the  i pie;  as  ai   Rome,  there  was  a  continual  strife  between  a  popular  and  an 

aristocratic   parly;    (e)  the  revenm  :   u-  Bources  were,   I    inliuies  from  the  subject  cities  and 
i>r  tribes;  "2.  customs  paid  on  goods  al Carthage  and  all  t tie  ports  ;  3.  proceeds  of  the  mines 
in  Spain 

'I  he  2d  p<  riod  extends  from  the  beginning  of  ihe  wars  with  Gelon  of  Syracuse  to  the 
beginning  ol  the  contests  with  Rome  in  the  First  Pi  nic  War,  B.  C.  264. 

The  principal  thing  which  marks  the  history  of  this  period,  is  the  Inns  continued  struggle  to 
obtain  complete  possession  of  Sicily.  The  Carthaginians  and  Syracusans  were  involved  in 
almost  constant  wars. 

The  3d  period  is  from  the  first  war  with  ihe  Romans  to  the  final  Destruction  of 
Cab rHAGE,  I!.  C.  L46. 

'I'lif  contests  between  Rome  and  Carthage  grew  out  of  mutual  ambition.  Sicily,  which  both 
desired  In  own.  furnished  the  occasion.— There  were  three  wars  called  Punic  ;  each  disastrous 
to  Carthage.  The  first  lasted  "2:f  years.  The  sec, mil  was  marked  by  the  bold  invasion  ami 
splendid  victories  of  Hannibal  ;  ended  by  the  battle  of  Zama,  B  C.  232.  The  third  lasted  only 
about  ihree  years,  and  terminatedjn  the  entire  destruction  of  tiie  state  and  city.  Carthage  had 
existed  about  700  years. 

For.ihr  Carthaginian  history  ;  Rotlin'i  Ami-  Hit.  lik.  ii.— Hendr  eft,  lie  Republics  Carlhaginiensium.  1664  —  Hteren,  as  cited 
above  — The  Universal  Hisiory,  vol.  xv.  of  ihe  Ancient.  —  Bijiiiser-s  Hist,  of  Carthage.    Lnnd.  1  s.37.  wiih  a  map. 


§  213.  The  ancient  states  which  were  seated  in  Europe  remain  to  be  mentioned. 
Withoul  naming  singly  the  various  minor  slates,  our  object  in  this  sketch  will  oe  ac- 
complished by  a  glance  at  the  Chronology  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

i  i»l  Greece.  The  whole  extent  of  time  to  be  considered  is  15  or  1600  years, 
from  iIm  p<  rmanent  settlements  in  Greece  to  her  final  reduction  to  a  Roman  province. 
This  whole  space  may  be  very  conveniently  and  happily  presented  by  a  division  into 
six  sin  .  i  ssive  periods,  each  limited  by  distinguished  events,  and  characterized  by  pro- 
minent circumstances. 

1.  The  1st  period  comprehends  the  whole  history  from  the  Dawn  of  civilization  to 
the  Trojan  War,  1184  B.  C,  and  from  its  peculiar  characteristic  may  be  denomi- 
nated fabulous. 

Much  which  is  related  in  the  accounts  of  this  period  must  be  rejected  as  idle  fiction  ; 
yet  a  lew  importanl  events  may  be  selected  and  authenticated. — Civilization  had  its 
first  impulse  in  the  arrival  of  colonists  from  Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  who  laid  the  founda- 
tions  nt  some  of  the  principal  cities,  as  Aryos  and  Sicyon  about  1800  years  B.  C.  Lit- 
Ivancemenl  was  made,  however,  until,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  two  centuries, 
other  colonies  were  planted,  al  Athens  by  Cecrops  and  at  Thebes  by  Cadmus,  about 
the  time  of  Moses  (P.  IV.  v>  34).  Between  this  time  and  the  Trojan  war  considerable 
progress  must  have  been  made  in  cultivation. 

Vy<  find   - 'nt  'be  peculiar  institutions  of  the  Greeks  originating  in  this  period; 

particularly  the  oracles  at  Delphi  and  Dodona,  the  mysteries  ;it  Eleusis,  and  the  four 
tacred  games,  the  court  of  Areopagus  at  Athens,  and  the  celebrated  Amphictyonic 
Council. — The  arts  and  sciences  likewise  received  considerable  attention.  Letters  had 
introduced  by  Cadmus.  Astronomy  was  sufficiently  studied  to  enable  Chiron  to 
furnish  he  Argonauts  with  an  artificial  sphere  exhibiting  the  constellations.  The  ac- 
counts  oi  ihe  siege  of  Thebes  ami  that  of  Troy  show  that  progress  had  been  made  in 
the  various  arts  pertaining  to  war.— Bui  the  whole  history  of  the  period  exhibits  that 
singular  mixturi  of  barbarism  with  cultivation,  of  savage  customs  with  chivalrous 
»dv<   itures,  winch  marks  what  is  called  an  heroic  age. 

2.  The  2d  period  includes  a  much  shorter  space  of  time,  extending  from  the  Trojan 

■  WW  tU    the    timi     win  n     the     |;n,\i,     /'„/■;//    o/  GOVERNMENT    WOS    ABOLISHED,  about    1050 

B.  C.     From  the  mosl  important  and  characteristic  circumstances  it  may  be  called  the 
period  of  colonization. 

Tr>  firsi  governments  of  Greece  were  small  monarchies,  and  they  continued  such 
without  encountering  peculiar  difficulties  uniil  after  the  Trojan  war.  Soon  after  this 
we  find  ihe  country  Jivolved  in  fatal  civil  wars,    n  which  the  people,  under  a  number 


r    I  STATES    OF    ETiOPE.       GREECE.  73 

of  petty  chieftains  hostile  to  each  other,  Buffered  i  xtremely  from  calamity  and  oppres- 
sion. These  evils  seem  to  have  led  to  the  change  in  the  lorni  ot  Government,  and  the 
substitution  of  the  popular  instead  of  the  regul  system.  '1  he  same  evils  also  probably 
contributed  to  the  spirit  of  emigration,  winch  so  strikingly  marks  the  period.  The 
emigrants  who  sought  foreign  settlements  are  distinguished  as  of  three  separate  classes. 
The  earliest  were  the  JEolians,  who  removed  from  the  Peloponnesus  to  the  north- 
western shores  of  Asia  Minor  and  founded  several  cities,  of  which  Smyrna  was  the 
principal.  The  second  were  the  Ionians,  who  went  from  Attica  (originally  called 
Ionia),  and  planted  themselves  in  Asia  Minor,  south  of  the  ..■Eolians,  where  Ephesus 
was  one  of  their  chief  cities.  The  third  were  the  Dorians,  who  migrated  to  Italy  and 
Sicily,  and  founded  numerous  flourishing  settlements.  Syracuse  in  Sicily  became  the 
most  important. — In  the  period  of  colonization  we  notice  the  origin  of  the  four  princi- 
pal dialects  in  the  Greek  language.     (Cf.  P.  V.  §  4.) 

3.  The  3d  period  comprehends  the  space  (of  five  hundred  and  fifty  years)  from  the 
abolition  of  monarchy  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Persian  War,  about  500  B.  C. 

In  this  period  two  of  the  Grecian  states  are  chiefly  conspicuous,  Athens  and  Sparta; 
and  from  the  special  attention  of  these  states  to  provide  themselves  with  a  suitable 
political  constitution  and  civil  code,  this  portion  of  the  history  may  be  designated  as 
the  period  of  laws: ' 

Sparta  found  in  Lycurgus  her  lawgiver.  His  institutions  gave  a  permanent  cast  to 
her  character,  and  were  not  abolished  until  the  last  ages  of  Greece. — Many  years 
later.  Athens  received  her  constitution  from  the  hands  of  Solon,  who  executed  the 
task  unsuccessfully  attempted  by  Draco.  (Cf.-P.  V.  $  167;  P.  III.  §$  8,  9.) — The 
other  principal  incidents  in  the  history  of  this  period  are  the  repeated  wars  ot  Sparta 
with  her  neighbors  the  Messenians,  and  the  usurpation  of  Pisistratus  and  the  fate  of 
his  sons  at  Athens. — In  the  war  Sparta  at  last  was  completely  triumphant,  but  suf- 
fered much  from  the  devoted  skill  and  patriotism  of  Aristomenes.  the  Messenian 
general.  It  was  in  this  struggle  that  the  Spartans  were  so  much  indebted  to  the  lame 
poet  of  Athens,  Tyrtaeus.    (Cf.  P.  V.  >5>  53.) 

In  the  very  time  of  Solon,  Pisistratus  contrived  to  obtain  at  Athens  a  sort  of  regal 
authority,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  two  sons.  The  father  used  his  power  to  pro- 
mote the  glory  and  welfare  of  the  state.  Of  the  sons  one  was  assassinated  at  a  public 
festival,  and  the  other,  being  subsequently  expelled,  fled  to  Asia,  and  sought  revenge 
by  instigating  the  Persians  to  invade  his  native  country. 

4.  The  4th  period  extends  from  the  beginning  to  the  Close  of  the  Persian  War, 
160  B.  C,  a  space  of  almost  50  years.  To  this  age  the  Greeks  ever  after  looked 
back  with  pride,  and  from  its  history  orators  of  every  nation  have  drawn  their  favorite 
examples  of  valor  and  patriotism.  The  Persian  invasion  called  forth  the  highest 
energies  of  the  people,  and  gave  an  astonishing  impulse  to  Grecian  mind.  It  may 
properly  be  called  the  period  of  military  glory. 

The  design  of  subjugating  Greece  originated  in  the  ambition  of  Darius  the  Persian 
king,  the  second  in  succession  from  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  found  a  pretext  and  occa- 
sion for  the  attempt  in  a  revolt  of  his  Greek  subjects  in  Asia  Minor,  in  which  Sardis, 
the  capital  of  Lydia,  was  pillaged  and  burnt..  The  war  was  carried  on  by  'hree  suc- 
cessive kings,  Darius.  Xerxes,  and  Artaxerxes,  but  on  neither  of  them  did  it  confer 
any  glory;  while  the  battles  of  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  Salamis,  Mycale,  and  Platsea, 
secured  immortal  honor  to  the  Greeks. — A  succession  of  splendid  names  adorns  ;he 
history  of  Athens  during  this  period.  Miltiades,  Themistocles,  Aristides,  Cimon,  and 
Pericles,  acted  distinguished  parts  in  the  brilliant  scene.  Sparta  also  justly  gloried 
in  the  self-sacrifice  of  Leonidas  and  his  three  hundred  brave  companions. — The  period 
of  the  Persian  war  was  the  age  of  the  highest  elevaiion  of  the  national  character  of  the 
Greeks.  Before  it,  thei .  existed  little  union  comparatively  between  the  different 
states,  and  it  was  not  till  Athens  had  alone  and  successfully  resisted  the  strength  of 
Persia  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  that  other  states  were  aroused  to  effort  against  the 
common  enemy.  In  the  confederation  which  followed,  Sparta  was  the  nor,  inal  head, 
but  the  talents,  which  acually  controlled  the  public  affairs,  were  found  in  he  states- 
men of  Atnens.  To  Athens,  therefore,  the  supremacy  was  necessarily  tran:  ferred, 
and  before  the  close  of  the  war  she  stood,  as  it  were,  the  mistress  of  Greece. 

5.  The  5th  period  includes  the  portion  from  the  close  of  the  Persian  war  to  the 
Supremacy  of  Philip,  B.  C.  337.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period  the  general  affairs 
of  Greece  were  in  a  highly  prosperous  condition,  and  Athens  w-as  unrivaled  in  wealth 
and  magnificence  under  the  influence  of  Pericles. — But  a  spirit  of  luxurious  refine- 
ment socn  took  the  place  of  the  disinteres'ed  patriotism  of  the  preceding  age,  and  thf 


"I  CLASSICAL    CHROXOLOGf. 

manners  of  all  classes  became  signally  marked  by  corruption  and  licentiousness.  This 
may  be  designated  us  the  period  ol  luxury. 

The  history  of  the  period  presents  several  subjects  ol  prominent  interest. —  Owe  ol 
these  i-  lh(  protracted  war  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  termed  the  Peloponaesitin. 
lea  was  snll  in  power  when  it  commenced,  but  he  soon  fell  a  victim  to  the  terrible 
plague  winch  desolated  Athens.  The  unprincipled  Cleon  and  the  rash  Alcibiades  suc- 
-  l\  gained  the  predominant  influence.  The  war  was  continued  with  slight  in- 
termissions and  various  successes  for  nearly  thirty  years,  and  was  ended  by  ihe  battle 
ol  £gos  Potamos,  B.  C.  105,  in  which  Lysander,  the  Spartan  king  and  general,- gained 
a  final  victory  over  the  Athenians.  By  this  event  Athens  losi  her  supremacy  in 
Greeci  .  and  was  deprived  even  ol  her  own  liberties.  Her  walls  were  thrown  down, 
and  o  government  of  thirty  tyrants  imposed  upon  her  citizens.  '1  o  this,  however,  the 
Athenians  submitted  but  a  few  years.     In  401  B.  C.  the  '1  hirty  were  expelled. 

Tin  same  year  was  remarkable  for  two  other  events.  The  lirst  was  the  accusation 
ocrales,  one  of  the  greatest  and  the  best  men  of  which  paganism  can  boast.  The  trial 
for  some  reason  was  delayed  several  years,  but  the  result  was  utterly  disgraceful  to 
the  city  and  to  till  concerned  (cf.  P.  V.  §  171).  The  other  memorable  event  was  the 
expedition  of  Cyrus  the  younger,  the  satrap  of  Lydia,  against  his  brother,  the  king  of 
I  rein  Ten  thousand  Greeks  accompanied  him  in  this  enterprise.  The  march  lrcm 
Sardis  to  the  Euphrates,  the  fatal  battle  of  Cunaxa,  and  the  labors  and  dangers  of  the 
10,000  in  returning  to  their  homes,  are  recorded  by  Xenophon  with  beautiful  simpli- 
city.— The  assistance  which  the  Greeks  gave  in  this  revolt  of  Cyrus,  involved  them 
in  another  war  with  Persia.  Sparta  had,  by  the  result  of  the  l'eloponnesian  war, 
gained  the  supremacy  in  Greece,  and  the  oilier  states,  especially  Athens.  Thebes, 
Argos.  and  Corinth,  refused  to  aid  her  in  the  siruggle  which  followed.  They  even 
united  in  a  league  against  her,  and  Alliens  furnished  the  commander  to  whom  the 
Persians  were  indebted  for  the  almost  eniire  desiruction  of  the  Spartan  fleet.  This 
war  was  terminated  by  a  treaty,  B.  C.  387,  which  weakened  and  bumbled  Sparta, 
and  was  alike  dishonorable  to  all  the  Greeks. 

The  two  stiites  which  had  for  ages  been  pre-eminent  in  Greece,  Athens  and  Sparta, 
were  now  both  depressed,  and  opportunity  was  afforded  for  a  third  to  seek  the  as- 
cendancy. This  tor  a  short  lime  was  secured  to  Thebes,  chiefly  by  the  talents  of  two 
distinguished  citizens,  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas. — But  a  war  with  Sparta  shortly 
consummated  her  glory  and  exhausted  her  strength  ;  she  gained  a  brilliant  victory  in 
the  final  battle  of  Mantinea,  363  B.  C,  but  was  in  the  same  instant  ruined  by  the 
death  of  her  general  Epaminondas. — The  successive  downfall  of  three  principal  states, 
Athens,  Sparta,  and  Thebes,  and  the  jealousies  and  dissensions  connected  therewith 
reduced  Greece  to  a  miserable  condition.  The  general  corruption  and  licentiousness, 
already  mentioned,  increased  the  degradation.  In  a  few  years  we  find  the  Grecian 
states  embroiled  in  the  Phocian  or  Sacred  war,  B  C.  357.  (Cf.  P.  III.  ^  72.)  'Phis 
commenced  in  the  jealousies  between  the  Thebans  and  the  Phocians.  The  Spartans 
Mid  the  Athenians,  and  ere  long  the  Macedonians,  became  involved  in  it.  Shortly 
after  this  contest  was  terminated,  a  new  Sacred  war  arose,  called  the  Amphissian;  in 
which  tin  council  of  Amphictyons  appointed  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  as  general  and 
leader  ol  their  confederacy.  Amid  such  dissensions,  the  ambitious  Philip  eagerly  seized 
a  favorable  moment  for  entering  the  Grecian  territories.  At  Athens  the  single  voice  of 
Demosthenes  was  lifted  to  warn  the  Greeks  of  his  ultimate  intentions,  and  to  rouse 
them  to  united  resistance.  A  feeble  alliance  with  Thebes  was  effected,  but  in  vain. 
The  battle  of  Chaeronea,  B.  C.  337,  nlade  Philip  the  master  of  Greece. 

6.  The  6th  period  extends  from  the  supremacy  of  Philip,  gained  by  the  battle  of 
Chaeronea,  to  the  Capture  of  Corinth,  146  B.  C.  By  the  disastrous  defeat  at  Chae- 
ronea the  genuine  fire  of  the  Grecian  spirit  was  extinguished,  and  the  subsequent  his- 
tory exhibits  little  else  than  the  steps  by  which  the  country  was  reduced  to  a  dependent 
province.     We  may  therefore  denominate  this  the  period  of  decline  and  fall. 

Alexander,  who  succeeded  his  father  Philip  as  king  of  Macedon,  and  autocrat  of 
Greece,  cast  a  sort  of  glory  on  the  first  years  of  this  period  by  his  extensive  conquests. 
Those,  who  love  to  trace  the  course  of  conquerors,  will  follow  with  inn  rest  his  inarch 
from  the  Hellespont  to  the  Granicus,  to  Issus,  to  Tyre,  to  the  Nile,  to  the  desert  of 
to  ihe  Euphrates,  and  the  Indus;  but  every  reader  will  regret  his  lollies  at  Per- 
■epolis  and  be  disgusted  by  Ins  beastly  life  and  death  at  Babylon. — For  twenty  years 
rifier  Mexauder's  death  the  vast  empire  he  had  formed  was  agitated  by  the  quarrels 
Among  In--  generals.  By  the  battle  of  Ipmut  in  Phrygia,  B.  C.  301.  these  contests  were 
terminated,  and  ihe  empire  was  then  divided  into  four  kingdoms,  one  comprising  Ma- 

ced b   and  Greece;  a  Becond  Thrace  and  Bithynia;  a  third  Egypt,  Libya,  Arabia, 

1  'ali  tine,  ant?  I  loelosyria  ;  and  a  fourth  called  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  including  all  th<> 
real  "i    \ Bia,  e^ en  to  the  Indus. 

To  the  first  ol  ill,-,    the  Grecian  states  belonged.     Patriotic  individuals  sought  to 


P.  I.  STATES    OF    EUROPE.       ROME.  75 

arouse  their  countrymen  to  cast  off  the  Macedonian  yoke;  but  jealousy  between  the 
states  and  the  universal  corruption  of  morals  rendered  their  exertions  fruitless.  All 
that  is  really  honorable  and  memorable  in  the  proper  arlairs  of  the  Greeks  at  this 
period,  is  found  in  the  history  of  the  AchaBan  league. — The  Achaean  league  was  origi- 
nally a  confederacy  between  twelve  small  cities  of  Achaia,  established  very  early, 
when  the  Grecian  states  first  assumed  the  popular  instead  of  the  regal  form.  It  took 
scarcely  any  part  in  the  perpetual  conflicts  between  the  other  republics,  and  was  neutral 
even  in  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

The  Macedonian  kings  had  dissolved  it,  but  it  was  revived  about  280  B.  C.  Subse- 
quently it  was  enlarged,  and  Corinth  became  the  head  and  capital.  Under  the  presi- 
dency of  Philopcemen,  B.  0.  200  to  180,  it  rose  so  high  in  power  and  reputation,  that 
its  alliance  was  sought  by  some  of  the  governments  of  Asia.  Had  the  other  states  at 
this  time  risen  above  the  foul  and  mean  spirit  of  envy,  the  independence  of  Greece 
might  probably  have  been  restored.  But  unhappily  the  Romans  were  requested  by 
one  of  the  states  to  aid  them  against  the  Macedonians.  The  Romans  gladly  embraced 
the  opportunity,  and  shortly  alter  this  a  Roman  general  led  as  a  captive  to  grace  his 
triumph  the  last  king  of  Macedon,  167  B.  C. 

Nothing  but  the  Achaean  league  now  preserved  southern  Greece  from  falling  an  in- 
stant prey  to  Roman  ambition.  The  remaining  vigor  of  the  confederacy  averted  this 
destiny  for  twenty  years;  then  it  came,  under  the  pretext  of  just  punishment  for  insult 
upon  Roman  ambassadors.  The  legions  of  Rome  poured  upon  Achaia,  Corinth  was 
taken,  and  with  all  its  wealth  and  splendor  committed  to  the  flames  and  consumed  to 
ashes.  This  completed  the  subjugation  of  the  country,  which  became  of  course  a 
province  of  Rome. 

The  principal  helps  in  Ihe  study  of  the  Grecian  history  are  mentioned,  P.  V.  §  7.  7.  (rf).— A  good  elementary  work  is  Pimockl 
improved  edition  of  G  old  s  m  i  ih's  History  of  Greece.  &c.  Philail.  1^36.  12  —A  valuable  text-book  and  guide  to  deepei  research; 
S.  H.  L.  Heeren,  States  of  Antiquity,  translated  fn.ni  German  by  G.  Bancroft,  Northampt.  IS28.  8.— For  the  later  periods  of  Gre- 
cian history  ;  J.  Gml,  Hist,  of  Greece  from  accessiun  of  Ale.-ander  tilt  the  final  subjection  to  the  Romans.  Loud.  1792.  4.—  Suiter- 
taucA,  Geschichte  der  Achaer  und  ihres  Bundes.     Lpz.  1762. 


§  214.  II.  Rome.  The  history  of  Rome  extends  through  a  space  of  more  than  1200 
years;  which  may  be  divided,  like  the  Grecian  history,  into  six  periods. 

1.  The  1st  period  includes  the  time  from  the  Building  of  the  City,  B.  C.  752,  to 
the  Expulsion  of  Tarquin,  B.  C,  509.  It  may  be  called  tbv  Period  of  the  Kings,  or 
of  Eeg'd  Power. 

The  Roman  historians  have  left  a  particular  account  of  this  period,  beginning  with 
the  very  founders  of  the  city,  Romulus  and  Remus,  whose  descent  is  traced  from 
^Eneas  the  hero  of  Virgil.  But  manv  have  doubted  whether  this  portion  of  the  Roman 
history  is  entitled  to  much  credit,  and  some  have  even  contended  that  it  is  altogether 
fabulous.  (P.  V.  $  510.) — Seven  kings  are  said  to  have  reigned  (P.  III.  §§  193,  240). 
One  of  the  most  important  events  of  this  period,  was  a  change  in'  the  constitution 
effected  by  the  sixth  king.  Servius  Tullius,  introducing  the  Comitia  Centuriata.  He 
divided  the  citizens  into  classes,  and  subdivided  the  classes  into  centuries,  making  a 
much  larger  number  of  centuries  in  the  richer  classes  than  in  the  poorer.  (P.  III.  §  252.) 
— The  reign  of  the  second  king,  Numa,  is  remembered,  on  account  of  his  influence  on 
the  affairs  of  religion ;  as  he  instituted  many  of  the  religious  ceremonies  and  several 
classes  of  priests. — During  the  period  of  the  kings,  244  years,  the  Roman  territory  was 
of  very  limited  extent,  and  the  people  were  often  involved  in  war  with  the  several 
states  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  Tarquin  the  Proud,  the  last  king,  was  engaged  in 
the  siege  of  an  enemy's  city  only  sixteen  miles  from  Rome,  when  his  son  committed 
the  outrage  upon  the  person  of  Lucretia,  which  led  to  the  banishment  of  the  family  and 
the  overthrow  of  the  regal  government. 

2.  The  2d  period  extends  from  the  expulsion  of  the  Kings  to  the  time  when  the  Ple 
deians  were  admitted  to  the  Offices  of  state,  about  300  B.  C.  At  the  beginning  ol 
this  period  the  government  was  a  thorough  aristocracy,  but  at  the  close  of  it  had  be- 
come a  full  democracy.  It  included  over  200  years,  and  may  be  designated  as  th« 
period  of  the  Plebeian  and  Patrician  contests,  or  of  Party  strife.  m 

Two  consuls,  chosen  annually,  first  took  the  place  of  the  king,  and  exercised  almost 
precisely  the  same  power.  All  offices  of  state  were  forbidden  to  the  Plebeians  or  com- 
mon people,  and  filled  exclusively  by  Patricians  or  descendants  from  the  Senators  or 
Patres. — The  first  step  in  the  undermining  of  the  aristocracy  was  the  Valerian  Law, 
which  allowed  a  citizen  condemned  to  a  disgraceful  punishment  to  apptal  from  the 
magistrate  to  the  people.  Under  the  protection  of  this  law,  the  people,  discontented 
with  their  poverty  and  hardships,  ere  long  refused  to  enrol  their  names  in  *he  levies, 
which  the  wars  with  the  neighboring  states  demanded.  This  difficulty  led  the  Patri- 
cians to  invent  a  new  office  ;  that  of  Dictator  (P.  III.  §  248).     Bui  the  dissatisfaction 


76  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

of  the  Plebeians  was  not  to  be  thus  removed.  They  united  with  the  army  and  with- 
drew to  M  Sacer,  B.  C.  493.  Reconciliation  was  effected  by  creating  the  office  of 
Tribunes,  who  were  to  be  chosen  annually  from  the  Plebeians,  and  to  possess  the  power 
negative  upon  the  decrees  of  the  Consuls  and  even  the  Senate.  (P.  111.  $  245.)  — 
This  arrangemeni  only  led  lo  new  dissensions,  the  Tribunes  generally  making  it  their 
to  opposi  the  Consuls  and  the  Senate,  and  the  Plebeian  interest  gradually  en- 
hing  upon  the  Patrician. — In  a  tew  years  another  fundamental  change  was  effected. 
'I  he  important  business  of  state  bad,  from  the  time  of  king  Servius  Tullius,  been 
transacted  at  the  Comitia  Centuriata,  <>v  assemblies  voting  by  centuries.  It  was  now, 
I!  c.  i:i,  decided  that  such  business  might  be  transacted  in  the  Comitia  Tributa,  or 
assi  mbli<  s  voting  by  Tribes,  in  which  the  Plebeians  held  the  control. 

The  next  office  creati  tl  at  R< ■  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  jealousy  between 

the  two  parties,  the  Patricians  opposing,  and  the  Plebeians  favoring  it.  This  was  the 
Decemvirate,  I!  C.  151.  which  superseded  both  consuls  and  tribunes,  but  continued 
only  three  years,  and  then  the  two  other  offices  were  restored. — In  a  few  years  the 
people  made  another  advance,  the  Senate  conceding,  that  six  military  tribunes,  three 
Patrician  and  three  Plebeian,  might  be  substituted  instead  of  the  two  consuls. — Another 
office  was  created  during  this  period,  the  censorship;  two  Censors  being  appointed  to 
in  census  ol  the  people  every  five  years,  and  to  watch  over  the  public  morals. — 
But  this  office  dots  not  appeal-  to  have  originated  in  party  animosity;  nor  had  it 
any  influence  in  healing  the  dissensions  between  the  higher  and  lower  orders  (cf. 
J'-  III       247). 

i  in.  grand  object  with  the  Plebeians  yet  remained  unaccomplished.  They  were 
in  it  eligible  to  the  more  important  offices  of  the  state,  and  to  remove  this  disability 
they  now  bent  all  their  energies.  The  struggle  continued  tor  many  years,  and  occa- 
sioned much  unhappy  disturbance,  but  terminated  in  their  complete  success;  as  they 
gained  admission  to  the  consulship!  the  censorship,  and  finally  to  the  priesthood,  and 
tin-  obtained  a  virtual  equality  with  the  Patricians  about  B.  C.  300. 

During  this  period,  so  harassed  by  internal  contests,  Rome  was  engaged  in  fre- 
quent wars.  Three  ot  them  are  most  noticeable.  The  first  was  with  the  Etrurians, 
under  king  Porsenna,  shortly  alter  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin,  "a  war  fertile  in  exploits 
of  romantic  heroism.'' — The  second  was  with  the  city  Veii.  a  proud  rival  of  Rome.  It 
was  ai  last  taken  by  Camillus,  B.  C.  390,  after  a  siege  of  ten  years. — The  last  was 
with  the  Gauls,  who  invaded  Italy  under  Brennus,  and  are  said  to  have  taken  Rome 
and  burned  n  to  the  ground,  B.  C.  385.  Camillus,  who  had  been  forced  by  the  cla- 
mmy ot  the  populace  to  go  into  retirement,  unexpectedly  returned,  and  put  to  speedv 
llii/lit  the  barbarian  conquerors. 

3.  The  3d  period  in  the  Roman  history  extends  from  the  final  triumph  oj  *h°  Pie- 
beians  to  the  Capture  of  Carthage,  B.  C.  146. 

I! i inn    had    hitherto  been  distracted  with  intestine  feuds  and  dissensions,  and   had 

extended  her  dominion  over  but  a  small  extent  of  territory.     The  admission  of  Ple- 

ns  to  all  the  liiirh  offices  of  trust  and  distinction  promoted  the  consolidation  and 

strength  of  the  republic,  and  the  career  of  conquest  was  soon  commenced.    This  may 

be  remt  mbi  red  as  the  period  of  the  Punic  Wars,  or  of  Foreign  Conquests. 

The  first  important  conquest  was  that  of  the  southern  part  of  Italy,  which  resulted 
from  the  war  with  the  Samnites.  Southern  Italy  was  settled  by  Grecian  colonies 
and  contained  at  this  time  several  cities,  flourishing,  wealthy,  and  refined  by 
-  and  the  arts.  On  their  invitation  Pyrrhus,  the  king  of  Epirus,  passed  over 
from  Greece  with  a  large  army  and  a  train  of  elephants  to  aid  them  against  the  Ro- 
man-, and  was  for  a  time  successful,  but  finally,  being  totally  defeated  at  the  battle 
ol  Beneventum,  1!.  C.  274,  fled  precipitately  to  his  own  dominions.  The  allied  states 
and  cities  immediately  submitted  to  Home,  who  thus  became  mistress  of  Italy. 

She  now  began  to  look  abroad  for  acquisitions,  and  the  island  Sicily  became  an 
object  "t  desire.  The  pursuit  ol  this  object  brought  Rome  into  contact  with  Carthage, 
which  was  now  flourishing  and  powerful.  The  Carthaginians  had  settlements  in 
Snilv.  and  desired  as  well  as  the  Romans  the  dominion  of  the  whole  island,  [fence 
sprang  the  first  of  the  three  Punic  Wars.  Sicily  was  chiefly  settled  by  Creek  colo- 
niesi  These  colonies  preferred  independence,  but.  situated  between  Rome  on  one 
side  ami  Carthage  on  the  other,  were  in  no  condition  to  resist  both,  and  had  only  the 
alternative  of  joining  one  against  the  other.  Thev  chose  the  side  of  the  Romans  in 
tne  Urol  Punic  war.  which  began  I!.  ('.  264,  and  was  ended  B.  C.  241,  by  a  treaty 
i  dingly  humiliating  to  Carthasre.  Sicily  was  made  a  Roman  province,  yet  Syra- 
cuse, the  principal  city,  was  allowed  to  retain  an  independent  government. — The 
tragic  story  ol   Regulus  belongs  to  the  first  Punic  war. 

peace  of  twenty-three  vears,  the  second  Punic  war  began  in  the  sie^e  of 

ntum   in   Spam,  by  Hannibal.  B.  ('.  218.      Having   taken  this  city,    Hannibal 

.•roused  i he  Pyrenees  and    he  Alps,  and  marched  down  upon  Italy  with  a  victorious 


P.  I.  STATES  OF  EUROPE.   ROME  77 

army.  The  Romans  were  defeated  in  three  engagements  before  the  memorablo 
battle  of  Cannae,  in  which  they  were  completely  conquered,  and  40,000  of  their  troops 
left  dead  on  the  field.  But  alter  t lie  batile  ol  eain.u:  ihe  Carthaginians  gained  no  ad 
vantages.  A  king  of  Macedon  came  to  their  aid  in  vaiu. — Scipio,  a  Roman  general, 
having  conquered  Spain,  passed  over  to  Africa  and  carried  the  war  to  the  very  walls 
of  Carthage.  Hannibal  was  recalled  from  Italy  to  deteud  the  city,  but  was  utterlj 
defeated  by  Scipio  in  the  battle  of  Zama,  B.  C.  202,  by  which  the  second  Funic  wai 
ended  even  more  disastrously  than  the  first.  In  this  war  Syracuse  in  Sicily  took  pari 
with  the  Carthaginians,  and  was  on  that  account  besjeged  by  the  Romans.  It  was 
ably  defended  by  the  scientific  genius  of  Archimedes,  but  at  length  taken  by  Marcel- 
lus,  and  made  a  part  of  the  province  of  Sicily,  B.  C.  212. 

The  result  of  the  second  Funic  war  may  be  considered  as  the  occasion  which  car- 
ried the  Roman  arms  into  Asia.  Hannibal,  after  the  battle  of  Zama,  fled  to  the  pro- 
tection of  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria.  This  led  to  a  war  which  compelled  the  king  to 
cede  to  the  Romans  nearly  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  B.  C.  190. —  The  interference 
of  the  king  of  Macedon  in  the  second  Funic  war  also  furnished  ihe  ground  for  a  war 
with  him,  which  was  the  first  siep  towards  the  conquest  of  Greece.  A  few  years 
after,  the  Romans-,  on  the  pretence  of  aiding  the  JEtolians,  subjected  Macedonia,  B.  C. 
167.  The  Achaean  league  preserved  the  southern  portions  of  the  country  a  little 
longer ;  but  in  twenty  years  these  likewise  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Rome  by  the 
capture  of  Corinth,  B.  C.  146. 

Carthage  fell  the  same  year  with  Corinth.  The  Romans  had  waged  a  third  Punic 
war,  when  the  Carthaginians  were  greatly  weakened  by  an  unfortunate  struggle  with 
the  Numidians.  The  third  Funic  war  continued  but  about  three  years,  and  termi- 
nated in  the  entire  destruction  of  Carthage,  under  circumstances  of  aggravated  cruelty 
and  faithlessness  on  the  part  of  the  Romans. 

4.  The  fourth  period  extends  from  the  Capture  of  Carthage  and  Corinth  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Imperial  Government  by  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.  C.  31. 
During  this  whole  time  the  Roman  history  is  a  continued  tale  of  domestic  disturb- 
ances.    This  may  justly,  therefore,  be  termed  the  period  of  the  Civil  Wars. 

The  very  commencement  of  the  period  is  marked  by  the  disturbances  which  grew 
out  of  the  attempts  of  the  two  Gracchi.  They  successively  endeavored  to  check  the 
growing  corruption  of  the  Sena'e.  and  to  relieve  the  circumstances  of  the  people  ;  but 
both  fell  victims  to  their  own  zeal  and  the  hatred  of  their  enemies,  Tiberius  13b,  and 
Caius  121  B.  C.  Some  have  ascribed  their  efforts  to  ardent  patriotism  ;  others  to 
mere  ambition.  (Cf.  Niehihr'a  Rome,  cited  P.  V.  §  299.  7.)  Not  long  alter  the  fall  e>f 
Gracchus  arose  the  Social,  war.  by  which  the  states  of  Italy  demanded  and  obtained 
of  Rome  the  rights  of  citizenship  B.  C.  90. — Scarcely  was  this  ended,  when  the  Ro- 
mans began  again  to  imbrue  their  hands  in  each  other's  blood  in  the  fierce  war  of 
Sylla  and  Man  us,  rival  leaders  in  the  republic.  Two  horrible  massacres  signalized 
this  contention.  Sylla  finally  triumphed,  and  was  made  perpetual  dictator,  yet  re- 
signed his  power  at  the  end  of  four  years.  B.  C.  78.  The  death  of  Sylla  is  soon  fol 
lowed  bv  the  famous  conspiracy  of  Cataline,  detected  and  subdued  bv  the  vigilance  of 
Cicero, 'B.  C.  62. 

Still  Rome  was  distracted  by  parties,  headed  by  ambitious  men. — The  first  trium 
virate,  a  temporary  coalition  between  Pompey,  Crassus,  and  Caesar,  repressed  the 
flames  of  discord  for  a  few  years.  Pompey  had  already  added  Syria  to  the  Roman 
possessions;  Caesar  soon  added  Gaul.  Crassus  lost  his  life  in  an  attempt  to  conquer 
Parthia,  B.  C.  53.  The  death  of  Crassus  broke  the  bond  which  held  Caesar  and 
Pompey  together,  and  they  hastened  to  determine  in  the  field  of  battle  who  should  be 
master  of  Rome.  The  contest  was  decided  in  the  plains  of  Pharsalus  in  Thessaly, 
by  the  entire  defeat  of  Pompey,  B.  C.  48.  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  but  was  beheaded 
the  instant  he  landed  on  the  shore.  For  five  years  Caesar  held  the  supreme  power  at 
Rome,  but  was  assassinated  in  the  senate,  by  a  company  of  conspirators  headed  by 
Brutus  and  Cassias.  B.  C.  43. 

A  second  triumvirate  was  now  formed,  on  the  pre'ext  of  avenging  this  murder,  be 
tween  Antony,  Lepidus,  and  Octavius,  each  aspiring  *o  the  power  of  Caesar.  A  horrid 
proscription  sealed  in  blood  this  compact.  A  war  with  the  party  of  the  conspirators 
necessarily  followed,  and  the  battle  of  Philippi,  B.  C.  42,  put  an  end  to  the  hopes  of 
Brutus  and  Cassius.  at  the  head  of  this  party.  Octavius.  who  was  the  nephew  of 
Caesar,  easilv  effected  the  removal  of  one  member  of  the  triumvirate.  Lepidus,  a  man  of 
feeble  talon's  and  insignificant  character.  His  other  colleague,  Antony,  infatuated  by 
love  for  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt,  soon  furnished  a  pretext  for  open  hostility,  and  the 
fate  of  battle  again  decided  who  should  be  the  master  of  Rome.  The  armament  of 
Antony  and  Cleopatra  was  wholly  defeated  by  Octavius  at  Actium,  B.  C.  31.  Thin 
battle  subjected  Egypt  to  Rome,  and  Rome,  with  all  her  possessions,  to  the  pawei 
of  Octavius,  by  whom  the  imperial  government  was  finally  established. 


78  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

The  Roman  historv.  from  the  fall  of  Carthage  to  the  battle  of  Acfium,  presents  bu 
a  melancholy  picture,  a  blood-stained  record  of  sedition,  conspiracy,  and  civil  war. 

5.  We  may  include  in  a  5th  period  the  time  from  the  establishment  of  the  Imperial 
Government  to  the  reign  of  Constantine.  A.  D.  306.  As  Christianity  was  introduced 
into  the  world  in  this  period,  and  was  opposed  until  the  end  of  it  by  the  Roman  govern- 
ment, we  may  designate  it  as  the  period  of  the  Pagan  Emperors. 

The  reign  of  Augustus,  the  name  taken  by  the  first  Emperor  Octavius,  has  become 
proverbial  for  an  age  flourishing  in  peace,  literature,  and  the  arts.  It  is  distinguished, 
also,  for  the  birth  of  our  Savior;  as  the  next  reign,  that  of  '1  iberius,  is,  for  his  cruci 
rixion  and  death. — The  four  reigns  succeeding,  viz.  those  of  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Clau- 
dius, and  Nero,  ate  chiefly  memorable  for  the  tyranny  of  the  emperors,  and  the  profli. 
i  their  families  and  favorites. 

I  in  the  death  of  Nero,  A.  D.  69,  follows  a  year  of  dissension  and  bloodshed,  in  which 
Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius,  successively  gained  the  empire  and  lost  their  lives. — The 
Flavian  family,  Vespasian  and  his  two  sons,  Titus  and  Domitian,  next  in  order  receive 
the  supreme  power.  Titus  is  celebrated  as  the  final  conqueror  of  the  Jews,  whose 
obstinacy  provoked  him  to  rase  their  city  to  the  ground,  an  event  exactly  fulfilling  the 
prediciions  of  Christ.  His  reign  is  memorable  for  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which 
buried  the  cities  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  in  ruins.  Domitian,  the  last  emperor  of  the 
family,  provokes  his  own  assassination,  A.  D.  96. 

Passing  the  reigns  of  the  feeble  Nerva,  the  martial  Trajan,  and  the  peaceful  Adrian, 
we  arrive  at  a  brilliant  asre  in  the  imperial  history,  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  extending 
from  A.  D.  138  to  180,  a  space  of  about  forty  years.  Their  reigns  appear  in  the  midst 
of  the  general  sterility  and  desolation  of  the  imperial  history  like  the  verdant  oasis  in 
the  desert.     Literature  and  the  arts  of  peace  revived  under  their  benign  influence. 

Alter  the  death  of  Marcus,  A.  D.  180,  there  follows  a  whole  century  of  disorder, 
profligacy,  conspiracy  and  assassination.  The  army  assumes  the  absolute  disposal  of 
the  imperial  crown,  which  is  even  sold  at  public  auction  to  the  highest  bidder.  Within 
the  last  fifty  years  of  the  time,  nearly  fifty  emperors  are  successively  proclaimed,  and 
deposed  or  murdered. — In  the  year  284,  Diocletian  commenced  his  reign,  and  attempted 
a  new  system  of  administration.  The  empire  was  divided  into  four  departments  or 
provinces,  and  three  princes  were  associated  with  him,  in  the  government.  This  sys- 
tem only  laid  the  foundation  for  rivalship  and  contention  in  a  new  form,  and  in  a  few 
years  Maxentius  and  Constantine,  sons  of  two  of  the  princes  associated  with  Diocletian, 
appealed  to  the  sword  to  decide  upon  their  respective  claims  to  the  imperial  purple. 
The  former  tell  in  the  battle,  and  Constantine  secured  the  throne. 

This  period  is  memorable  in  the  history  of  Christianity.  Under  the  Pagan  Emperors, 
those  who  embraced  the  gospel  were  constantly  exposed  to  persecution  and  suffering. 
Ten  special  persecutions  are  recorded  and  described,  the  first  under  Nero,  A.  D.  t>-« 
and  the  lust  under  Diocletian,  commencing  A.  D.  303,  and  continuing  ten  years,  untc 
A.  D.  313.  But,  notwithstanding  these  repeated  efforts  to  hinder  the  progress  of  the 
gospel,  it  was  spread  during  this  period  throughout  the  whole  Roman  Empire. 

6.  The  6th  period  includes  the  remainder  of  the  Roman  history,  extending  from  the 
reign  of  Constantine  to  the  Fall  of  Rome,  when  captured  by  the  Heruli,  A.  D.  476. 
The  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  imparts  splendor  to  the  commencement  of  this 
period.  He  embraced  the  Christian  faith  himself,  and  patronized  it  in  the  empire,  as 
did  also  most  of  his  successors;  on  which  account  this  may  be  called  the  period  of  the 
Christian  Emperors. 

One  of  the  most  important  events  of  his  reign,  and  one  which  had  a  great  influence 
on  the  subsequent  affairs  of  Koine,  was  the  removal  of  the  Government  to  a  new  seat. 
He  selected  Byzantium  tor  his  capital,  and  thither  removed  with  his  court,  giving  it  the 
name  of  Constantinople,  which  it  still  bears.  He  left  his  empire  to  five  princes,  three 
sons  and  two  nephews;  the  youngest  son,  Constantius,  soon  grasps  the  whole,  A.  D. 
360  By  the  death  of  Constantius,  his  cousin  Julian  received  the  purple,  which  he 
was  already  on  his  march  from  Gaul  to  seize  by  force.  The  reign  of  Julian,  styled  the 
Apostate,  is  m<  morable  for  Ins  artful  and  persevering  attempts  to  destroy  the  Christian 
religion,  and  his  unsuccessful  efforts  to  rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  with  the  ex- 
press purpose  ol  easting  discredit  on  the  predictions  of  the  Bible. 

From  the  death  of  Julian,  A.  D.  363,  to  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  A.  D. 
379  the  history  presents  little  that  is  important  to  be  noticed,  except  the  jealousies 
between  the  eastern  and  western  portions  of  the  Empire,  which  grew  out  of  the  re- 
moval of  the  court  to  Constantinople.  Theodosius  was  the  last  emperor  who  ruled 
T'er  both.  In  39.">  he  died,  leaving  to  his  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius  separately  the 
east  and  the  west.— F  nun  this  time  the  Eastern  portion  remained  distinct,  and  its  his- 
tory no  longer  belongs  to  that  of  Rome. 


P.  I.  STATES  OF  EUROPE.   ROME.  79 

The  We9;ern  portion  languishes  under  ten  successive  emperors,  who  are  scarcely 
able  to  defend  themselves  against  the  repeated  attacks  of  barbarian  invaders.  At  length, 
under  Augustulus,  the  11th  from  Theodosius,  Rome  is  taken  by  Odoacer,  leader  of 
the  Heruli,  and  the  history  of  ancient  Rome  is  terminated,  A.  D.  476. 

The  whole  of  the  period  from  Constantine  to  Augustulus  is  marked  by  the  continuec 
inroads  of  barbarous  hordes  from  the  north  and  the  east.  But  the  greatest  annoyance 
was  suffered  in  the  latter  part  of  the  time,  from  three  tribes,  under  three  celebrated 
leaders;  the  Goths,  under  Alaric ;  the  Vandals,  under  Genseric ;  and  the  Huns, 
under  Attila  ;  the  two  former  of  which  actually  carried  their  victorious  arms  to  Rome 
itself  (A.  D.  410  and  455),  and  laid  prostrate  at  their  feet  the  haughty  mistress  of  the 
world ;  and  the  latter  was  persuaded  to  turn  back  his  forces  (A.  D.  453)  only  by  igno 
ble  concessions  and  immense  gifts. 

§  215.  It  may  be  proper  to  add  here,  that  the  Eastern  Empire,  called  also  the  Greek 
Empire,  was  sustained  under  various  fortunes,  for  a  period  of  almost  1000  years  alter  the 
overthrow  of  the  Western.  After  the  (all  of  Rome  nearly  sixty  different  emperors  had 
occupied  the  throne  at  Constantinople,  when,  A.  D.  1202,  that  city  was  taken  by  the 
crusaders  from  France  and  Venice,  By  this  event  the  Greek  emperors  were  forced  to 
establish  their  court  at  Nicffia  in  Asia  Minor.  After  the  lapse  of  sixty  years,  their 
former  capital  was  recovered  :  and,  subsequently  to  this,  eight  different  emperors  held 
the  sceptre  there  ;  although  the  empire  was  gradually  reduced  in  strength  and  extent, 
until  it  consisted  of  but  a  little  corner  of  Europe.  Its  existence  was  prolonged  to  A.  D. 
1453,  when  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  who  have  retained  it  to 
the  present  day. 

For  the  principal  works  on  the  Roman  history,  see  P.  V.  §  299.  7. — We  mention  here  as  valuable,  Mac.  Fraser  TylltrU  Universal 
History.  Bost.  1835.  2  vols.  8—  The  student  in  ancient  history  will  derive  advantage  also  from  B  i  g  I  a  n  d's  Ltilcrt  cii  tin  Stttdf 
mnJVrr  of  Hittory,  and  Prtatley'i  Leclum  on  BMory  ;  also,  Buh't  Fropadeutik  des  historischen  Studiums.    Berl.  1811.  8. 


I\-«. 


i  I! 


4-r 


PART  II. 


MYTHOLOGY  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS. 


P  I.   A  T  F.      X  . 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 


Introduction. 


§  1.  Among  the  early  nations  of  antiquity,  before  the  art  of  writing  had  come 
into  general  use,  tradition  was  the  only  mode  of  preserving  and  spreading  the 
Knowledge  of  remarkable  events.  Many  circumstances  contributed  to  give  to 
early  traditions  a  fabulous  character.  The  love  of  the  marvellous,  a  natural 
tendency  of  the  mind  to  employ  symbolical  and  allegorical  images  to  express 
ideas  for  which  no  definite  words  have  been  appropriated,  and  a  disposition  to 
eulogize  and  exaggerate  the  exploits  of  ancestors,  all  conspired  to  load  history 
and  fact  with  a  mass  of  fiction,  so  that-it  became  impossible  for  later  inquirers 
to  distinguish  accurately  between  the  true  and  false. 

§  2.  Traditions  of  this  sort  the  Greeks  distinguished  from  authentic  history 
by  the  name  of  mylhi  (^t^ot),  and  they  termed  their  contents  or  the  matter  of 
them,  as  well  as  the  knowledge  or  study  of  them,  mythology  (jwu^oxoyta) . 
Mythology,  however,  was  not  with  them,  as  in  modern  times,  a  distinct  branch 
of  study.  The  term  is  now  used  appropriately  for  that  branch  of  knowledge 
which  considers  the  notions  and  stories,  particularly  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  respecting  gods  and  demigods,  their  pretended  origin,  their  actions, 
names,  attributes,  worship,  images,  and  symbolical  representations.  It  is  often 
employed  also  in  a  wider  sense,  including  the  religious  fables  of  all  ages  and 
nations,  and  thus  is  made  synonymous  with  the  history  of  fable. 

§  3.  It  is  important  to  distinguish  the  point  of  view  in  which  these  mytholo 
logical  narratives  were  contemplated  by  the  ancients,  from  that  in  which  we  are 
to  regard  them.  To  the  former  they  were  closely  connected  with  their  national 
history  and  their  religious  faith,  were  indeed  parts  of  them  ;  to  us  they  are  only 
monuments  and  evidences  of  the  state  of  culture  of  the  hun.an  mind,  if  we  view 
them  philosophically.  They  exhibit  the  reflections,  upon  nature  and  deity,  of 
men  guided  by  sense  and  imagination,  affected  much  by  external  appearances, 
and  mistaking  physical  effects  for  independent  or  voluntary  powers.  But  they 
afford  much  valuable  and  even  necessary  aid  in  understanding  tiie  Greek  and 
Roman  authors,  especially  the  poets,  and  in  judging  of  ancient  opinions,  usages, 
and  art. 

§  4.  The  traditions  of  mythology,  in  passing  down  through  many  centuries, 
were  multiplied  and  augmented,  and  experienced  various  changes  in  respect  to 
their  general  dress,  aim,  and  application.  Originally  they  consisted  in  part  of 
actual  occurrences,  in  part  of  arbitrary  fiction,  springing  from  fear,  reveren.  .« 
gratitude,  patriotism,  credulity  and  love  of  the  marvelous,  or  duplicity,  cun 
ning,  and  ambition.  They  were,  it  is  probable,  sometimes  of  native  origin,  but 
more  frequently  were  introduced  from  foreign  sources,  by  settlers  and  other- 
wise. By  the  poets  they  were  woven  into  epic  song ;  by  early  philosophers 
they  were  clothed  in  mystery  and  allegory;  and  by  the  later  interpreted  in 
divers  conflicting  ways  ;  while  artists  found  in  them  an  ample  range  of  subjects 
for  the  chisel  and  the  pencil. 

§  5.  Some  of  the  modern  writers  on  Greek  and  Roman  mythology  have 
merely  stated  the  fables  as  reported  among  the  ancients.  Others  have,  in  add 
tion,  sought  to  trace  them  to  their  origin,  either  by  making  conjectures  of  alle- 
gorical, historical,  and  physical  meanings  in  the  stories,  or  deducing  them  from 
the  events  of  early  ages  recorded  in  the  Bible.  But  as  these  traditions  arose 
in  various  ways,  and  often  accidentally,  there  will  of  course  be  error  in  everj 
system  which  attempts  to  refer  them  all  to  one  common  source  and  purpose. 
9  83 


84  GREEK  AXD  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

$  5  m.  The  foundation  of  very  many  of  the  fictions  of  mythology  is  laid  in  the  idea, 

which  arose  from  ihe  simplicity  and  inexperience  of  the  first  ages,  conversant  only 

with  obji  cts  that  every  thing  in  nature  was  endued  with  an  appropriate 

activity  and  -;   mtaneity  like  that  in  man.     In  consequence  of  this  idea,  wherever  an 

unusual   a]  ir  agency  was  observed,  it  was  ascribed  to  a  distinct  being  or 

directly  or  immediately.     This  creation  of  personal  existences  out 

of  natural  ia,  tins  personification  of  physical  objects  and  events  was,  in  all 

e  ol  the  most  prolific  sources  offable  and  of  idolatry;  for  which  the  stars 

sei  in  to  have  furnished  the  first  and  the  most  common  occasion. 

riel    re  ingeniouslysolved  by  referring  their  origin  to  symbolical  or  allegorical  descriptions  of  physical  prui- 
c  I    1'.  IV.  J  41.— On  the  rise  of  idolatry,  we  refer  to  Fabtr, Oiiginof  Pagan  Idolatry.    l.ond.  1816.  3  -ols.  4. 
.  I  furd,  Sac.  and  Proi.  Hist,  bk  v.-2ia>iler,  ciled  §  12.  2.  (a).— See  references,  P.  V.  $  364,  3. 

H  ing  remarks,  on  ihe  sources  of  fable,  are  from  the  Traite  des  Etudes  of  Rollin.   They 
translated  by  Mr.  Wellington  H.  Tyler,  who  has  consented  to  their  insertion  here. 

1.  "Out  source  if  Fab  l«  is  the  perversion  or  alteration  of  facts  in  Sacred  History} 
indeed,  this  is  its  earliest  and  principal  source.     The  family  of  Noah,  perfectly 

ructed  bv  bun  in  religious  matters,  preserved  for  considerable  time  the  worship  ot 
rue  God  in  all  us  purity.  But  when,  alter  the  fruitless  attempt  to  build  the  tower 
Babel;  the  members  of  this  family  were  separated  and  scattered  over  different 
untries,  divershy  oi  Language  and  abode  was  soon  followed  by  a  change  of  worship. 
n.  which  bad  been  httherto  intrusted  to  the  single  channel  of  oral  communication, 
ct  to  a  thousand  variations,  and  which  had  not  yet  become  fixed  ny  the  use , of 
writing,  thai  sure  guardian  ot  facts,  became  obscured  by  an  infinite  number  of  fables, 
the  latter  ol  which  greatly  increased  the  darkness  in  which  the  more  ancient  had  en- 
veloped  it. — The  tradition  ot  great  principles  and  great  events  has  been  preserved 
among  all  nations;  not,  indeed,  without  some  mixture  of  fiction,  but  yet  with  traces 
ot  truth,  marked  and  easy  to  be  recognized  ;  a  certain  proof  that  these  nations  had  a 
common  origin.  Hence  the  notion,  diffused  among  all  people,  of  a  sovereign  God,  all- 
powerful,  the  Ruler  and  Creator  of  the  universe:  and  consequently  the  necessity  of 
external  worship  by  means  of  ceremonies  and  sacrifices.  Hence  the  uniform  and 
general  assent  to  certain  great  facts  ;  the  creation  qI  man  by  an  immediate  exertion  of 
Divine  power  ;  his  state  of  felicity  and  innocence,  distinguished  as  the  golden  age,  in 
which  the  earth,  without  being  moistened  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow  or  cultivated  by 
painful  labor,  yielded  him  all  her  fruit  in  rich  abundance  ;  the  fall  of  the  same  man, 
tin  source  oi  all  his  woe,  followed  by  a  deluge  of  crime,  which  bro  ignt  on  one  of 
water;  the  human  rare  saved  by  an  ark,  which  rested  upon  a  mountain;  and  after- 
wards the  propagation  of  the  human  race  from  one  man  and  his  three  sons. — But  the 
detail  ol  particular  actions,  being  less  important,  and  for  that  reason  less  known,  was 
soon  altered  by  the  introduction  of  fables  and  fictions,  as  may  be  clearly  seen  in  the 
family  ot  Noah  itself.  The  historical  tact  that  he  was  the  father  of  three  sons,  and 
that  their  descendants  alter  the  flood  were  dispersed  into  three  diflTr  rent  parts  of  the 
earth,  has  given  rise  to  the  fable  of  Saturn,  whose  three  sons,  if  we  may  believe  the 
poets,  shared  between  them  the  empire  of  the  world." 

event  of  Ihe  points  »bove  suggested  by  Rollin,  the  pagan  mythology  exhibits  striking  coinr.dfdcc  with  facts  in  sacred  history 
These  arc  pointed  out  by  several  writers ;  we  mention  particularly  Ootitu,  De  veritate  Rel.  Cnr.it  (L  i.  c.  17.)— De  Lavaur,  His 
loire  de  la  Fable  conferee  avec  I'Hisloire  Sainle.  Amst.  1731.— Fabtr,  Hora>  Mosaics.— Collytr,  1  ectures  on  Scripture  Facts.  2d  ed 
Lond.  1809. — StiUingfleet'i  Origincs  Sacraj.-Cf.  Maurice,  History  of  Hindostan.     Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  4.  (bk.  i.) 

2.  "A  s,n,n<l  source  ot  Fable  was  furnished  by  the  ministry  of  angels  in  human 
affaire.  God  had  associated  the  angels  with  his  spiritual  nature,  his  intelligence  and  his 
immortality;  and  he  was  farther  desirous  of  associating  them  with  his  providence  in 
the  government  of  the  world,  as  well  in  the  departments  of  nature  and  the  elements, 
as  in  reference  to  the  conduct  of  men.  The  Scriptures  speak  of  angels,  who,  armed 
with  their  glittering  swords,  ravage  all  Egypt,  destroy  by  pestilence  in  Jerusalem  an 
innumerable  multitude  ol  people,  and  entirely  extirpate  the  army  of  an  impious  prince. 
Mention  is  made  ot  an  angel,  the  prince  and  protector  of  the  Persian  empire;  of 
another,  prince  ot  ihe  Grecian  empire;  and  of  the  Archangel  Michael,  prince  of  the 
people  ol  God  (Dan.  x.  20,  21).  The  visible  ministration  oi  angels  is  as  ancient  as  the 
world,  as  we  learri  from  the  Cherubim  stationed  at  the  gate  of  the  terrestrial  paradise 
to  guard  lis  entrance.— Noah  and  the  other  patriarchs  were  perfectly  instructed  in  this 
truth,  which  to  them  had  an  intense  interest  :  and  thev  took  pains,  no  doubt,  to  instruct 
their  families  on  :,  subject  of  such  importance;  but  these  by  degrees  losing  the  more 
I'""'  :I!'''  ppiritual  notions  of  a  divinity  concealed  and  invisible,  attended  only  to  the 
agent-  through  whom  they  received  their  blessings  and  punishments.  Hence  it  is 
that   men  ton, ie(|  the  idea  ol   gods,  some  of  whom   preside  over  ihe   fruits  of  the  earth, 

over  rivers,  sot ver  war  and  others  over  peace,  and  so  of  all  the  rest;  of 

L'"'~  "' •  power  and  agency  were  confined  m  certain  countries  and  cations,  and  who 

were  themselves  under  ih>  do ion  of  the  supreme  (bid. 

3  ■  A  third  source  ol  Fable  may  be  in  a  native  principle  deepiv  fixed  in  the  mind9 
v  all  people  ,  t|,,s  is  the  persuasion  which  has  always  prevailed,  tr.a'.  P,ondtnce  j<re 


P.  II  INTRODUCTION.  85 

tides  over  all  hitman  events  great  and  small,  and  that  each,  without  exception,  expe 
riences  his  attention  and  care.  But  men,  frightened  by  the  immense  detail  to  which  the 
Divine  Being  must  condescend,  have  lelt  bound  iu  relieve  him,  by  giving  10  each  oi  a 
number  oi'  deities  some  particular,  appropriate,  personal  duly  ;  Singulis  rebus  propria 
dispertientes  ojficia  numinum.  The  oversight  ot  the  whole  field  would  devolve  loo 
many  concerns  upon  a  single  deity;  the  soil  was  intrusted  to  one,  the  mountains  to 
another,  the  hills  to  a  third,  and  ihe  valleys  to  another  still.  St.  Augustin  {de  Civilate 
Dei,  iv.  8)  recounts  a  dozen  different  deities,  all  occupied  upon  a  stalk  ot  grain,  ot  which 
each,  according  to  his  office,  takes  a  special  care  at  different  times,  from  the  first  mo- 
ment that  the  seed  is  cast  into  the  ground,  until  the  grain  is  perfectly  ripened. — Besides 
ihe  crowd  of  deities  destined  to  perform  the  inconsiderable  duties  oi  such  affairs,  there 
were  others  which  were  regarded  as  of  a  higher  grade,  because  supposed  to  take  a 
more  noble  part  in  the  government  of  the  world." 

The  number  of  gods  admitted  in  the  Greek  mythology  was  immense,  if  we  may  take  Hesiod'a 
testimony  for  authority.     He  says  there  are  30,000  gods  on  earth,  guardians  of  men. 

Warburton  (in  the  work  cited  P.  IV.  <J  12.  3)  contends  that  the  fables  respecting  metamorphoses, 
which  are  recorded  hy  ancient  authors,  had  their  origin  in  the  common  belief  of  the  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis;  and  the  latter  he  affirms  to  have  been  a  "method,  of  explaining  the  ways  of 
Providence,  which,  as  they  were  seen  to  he  Unequal  here,  were  supposed  to  he  rectified  here- 
after;" thus,  he  says,  metempsychosis  naturally  suggested  metamorphosis}  "as  the  way  of  pu- 
nishing in  another  slate  was  by  a  transmigration  of  the  soul;  so  in  this,  it  was  by  a  transforma- 
tion of  the  body.'''' 

4.  "  A  fourth  source  of  Fable  was  the  corruption  of  the  human  heart,  which  ever 
strives  to  authorize  its  crimes  and  passions.  The  more  important  and  renowned  ol 
these  gods  are  the  very  ones  whom  Fable  has  most  disparaged  and  detained  by  attri- 
buting to  them  crimes  the  most  shameful  and  debauchery  the  most  detestable, murders, 
adulteries,  incests.  And  thus  it  is  that  the  human  heart  has  been  ready  to  multiply, 
distort,  and  pervert  the  fictions  of  mythology,  for  the  purpose  of  palliating  and  excusing 
practices  the  most  vicious  and  frightful  by  the  example  ot  the  gods  themselves.  There 
is  no  conduct  so  disgraceful,  that  it  has  not  been  authorized  and  even  consecrated  by 
the  worship  which  was  rendered  to  certain  deities.  In  the  solemnities  of  the  mothei 
of  the  gods,  for  instance,  songs  were  sung  at  which  the  mother  of  a  comedian  would 
Have  blushed  ;  and  Scipio  Nasica,  who  was  chosen  by  the  senate  as  the  most  virtuous 
man  in  the  republic,  to  go  and  receive  her  staiue,  would  have  been  much  grieved  that 
his  own  mother  should  have  been  made  a  goddess  to  take  the  place  and  honors  of 
Cybele." 

5.  "  I  do  not  propose  to  introduce  here  all  the  sources  from  which  Fable  takes  its 
rise,  but  merely  to  point  out  some  of  those  best  understood.  And  as  a  fifth  source, 
we  may  refer  to  a  natural  sentiment  of  admiration  or  gratitude,  which  leads  men  to 
associate  the  idea  of  something  like  diviniiy  with  all  that  which  particularly  attracts 
their  attention,  that  which  is  nearly  related  to  them,  or  which  seems  to  procure  for  them 
some  advantage.  Such  are  the  sun.  the  moon,  and  the  stars;  such  are  parents  in  view 
of  their  children,  and  children  in  that  of  their  parents  ;  persons  who  have  either  in- 
dented or  improved  arts  useful  to  the  human  family  ;  heroes  who  have  distinguished 
themselves  in  war  by  an  exhibition  of  extraordinary  courage,  or  have  cleared  the  land 
of  robbers,  enemies  to  public  repose;  in  short  such  are  all  who,  by  some  virtue  or 
by  some  illustrious  action,  rise  conspicuous  above  the  common  level  of  mankind.  It 
will  he  readily  perceived  without  further  notice  lhat  history,  profane  as  well  as  sacred, 
has  given  rise  to  all  those  demigods  and  heroes  tvhom  Fable  has  located  in  the  heavens, 
by  associating,  with  the  person  and  under  the  name  of  a  single  individual,  actions 
widely  separated  in  respect  to  time,  place,  and  person." — Cf.  P.  V.  §  222.  4. 

§  6.  The  advantages  of  an  acquaintance  with  mythology  are  many.  One  c-* 
the  most  important,  aside  from  its  aid  in  reference  to  ancient  philosophy,  re- 
ligion, and  history,  is  the  better  understanding  it  enahles  one  to  obtain  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  writers  and  of  the  works  of  their  artists.  It  is  obviously  ne- 
cessary to  the  cultivation  of  classical  learning,  which  is  of  such  acknowledged 
importance  in  modern  education. — Cf.  P.  IV.  §  29. 

On  the  benefits  of  studying  the  ancient  mythology  we  add  an  extract  from  Rollin,  as 
cited  under  the  last  section.  , 

1.  "It  apprizes  us  how  much  we  are  indebted  to  Jesus  Christ  the  Savior,  who  has 
rescued  us  from  the  power  of  darkness  and  introduced  us  into  the  wonderful  light  of 
the  Gospel.  Before  his  time,  what  was  the  real  character  of  men?  Even  the  wises) 
and  most  upright  men,  those  celebrated  philosophers,  those  great  politicians,  those 
renowned  legislators  of  Greece,  those  grave  senators  of  Rome?  In  a  word,  whal 
were  all  the  nations  of  the  world,  the  most  polished  and  the  most  enlightened  ?  Fable 
informs  us.  They  were  the  blind  worshipers  of  some  demon,  and  bowed  'lie  knee 
before  gods  of  gold,  silver,  and  marble.  They  offered  incense  and  prayers  to  statues, 
deaf  and  mute.  They  recognized,  as  gods,  animals,  reptiles,  and  even  plants.  Thev 
did  not  blush  to  adore  an  adulterous  Mars,  a  prostituted  Venus,  an  incestuour  J>juc>,  » 


86  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

Jupiter  blackened  by  every  kind  of  crime,  and  worthy  lor  that  reason  to  hold  the  first 
rank  among  the  gods. — Sec  what  our  lathers  were,  and  what  we  ourselves  should 
have  been,  had  not  the  light  of  the  Gospel  dissipated  our  darkness.  Each  story  in 
Fable,  every  circumstance  in  the  life  of  the  gods,  ought  at  once  to  fill  us  with  confusion, 
admiration,  and  gratitude. 

2.  "  Another  advantage  from  the  study  of  Fable  is  that,  by  discovering  to  us  the 
absurd  ceremonies  and  impious  maxims  of  Paganism,  it  may  inspire  us  with  new 
respect  tor  the  majesty  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  for  the  sanctity  of  its  morals. 
Ecclesiastical  history  informs  us,  that  a  Christian  bishop*,  in  order  to  render  idolatry 
odious  in  the  minds  of  the  faithful,  brought  forth  to  the  light  and  exposed  before  the 
eyes  of  the  public,  till  which  was  found  in  the  interior  of  a  temple  that  had  been 
demolished  ;  bones  of  men,  limbs  of  infants  immolated  to  demons,  and  many  other  ves- 
tiges (it  ihe  sacrilegious  worship,  which  pagans  render  to  their  deities.  This  is  nearly  the 
effect  which  the  study  of  Fable  must  produce  on  the  mind  of  every  sensible  person  ;  and 
this  is  the  use  to  which  it  has  been  put  by  the  holy  Fathers  and  all  the  delenders  of 
the  Christian  religion.  The  great  work  of  St.  Augustin,  entitled  'The  City  of  God, 
which  lias  conferred  such  honor  upon  the  Church,  is  at  the  same  time  a  proof  of  what 
I  now  advance,  and  a  perfect  model  of  the  manner  in  which  profane  studies  ought  to 
be  sanctified." 

*  This  bishop  was  T/uophiiii*  of  Alexandria ;  respecting  whom,  see  Murdoch's  Translation  of  Mosheim,  i.  392. 

We  would  here  refer  to  a  very  able  and  interesting  treatise  by  Tholnck,  on  The  nature  and  moral 
influence  of  Heathenism  among  the  Qrerk>  nod  Hainan*. — "Whosoever,"  says  Tholuck,  "stands  on 
a  lofty  mountain  should  look  not  merely  at  the  gold  which  1  lie  morning  sun  pours  on  the  grass 
mid  flowers  ;it  his  feet.  Inn  he  should  sometimes  also  look  behind  hint  into  the  deep  valley  where 
the  shadows  still  rest,  that  he  may  the  more  sensibly  feel  that  that  sun  is  indeed  a  sun.  Thus  it 
is  also  salutary  for  the  disciples  of  Christ,  at  limes,  from  the  kingdom  of  light  to  cast  forth  a 
glance  over  the  dark  stage,  where  men  play  Clieir  part  in  lonely  gloom,  without  a  Savior,  with- 
out a  God !" 

See  a  translation  of  Tholurk's  Treatise  by  Prof.  Emerson,  in  BiU.  Repository,  vol.  ii. 

3.  "  Still  another  benefit  of  very  great  importance  may  be  realized  in  the  under- 
standing of  authors,  either  in  Greek,  Latin,  or  even  French,  in  reading  which  a  per- 
son is  often  stopped  short  if  ignorant  ot  mythology.  I  speak  not  of  poets  merely, 
whose  natural  language  is  Fable  ;  it  is  often  employed  also  by  orators,  and  it  fur- 
nishes them  frequently  with  the  happiest  illustrations,  and  with  strains  the  most 
sprightly  and  eloquent.  Such,  for  example,  among  many  others,  is  that  drawn  from 
the  story  of  Medea,  in  the  speech  of  Cicero  (Pro  Leg.  3Ian.il.  sect.  9),  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus. 

4.  "  There  is  another  class  of  works,  whose  meaning  and  beauty  are  illustrated  by 
a  knowledge  of  Fable;  viz.  paintings,  coins,  statues,  and  the  like.  These  are  so 
many  enigmas  to  persons  ignoranl  of  mythology,  which  is  often  the  only  key  to  their 
interpretation."-: It  should  be  added,  that  mythology,  at  the  same  time,  itself  re- 
ceives new  light  from  the  study  of  su<  h  remains  or  imitations  of  ancient  art,  so  that 
these  two  branches  of  classical  pursuits  reciprocally  aid  each  other. 

§  7.  Greece  having;  been  settled  by  colonies  from  several  eastern  countries, 
and  having  derived  her  religious  notions  particularly  from  Egyptians  and  Phoe- 
nicians, the  orioin  of  most  of  the  Greek  deities  is  to  be  sought  in  the  religious 
nistory  of  those  countries  and  nations.  But  many  changes  took  place,  and 
this  original  derivation  was  greatly  obscured  through  the  vanity  of  the  Greeks, 
who  wished  to  claim  for  themselves  and  ancestors  the  merit,  of  their  whole  re- 
ligious system.  This  motive  led  them  to  confound  the  history  and  alter  the 
names  of  the  primitive  gods. 

Some  traditions  may  have  come  from  India.  There  are  certainly  many  points  of 
resemblance  between  the  mythology  of  Greece  and  that  of  India. 

S«  Karl  Hitler,  tin-  Vorhalle  Europlischer  Volkergeschichten  vor  Herodotus  um  den  Kaukasus  and  an  d"n  Gestagen  des  Pnn.ius. 
Berlin,  IH30  H.     Cf.  Kennedy,  a«  cited  $  12.  2.  (f ).     Also  Moore  and  Maurice,  as  there  cited.    Also  the  Works  of  Sir  Wm.  Jona 

ri'ed  S  £6,  4  On  in,  inflm  nee  of  Hie  Phoenicians,  Sic.  on  the  early  culture  of  the  Greeks,  cf.  P.  IV.  $  40-42  ;  P.  V.  §  12 On 

the  changea  mcoenively  wrought  in  tin  mythology  id  the  Greeks,  Mayo,  vol.  in.  p.  1-3,  as  cited  5  12.  2.  (a) 

§  ft.  The  religious  system  of  the  Romans  gives  clearer  evidence  of  its  Gre- 
cian descent,  being  in  scarcely  any  part  of  it  a  native  growth,  but  borrowed 
chiefly  from  the  Greek  colonies  in  Italy.  Yet  the  Romans  likewise  changed, 
not  only  in  many  cases  the  names  of  the  gods,  but,  also  the  fictions  of  their 
story,  and  the  rites  of  their  worship.  They  also  derived  some  notions  and 
usages  from  the  Ktrurians.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  10!>.)  All  the  religious  conceptions 
r>nd  institutions  of  the  Romans  were  closely  interwoven  with  their  civil  policy, 
dtiil  on  this  account  exhibited  some  peculiarities,  particularly  in  their  system 
.-jf  ausDires.  aug-mes,  and  various  omens'.     We  find  therefore  in  Roman  mvtho- 


P.  II.  •       INTRODUCTION.  SI 

logy  much  which  the  Greek   had  not,  and  much  which  was  borrowed  from  it 
but  altered  and  as  it  were  molded  anew. 

§  9.  Thus  the  general  division  or  classification  of  the  gods  was  not  the  same 
with  both  nations.  The  Greeks  made  a  three-fold  division  into  Superior  gods, 
Inferior  gods,  and  Demigods  or  heroes;  the  Romans  a  two-fold,  into  gods  Supe- 
rior and  Inferior  {[Dii  majorum  et  minorum  gentium).  Their  first  class  the 
Romans  distinguished  as  Consenles  and  Seltcti ;  their  second  class,  which  in- 
cluded demigods  or  heroes,  they  also  distinguished  as  Indigetes  and  Semones. 

1.  In 'the  Roman  classification  the  Consenles,  so  called  because  they  were  supposed 
to  torm  the  great  council  [tamsentientes,  of  heaven,  consisted  of  twelve,  6  males  and  ("> 
females;  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Apollo,  Mars,  Mercury,  Vulcan;  Juno,  Minerva,  Ceres, 
Diana,  Venus,  Vesta.  These  were  the  great  celestial  gods. —  The  Stiecli  were  nearly 
equal  to  them  in  rank,  and  consisted  ot  eight.  Saturn.  Piuto  or  Orcus,  Bacchus,  Ja- 
nus, Sol,  Geniud,  Rhea,  and  Luna.  These  (the  Consenles  and  the  Selecti)  were  called 
Dii  majorum  gentium,  and  all  the  rest  Dii  minorum  gentium,  in  allusion  to  the  division 
of  the  senators  (patres). 

2.  The  Indigetes,  called  also  Adscriptilii,  were  heroes  ranked  among  the  gods  on 
account  of  their  merits,  and  included  particularly  Hercules,  Castor  or  Pollux,  and 
Quirinus  or  Romulus. — The  Semones  included  those  deities  that  presided  over  parti- 
cular objects ;  as  Pan,  god  of  shepherds.  Flora,  goddess  ot  flowers,  &c. — Besides 
these  there  were  among  the  Dii  minorum  gentium  a  numerous  class  ot  miscellanei, 
including  the  virtues  and  vices,  and  other  objects,  personified  ;  and  also  a  number 
called  dii  peregrini,  foreign  gods  introduced  at  Rome  from  abroad,  or  at  least  tole- 
rated, although  perhaps  worshiped  chiefly  by  loreigners  residing  in  the  city. 

3  t.  The  gods  were  likewise  classed  according  to  their  supposed  residence.  When 
thus  classed,  four  divisions  were  made  of  them;  the  celestial  gods  (of.  §  11);  the  ter- 
restrial; the  marine  ;  (he  infernal. 

The  Consenles  in  the  Roman  division  corresponded  to  the  class  which  the  Greeks, 
when  denominating  the  gods  by  their  residence,  termed  the  Celestial  and  Olympian, 
Inovpdvioi,  dXv^urioi;  which  were  also  called  bt  iteya\oi  Stdi,  and  bi  itiitxa  Scot.  The 
Athenians  had  an  altar  consecrated  to  these  collectively,  0<i>it6s  rtov  iwitxa. 

At.  The  gods  are  sometimes  arranged  according  to  their  descent  in  the  fabulous 
genealogies.  But  the  genealogy  of  several  of  the  gods  is  given  variously  by  different 
poets  and  fabulists. 

The  earliest  Greek  theogony  was  that  of  Orpheus  (rf.  P  V.  £  48).  In  Homer  (cf.  P.  V.  J  50) 
are  traces  of  a  second  theogony.  which  has  linen  ascribed  to  Pronapides,  said  to  have  been  the 
preceptor  of  Homer.  Next  is  the  regular  scheme  of  Hesiod  (cf  P.  V  J  51)  in  his  poem  entitled 
Theogony.  Parts  of  a  fourth  system  •■  re  wrought  by  Aristophanes  (cf.  P.  V.  ?  65)  into  his  comedy 
of  the  Clauds.  A  partial  theogony  is  mingled  hv  Ovid  (P.  V.  J  361)  with  his  Cosmogony.  Cicero 
(cf.  P.  V.  />  468)  in  his  treatise  on  the  nature  of  the  cods  gives  the  genealogy  of  some. — See  J  12. 1. 
A  genealogical  table,  according  to  HesiotTs  Theogoiy,  is  appended  to  Cooke's  Hesiod  (cf.  P.  V.  §  51.  4). — A  genealogical  Chart  oj 
Mythology  is  given  in  our  Plate,  page  £0. 

§  10.  But  the  differences  in  the  systems  of  the  two  nations  need  not  essen- 
tially affect  a  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  of  their  mythology.  For  the 
principal  deities  of  each  were  common  to  both,  and  it  will  contribute  to  brevity 
and  comprehensiveness  to  include  them  all  in  one  system  of  classification, 
pointing  out  what  may  be  peculiar  in  each  case  as  it  occurs.  It  is  therefore 
proposed  to  consider  the  gods  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology  in  four 
classes;  viz.  (1)  Superior  Gods,  (2)  Inferior  Gods,  (3)  Mythical  Beings,  whose 
history  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  gods,  and  (4)  Heroes.  ' 

In  the  first  class  will  be  noticed  the  twelve  Consenles,  or  great  celestial  gods,  and 
also,  Janus,  Saturn,  Rhea,  Pluto,  and  Bacchus. — In  the  second  will  be  mentioned 
Uranus  or  Coelus,  Sol,  Luna,  Aurora,  Nox,  Iris,  yEolus,  Pan,  Latona,  Themis,  Ms- 
culapius,  Plutus,  and  Fama.  Here  belong  also  numerous  deities  of  the  Roman? 
which  were  not  common  to  them  and  the  Greeks. — The  third  class  comprehends  the 
Titans  and  Giants,  Tritons,  Sirens,  Nymphs,  Muses,  Graces,  Fates,  ruries.  Genii, 
Lares,  Satyrs,  and  the  like. — Under  the  fourth  and  last  fall  the  names  of  Perseus, 
Hercules,  Theseus,  and  various  others,  whose  achievements  led  to  'heir  deification. 

§  11.  It  maybe  proper  to  remark  here,  that  the  ideas  entertained  by  th* 
Greeks  and  Romans  respecting  the  nature  of  Divinity,  were  exceedingly  im- 
perfect. A  being  possessing1  powers  of  body  and  mind  superior  to  those  oi 
man,  especially  superior  might,  mainly  answered  to  their  notions  of  a  god. 
The  superiority  which  they  ascribed  to  their  deities  consisted  chiefly  in  freedom 
from  bodily  decay,  a  sort  of  immortal  youth,  ability  to  move  with  wonderful 
celerity,  to  appear  and  disappear  at  pleasure  with  a  noble  and  beautiful  form 


S3  GREEK    AXI)   ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

and  to  exert  an  immediate  influence  upon  the  condition  of  mortals.  In  thesa 
respects,  however,  their  power  was  limited,  according  to  the  general  opinion, 
filing  controlled  by  an  eternal  and  immutable  relation  of  things,  termed  fate  o 
destiny, 

"  Tli.'  ancient  Greeks  believed  their  "oils  to  be  of  the  same  shape  ami  form  as  themselves,  b.i 
ef  far  greater  beauty,  streneth,  and  dignity.  Thej  also  regarded  iliem  as  being  of  much  large. 
size  than  men  ;  for  in  those  nines  great  si/..'  was  esteemed  a  perfection  both  In  man  and  woman, 
and  consequently  whs  supposed  In  be  an  attribute  of  their  divinities,  to  whom  tliey  ascribed  all 
perfections.  A  fluid  named  Ichor  supplied  Die  place  of  blood  in  the  veins  of  the  gods  They  «er; 
not  capable  of  death,  bill  ihey  mighl  he  wounded  or  otherwise  injured.  They  could  make  them- 
selves visible  or  invisible  to  men  as  they  pleased,  and  assume  Ihe  forms  of  men  or  of  animals  as 
it  suited  their  fancy.  Like  men,  they  stood  in  daily  need  ff  fund  and  sleep.  The  meat  of  the 
gods  was  called  Ambrosia  'dp/3poo-ia),  their  drink  Nectar  (vixTan).  The  gods,  when  they  caina 
among  men   often  partook  oftheir  food  and  hospitality. 

•  "Like  mankind,  the  gods  were  divided  into  two  sexes;  namely,  gods  and  goddesses.  They 
married  and  had  children,  just  like  mortals.  Often  a  god  became  enamored  of  a  mortal  woman, 
or  a  goddess  was  smitten  with  Ihe  charms  of  a  handsome  youth;  and  these  love-tales  form  a 
large  portion  of  Grecian  mythology. 

"  To  make  Ihe  resemblance  between  gods  and  men  more  complete,  the  Greeks  ascribed  to  their 
deities  all  human  passions,  both  good  and  evil  They  were  capable  of  love,  friendship,  grati- 
tude, and  all  the  benevolent  affections  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the;  were  frequently  envious,  jealous, 
and  revengeful.  They  were  particularly  careful  to  exact  all  due  respect  and  attention  from  man- 
kind, whom  they  required  to  honor  them  with  temples,  prayers,  costly  sacrifices,  splendid  pro- 
cess  s,  and  rich  gills;  and  they  severely  punished  insult  or  neglect. 

"  The  abode  of  Ihe  gods,  as  described  by  the  more  ancient  Grecian  poets,  such  as  Homer  and 
Ilesiod.  was  on  ihe  summit  of  the  snow-clad  mountains  of  Olympus  in  Thessaly.  A  gate  of 
clouds,  kept  by  the  goddesses  named  the  Seasons,  unfolded  its  valves  In  permit  the  passage  of 
the  Celestials  to  earth,  or  to  receive  them  on  their  return.  The  city  of  the  gods,  as  we  may  term 
it,  was  regulated  on  ihe  same  principles  as  a  Grecian  city  of  the  heroic  ages.  The  inhabitants, 
who  were  all  the  kindred  or  the  wives  and  cfiildren  of  Ihe  king  of  the  gods,  bad  their  separate 
dwellings  ;  but  all,  when  summoned,  repaired  to  the  palace  of  Jupiter,  whither  also  came,  when 
called,  those  deities  whose  usual  abode  was  the  earth,  the  waters,  or  Ihe  under  world.  It  was 
also  in  the  great  hall  of  the  palace  of  the  Olympian  king  that  the  gods  feasted  each  day  on  am- 
brosia and  nectar;  which  last  precious  beverage  was  handed  round  by  the  lovely  goddess  Hebe 
(  Youth), — maid-servants  being  Ihe  usual  attendants  at  meals  in  the  houses  of  the  Grecian  princes 
in  early  times.  Here  they  conversed  of  the  affairs  of  heaven  and  earlh;  and  as  they  quaffed 
their  nectar,  Apollo,  the  god  of  music,  delighted  them  with  the  tones  of  his  lyre,  to  which  the 
Muses  sane  in  responsive  strains.  When  the  sun  was  set,  the  gods  retired  to  sleep  in  their 
respective  dwellings 

"  The  Dawn,  the  Sun,  and  the  Moon,  who  drove  each  day  in  their  chariots  drawn  by  celestial 
steeds  through  I  lie  air,  gave  light  to  the  gods  as  well  as  men  "    (Keiaktley,  p.  14-17.) 

$  12  t.  Before  proceeding  to  notice  more  particularly  the  classes  specified,  we  will, 
in  accordance  with  our  general  plan  in  other  parts  of  this  work,  present  some  references 
to  the  sources  ot  information  on  the  subject  ;  alluding  first  to  ancient  authorities,  and 
then  giving  the  tilles  to  more  modern  works. 


■ »»"j'  .*  •■...     !■>  i.  ii,i    aiao   in   iiic   wimim.  ,/i    auuic  in    ill,;  cai  ly    »  I  oei  3  01    lilt:    Cltui  Cll, 

and  also  in  the  notes  of  most  of  the  Greek  scholiasts. 

'2  it.  Of  the  n  ii  me  rous  modern  works  on  Mythology,  some  treat  the  subject  more  at  large,  others 
more  compendiously  ;  some  present  the  subject  in  an  alphabetical  order;  there  are  also  works 
BCCOmuailied  with   nlales  and  drawings  for  illustration 


'      I"    ■'.*     ,     a.Mll^      IMCBGlll     llie     Mllljetl     111    <1  O 

accompanied  with  plates  and  drawings  for  illustration. 


(a)  TU-  following  .ire  some  nf  Ihe  works  which  go  into  mnre 
fu'l  dnaill  in  Ihe  "hole  subject,  nr  oil  particular  parts. 

lit.  (.V.y.  th/raldi,  His'oriae  Dror.  Gemil  Synliigma.li  ivii. 
Baa.  1548.  fol.  Also  m  his  Opp.  Omn  («].  /.  Jtrunu).  Lugd. 
Hat.  16'«.  fol. 

Vine.  Cnrtari.  le  imagini  degli  dei  degl  anlichi.  Lion.  1581.  4 
Also  in  Lalin,  Lugd.  1681.  4    oft.  repr 

Kalali  Citrulu  Mtthologiz  s.  Explicationis  Fabularum  llbri 
X.  Gen.  1651.  8. 

'" ''•  '■  V  •'""■  Be  Ibenlogia  Gcniili  et  physiolngia  christi»na, 
I.  le  ..rieine  i-t  progK*N  idolatri*  libri  IX.     Amsl.  1668.  fol. 

Am.  Banltr,  La  mythologies!  lei  fables  expliquties  parl'hia- 
■  in.  Far  1738-10  6  vols.  12.  In  German,  with  additions  by 
/  A  SrMrftl  an  I  J.  M  Sehrnckh  I.pz.  1755-65  5  vols.  8.  In 
F...eli>h   taim.  Mvllmlogj  ollhe  Aucienlr    Lond.  1739  4  vols,  8. 


R.  Mayo.  System  of  Mythology.     Pbilad.  1815.  4  vols.  8. 

F.  Cteuzer's  Symbnlik  unci  Mythologie  der  Alien  Volker.  heson- 
der*  der  Griechen.  Lpl  1819-21  4  Bde.  8  3d  improved  ed. 
commenced  I83b\— Same  (abridged)  by  G.  H.Moser.  Lpx  1822.8. 

Ch.  A.  Lolick.  Aglanphamus,  sive  de  Theologian  mystk-aeGrse- 
corum  cansis.  Resimi-ntii  (Koningsbergl,  1829.  2  vols  8.  op- 
posing some  of  the  views  of  Creuzer :  it  h<s  been  highly  com- 
mended. 

J.  H.  Tom,  Anlisymbolik      Slutlg.  1824.  8. 

G  Hermann.  De  Mythologia  Grjecorum  antiquissima.  1817. 

G.  Hermann  and  F.  Creuzer,  Briefe  Uber  Homer  und  Hesiodus- 
Heidelb.  1818.  8. 

G.  H<rmannt  Brief-  uber  das  Wesen  und  die  Bvh.ndtung  der 
Mythologie.    Lpz.  1819.  8. 
/.  A.  KanntU  Mythologie  der  Griechen.    Lpi.  Ir05.  8.— Bt 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 


WM,  crate  Urkunden  dtr  (.eschichte,  Oder  atlgememe  Mytholo- 
gie. Baireuth,  1808.  2  Bde.  8.— By  same,  Pantheon  der  alteslen 
Katurphilosophie  alter  Volker.     Tilb  1811.   8. 

J.  L.  Hug,  Cntersuchungen  Uber  d.  Mythos  d.  berohmlern 
Volker  d.  all.  Well,  vorzjglich  d.  Griech.     Freyb.  1812.  4. 

K.  O.  Mailer,  Prolegomena  zu  einer  wissenschaftlicheu  My- 
thologie.   Goltiugen,  1825.  8. 
Bultmann,  Mythologus.     Berl.  IS28.  2  vols.  8. 
S.  A.  L.  Richttrt    Phanlasien  des  Alterthums,  oder  Samm.. 
myth.  Sagen  der  Hellenen,  Romer,  Ax.    Lpa.  1708-20.  5  Bde.  8. 
We  may  add  J.  Bryant's  New  System  of  Mythology.     Load. 
1807.  6  vols.  S. 
Dupuis,  Origine  de  tous  les  Culles.     Par.  1822.  7  vols  8. 
R.  P.  Knight,  Inquiry  into  the  symbolical  Language  of  Ancient 
Art  and  Mythology,  in  different  Nos.  of  the  Classical  Jimrnal. 

Count  deGebelm,  Le  Monde  Primilif  Par.  1774-87.  9  vols.  4. 
explaining  fables,  traditions,  symbols,  and  language. 

Guigniaut,  Religions  de  1'Antiquite.    Par.  1825-30.  4  vols.  8 
Constant,  De  la  Religion.     Par.  1826-31    5  vols.  8. 

(n)  More  compendious  treatises,  or  manuals. 
C.  T.  Damm,  Mythologie  der  Gnechen  und  Romer  (ed   Leve- 
tow).     Berl.  1820.  8.  with  plates. 

M.  G.  Hermann,  Handbuch  der  Mythologie  aus  Hon  er  und 
riesiod.  Berl.  1787-95.  3  vols.  8.— By  same,  Mythologie  der 
Gnechen,  fdrdieobern  Klassen,  &c.     Berl.  1801.  2  vols.  8. 

K.Ph  Moritz,  Gotterlehere,  oder  mythol  Uichhingen  der  Alteu. 
Berl.  1819.  8.  with  plates.  Also  transl.  by  C.  F.  Jager,  N.  York, 
1830.  12.  with  plales.  Same  work  in  English,  Mythological 
Fictions  of  Greeks  and  Romans.   !2mo. 

Fr.  Rambach,  Abriss  einer  Mythologie  fur  KUnstler.  Berl. 
1796.  2  vols.  8. 

C.  A.  Boltiger's  Grundrisse  zu  Vorlesungen  Uber  die  Mylholo 
gie.  Dresd.  I80S.  8.—By  same,  Amalthea  oder  Museum  d. 
Kunslmylhologie  und  bildl.  Allerlhumskunde.     I.eipz.  1821. 

F.  Fiedler,  Mythologie  der  Griechen  und  Ilalischen  Volker. 
Hal.  1823. 

Aiidrew  Toohe,  The  Pantheon;  containing  the  Mythological 
systems  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  36th  ed  Lond.  1831.  8.  with 
plates. 

Valpy's  Elements  of  Mythology.    Lond.  1832.  18.  very  brief. 
J.  K.  Dillaway,  Roman  Antiquities  and  Ancient  Mythology. 
Host.  1812.  12. 
T.  Kcightley,  Myth,  of  Greece  &  Italy.    2d.  ed.  Loud.  1838.  8. 

(c)  Dic'ionaries  of  Mythology. 
B.  Hederich,  Mytholo?isches  Lexicon  (ed.  /.  /.  Schuvabe)   Lpz. 
I7T0.  8. 

P.  F.A  A"i'lscA,Neues  mythol.  Worterbuch  (ed.  F.  G.  Klopjer). 
Lnz.  1821,  2  vols.  8. 
K.  Ph.  Moritz,  Mythol.  Worterbuch  Mr  Schiller.  Berl.  1817.  8 
/.  G.  Gniber,  Worterbuch  der  ahklassischen  Mythologie  und 
AVIigion.     Weim.  1810.  3  vols.  8. 

?.  C.  Chompre,  Dictionnaire  abrege  de  la  fable.  Par.  1818.  12 
Fr*  TVod,    Dictionnaire  de  la  fable,  ou  Mythologie  Grecque, 
Latine,  Egyptienne,  Celtique,  Persanne,  Indienne,  Chinoise,  &c 
Par.  1823.  2  vols.     . 

IVnx.  HolweU,  A  Mythological  Dictionary,  Sic  (Eitracled 
from  J.  Bryant's  New  System  or  Analysis  of  Ancient  Mytholo- 
gy.)    Lond.  1733.  8. 

Bell,  New  Pantheon.     Lond.  1790.  2  vols.  4. 
Encycloptdie  Methodique,  the  part  entitled  Antiquiles,  Mylho- 
ogie,  Chronologie,  Sic,  which  part  consists  of  5  vols.  4.     Par. 
1786,  ss. 
Btographie    Univertelle,    partie    Mythologique.      Par.    1832. 
vols.  8. 


(d)  The  following  works  contain  plates  illustrating  the  lue- 
jectsof  mythology,  accompanied  with  explanations. 

Bernard  de  Muutfaucon,  L'An'iquiie  expliquee  et  representee 
en  figures.  Par.  1719.  10  vols,  in  5,  fol.  Supplem.  Par.  1724 
6  vols.  fol.  Translated  into  English  by  David  Humph  eys. 
Lond.,1721.  5  vols.  fol.  with  Supplement,  2  vo  s.  fol. 

Juach.  von  Sandrait,  Iconologia  deorum.     Numb.  I6S0.  (el. 

SpencSs  Polymetis.  or  an  inquiry  concerning  the  agreement 
between  the  works  of  the  Roman  poets  and  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  artists,     l.nnl.   1747.  fol.     1755  fol. 

Le  Temple  des  Muses,  a  superb  folio. 

D.  Bardon,  The  Usages,  reiigious,  civil,  &c,  of  the  Ancients 
Lond.  4  vols.  8. 

A.  Hirl,  Bililerbuch  fur  Mythologie,  Archaologie  und  Kunsl 
Berl.  1805-16.  2  vols.  4. 

A.  L.  Millin,  Galerie  mythologique,  ou  Recueil  des  mi  nil 
mens  pour  servir  a  1'etu.le  de  la  mythologie,  de  I'histoire  do 
Part,  Sic.  Par.  181 :.  2  vols  8.  containing  correct  pictures  ol 
about  800  ancient  monuments — Trans.  Germ,  by  Tblkeiu 

A.  H  Petiscns.  Der  Olymp,  Oder  My'hologie  der  .Egypt'r, 
Griechen  und  Rimer.     Berl.  1837.  8.  6th  ed. 

(e)  The  impressions  on  ancient  gems  are  of  much  service  »a 
illustrating  mythology,  to  which  part  of  the  subject  belong  the 
following  works: 

A.  C.  Kluusing,  Vereuch  einer  mythologischen  Daklyliothek 
fur  Schnler.  Lp2  1781.  8.  (with  120  neat  impressions  of  en 
graved  gems.) 

T.  F.  Roth's  mythologische  Daklyliothek.  Nilrnb.  1805  (wilt 
90  impressed  models  of  engraved  stones). 

Also  Lippert'i  Daklyliothek  (P.  IV  j  210).  One  thousand  01 
his  impressions  belong  to  mythology 

The  gems  of  which  H'tdgewood  andBenlley  have  given  im.ila 
lions,  pertain,  many  of  them,  to  mythology  ;  as  also  those  ol 
Ta»«ie(P.  IV.  §210) 

(/)  Here  we  may  name  likewise  some  works  on  the  Myth» 
logy  of  other  nations  besides  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Moore's  Hindoo  Panlheon. 

Rhode,  Ueber  die  religiose  Bildung  der  h.lidus.  Lpz.  1827. 
2  vols.  8. 

Kennedy,  Reseirches  into  the  Nature  and  Affinity  of  Ancienl 
and  Hindoo  Mythology.     Cf.  Asiatic  Researches. 

Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities.     Lond.  1S06.  7  vois.  8. 

Hard's  View  of  the  History,  Literature,  and  Religion  of  the 
Hindoos. 

Mont g  Martin,  Hist,  and  Antiquities  of  Eastern  India.  Lond. 
1838.  3  vols.  8.  with  some  good  plales  illustrating  Hindoo  my- 
thology. 

C.  Coleman,  Mythology  of  the  Hindus.  LoLd.  1S32.  4 
with  plates. 

Hager,  Pantheon  Chinois  (or  Parallel  between  the  relig  mi 
worship  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Chinese).  Par  1810.  4.  Cf  Class 
Journ.  i.  178. 

/.  C.  Prichard,  Analysis  of  Esyptian  My.nology  ;  in  whtcb 
the  superstitions  of  the  ancie_'  Egyptians  are  compared  with 
those  of  the  Indians  and  ether  nations  ol  antiquity.  Lond.  1819.8. 
also  1839,  with  preliminary  essay  by  Von  Schlegel ;  and  plates. 

Nyerup,  Worterbuch  der  Scandinavian  Mythologie.  Copenl 
1816.  12. 

E  Davies,  Mythology  and  Riles  of  the  British  Druids.  Lonil. 
1809.  8. 

/.  M  Kemble,  Saxon  Mythology.     Cf.  Bibl.  Repot.  li   247. 

For  some  remarks  on  the  resemblance  of  the  mythology  of  IM 
Middle  Ages  to  the  Classical,  cf.  Editor's  I  reface  to  Warton') 
Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  vol.  i.  p.  25  ss.  ed.  Lond.  1824. 


P.  II.  SUPERIOR    GODS.       SATURN.  di 


I. — Mythological  History  of  the  Superior  Gods. 

§  13.*  The  Divinities  which  we  include  in  the  class  denominated  Superior 
Gods,  are  the  following  :  Saturn,  Kp6i>oj,  XpoVoj,  Salurnus ;  Janus;  Rhea  or 
Cvbele,  'Pta,  'Ptta,  KvfUxrj;  Jupiter,  Ztvs;  Juno,  'Hpa;  Neptune,  HoauSuiv 
Neptunusi  Pluto,  nxoiirwK ;  Apollo,  'AnoXkuv ;  Diana,  "Aprr/uij;  Minerva, 
IlaXXa?;  Mars,  ''Ap^j ;  Venus,  'A<ppobi,trj ;  Vulcan,  "H^ouaroj,  Vulcanus  t 
Mercury,  'Epfirjs,  Mercurius  ;    Bacchus,  AioVvrsoj;  Ceres,  A^jjr^p  ;   Vesta, 

§  14.  (I)  Saturn.  This  was  one  of  the  most,  ancient  of  the  gods,  called 
Chronos  by  the  Greeks  and  Saiurmis  by  the  Romans.  He  was  said  to  be  the 
son  of  Uranos  and  Titsea,  i.  e.  the  kiavtns  and  the  earth,  and  to  have  possessed 
the  first  government  of  the  universe.  His  wife  was  Rhta,  who  was  his  sister. 
Saturn  and  his  five  brethren  were  called  Titans,  probably  from  their  mother; 
Rhea  and  her  five  sisters  likewise  Titanides.  Saturn  seized  upon  the  govern- 
ment of  the  universe  by  his  superiority  over  his  father  and  brothers;  yet 
pledged  himself  to  rear  no  male  children;  accordingly  he  is  represented  as  de- 
vouring his  sons  as  soon  as  born. 

§  15.  But  this  fate,  three  of  them,  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and  Pluto,  escaped, 
through  the  artifice  of  Rhea  their  mother,  who  gave  him  stones  to  devour  in- 
stead of  the  children  at  their  birth.  Jupiter  aided  Saturn  in  recovering  his 
throne,  after  he  had  been  driven  from  it  by  his  brothers  the  Titans  and  bound  in 
Tartarus.  But  soon  he  made  war  himself  upon  Saturn,  and  seized  the  govern- 
ment. According  to  Roman  fiction,  Saturn  now  fled  to  Italy  (thence  called 
Saturnia),  and  acquired  great  honor  by  teaching  arts  and  morals  to  the  people. 
Under  him  was  the  so-called  golden  age,  which  the  Greek  poets  assigned  to 
the  reign  of  Saturn  and  described  as  singularly  happy.  Probably  an  idea  of 
the  perfection  and  fecundity  of  nature,  when  just  newly  created,  is  the  basis 
of  this  story. 

Ha.  Op.  el  Di.  vs.  199—  yirg.  JEn.  viii.  319.— On.  Metam.  i.  89-112. 

§  16.  From  the  Greek  name  of  this  god,  which  is  the  word  signifying  time 
(^poi/oj),  he  has  been  considered  as  designed  to  personify  time,  and  the  first 
cause  of  the  visible  world.  His  Latin  name  also,  as  well  as  the  story  of  his 
devouring  his  children,  seems  to  have  some  reference  to  the  idea  of  time,  as 
satiated  only  by  the  destruction  of  what  it  has  produced. 

1  u.  This  name,  however,  may  have  been  given  ironi  the  idea  of  fertility  or  produc- 
tiveness, as  he  is  said  to  have  taught  agriculture  and  the  use  of  seeds.     The  word  Sa- 

turnus  is  derived  from  Satur,  signifying  full,  satiated,  and  also  fertile. Saturn  i9 

termed  Sator,  Vitisator,  Fulcifer  (bearing  a  sickle  or  scyibe),  Sterculinus  or  Sterculius 
(having  taught  the  fertilizing  uses  of  manure),  Canus  and  Leucanth.es  (MvxavQhi). 

2.  Some  have  traced  the  fables  respecting  Saturn  to  the  fiistory  of  Noah.  See 
Tooke's  Pantheon,  Pt.  ii.  ch.  i.  ^  5. — "  Saturn  was  not  unknown  to  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans, among  whom  he  was  worshiped  by  the  name  of  Seatur  ;  who  is  described  as 
standing  on  a  fish  with  a  wheel  in  one  hand,  and  in  the  other  a  vessel  of  water  filled 
with  fruits  and  flowers."     HolwelVs  Diet,  cited  §  12.  2  (c). 

§  17.  It  was  once  customary  to  offer  to  Saturn  human  sacrifices,  particularly 
among  the  Carthaginians,  the  Gauls,  and  the  Pelasgic  inhabitants  of  Italy.— 
His  principal  temples  among  the  Greek  were  at  Olympia,  and  at  Drepanum  in 
Sicily.  The  temple  of  Saturn  in  Rome  served  also  the  purpose  of  a  treasury, 
in  memorial,  perhaps,  of  the  general  security  and  the  community  of  goods  in 
the  Saturnian  or  golden  age. The  chief  festival  of  this  deity  was  the  Satur- 
nalia of  the  Romans,  which  was,  like  the  Peloria  (LTffojpia)  of  the  Thessalians, 
devoted  to  freedom,  mirth,  and  indiscriminate  hospitality. 

1.  The  custom  of  sacrificing  children  tn  Saturn  seems  to  identify  him  with  Moloch,  the  Phoeni- 
cian idol,  to  whom  the  apostate  Israelites  sacrificed  their  offspring. 

Sw  Jahn,  Bibl.  Arch.  \  211. — Diod.  Sic.  xx.  14.— Morin,  and  Freret,  Des  victimes  humaines,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vols  i.  and 
iviii.- -Origin  of  human  sacrifices.   Class.  Journ.  xiv  35>2.  xvii.  104. 

2  u.  Saturn  was  represented  by  the  figure  of  an  old  man  having  a  scythe  or  sickle 
in  one  hand,  and  often  in  the  other  a  serpent  with  its  tail  in  its  mouth  in  the  form  of  J 
circle,  boii  emblems  of  time.  There  are,  however,  but  few  ancient  monuments  c 
this  dei'v 


PLATE     XI. 


P.  II.  SUPERIOR     GODS.       JANUS.       RHEA    OR    CYBELE.  93 

3.  In  o.ir  Plate  X.  fig.  1,  he  appears  in  a  sitting  posture,  with  a  sort  of  siekle  in  one 
hand.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  3,  he  appears  with  the  scythe,  a  long  beard,  and  wings- 
He  is  also  thus  described  :  "a  decrepit  old  man,  with  a  long  beard  and  hoary  head  ; 
hia  shoulders  are  bowed  like  an  arch,  his  jaws  hollow  and  thin,  his  cheeks  stink  :  hib 
nose  is  flat,  his  forehead  lull  of  furrows,  and  his  chin  turned  up  ;  his  right  hand  holds 
a  rusty  scythe,  and  his  left  a  child,  which  he  is  about  to  devour." 

§  18.  (2)  Janus.  He  was  one  of  the  Superior  Gods  of  the  Romans.  They 
represent  him  as  of  Thessalian  origin,  and  as  reigning-  over  the  earliest  and  so- 
called  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Italy,  in  the  time  of  Saturn.  It  was  to  Janus 
that  Saturn  fled,  and  under  them  was  the  gulden  age,  a  period  of  uninterrupted 
peace.  To  Janus,  therefore,  Romulus  dedicated  that  celebrated  temple,  which 
was  always  open  in  time  of  war,  and  was  closed  with  much  solemnity,  when- 
ever there  was  general  peace  in  the  Roman  empire;  a  thing  which  happened 
but  three  times  during  724  years  from  the  building  of  the  city  (cf.  P.  1.  §  (SO). 
From  this  deity  the  month  of  January  was  named,  and  the  first  day  of  the 
month  was  sacred  to  him. 

1.  He  was  considered  as  the  inventor  of  locks,  doors,  and  gates,  which  are  then*": 
called  januee.  His  name  was  applied  to  structures  which  were  sometimes  erected  on 
the  Roman  roads  where  four  roads  divided  ;  a  sort  of  gateway  with  an  arch  opening 
ill  each  ol  the  directions,  and  called  a  Janus.  He  was  termed  Father,  and  sometimes 
God  of  sods.  In  sacrifices,  prayers  were  first  offered  to  Janus,  and  oblations  were 
made  to  him,  as  being  the  door  of  access  to  the  gods. — His  original  name  was  Djanus 
or  Dianus,  which  some  have  derived  from  dies,  day.  He  is  called  the  Sun,  and  was 
the  Sun-god  or  God  of  I  he  Year,  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  Italy.  The  story  of  his 
friendly  reception  of  Saturn  is  by  some  explained  as  referring  to  the  agreement  be- 
tween the  old  inhabitants  of  Latium  and  the  immigrating  Pelasgi  to  worship  the  two 
gods  in  common. — Janus  was  not  received  among  the  gods  of  the  Greeks. 

2u.  He  is  represented  with  a  double,  and  sometimes  with  a  quadruple  face  ;  hence 
the  epithets  Bireps,  Bifrons,  Qiiadrifrons.  He  is  also  called  Patidcius.  Cluxius,  <  on- 
sivius,  Citstos,  and  Claviger. 

3.  The  representation  with  two  faces  in  Plate  XL  fig.  8,  and  in  Sup.  Plate  3,  give? 
nis  appearance  on  a  number  of  consular  coins.  In  Plate  VII.,  on  his  temple,  he  ap- 
pears with  four  faces.     It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  Brahma  of  the  Hindoos  is  repn  - 

tented  with  four  heads.     See  Plate  XII. Janus  is  also  represented  wih  a  key  in 

one  hand  and  a  rod  in  the  other,  with  12  altars  beneath  his  feet,  supposed  by  some  to 
refer  to  the  12  months  of  the  year.  His  statue  erected  by  Numa  is  said  to  have  had 
its  fingers  so  composed  as  to  signify  365,  the  number  of  days  in  a  year. 

§  19.  (3)  Rhea  or  Cybele.  The  common  name  of  the  wife  and  sister  of 
Saturn,  was  Bkea  or  Ops.  Yet  the  history  and  worship  of  Cybele  were  after- 
wards so  entirely  interwoven  with  those  oT  Rhea,  that  both  were  considered  the 
same  person,  and  although  Rhea  was  said  to  be  the  daughter  of  Earth,  were 
each  taken  for  Gaia  or  Tel/us,  and  often  called  Vesta,  ami  the  great  mother  of 
gads.  The  origin  of  Rhea  belongs  to  the  earliest  periods  of  mythical  story, 
and  hence  the  confusion  in  the  accounts  which  are  given  of  her. 

Cybele,  properly  speaking,  lived  later;  and  was,  according  to  tradition,? 
daughter  of  Maeon  a  king  of  Phrygia  and  Lydia;  or  according  to  others,  in  an 
allegorical  sense,  the  daughter  of  Protogonus.  Her  invention  of  various  musical 
instruments,  and  her  love  for  Jtys,  a  Phrygian  youth,  whose  death  rendered 
her  frantic,  are  the  most  prominent  circumstances  of  her  history. 

Ovid,  Fast.  4.  223.—  Catulltu,  de  At  et  Ber. 

Resides  the  names  above  mentioned,  she  was  called  Mater  Dyndymena,  Bert- 
cynthia,  and  Idaea.  Pessinuntia,  and  Bona  Dra. 

§  20.  That  this  goddess  was  a  personification  of  the  earth  as  inhabited  ana 
fruitful,  is  supposed  from  the  manner  in  which  she  was  represented. 

1  u.  Her  image  was  generally  a  robust  woman,  far  advanced  in  pregnancy,  with  a 
turreted  mural  crown  on  her  head.  Often  she  was  borne  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  lions; 
sometimes  she  rested  upon  a  lion. 

2.  On  gems,  she  is  seen  in  a  car  drawn  by  lions,  holding  in  her  hand  a  tambourine. 
Such  is  her  appearance.  Plate  X.  fig.  2,  taken  from  Montfaucon.  In  the  Sup.  Plate 
3.  she  sits  in  a  chair,  with  keys  in  her  right  hand,  attended  by  lions. — She  was  also 
formed  with  many  breasts,  with  a  key  or  keys  in  her  hand,  sometimes  a  sceptre,  and 
frequently  with  two  lions  under  her  arms.  In  Sup.  Plate  5,  is  a  remarkab'e  wort 
sentation,  given  V  y  Montfaucon  (Ant.  Ex.  1.  p.  18).    Cf.  P.  IV.  §  15fi.  2. 


94  GREEK  AND  ROMAX  MYTHOLOGY. 

A  figure  in  silver  with  some  parts  plated  with  cold,  and  the  whole  elegantly  finished,  repre 
renting  Cybele,  was  found  at  Macon  (ancient  Maiigcu)  on  the  Saone,  in  1764. 

Thu  "a-  publithed  b)  Count  Cayhu,  vol.  vii.  pi.  71.— Antliorit  Lempriere.— Banter,  sur  les  statues  de  Cybele,  in  the  Mem 
dead-  liner  vol   v  p.  241. 

§  21.  Her  worship  was  especially  cultivated  in  Phrygia,  but  spread  thence 
through  Asia.  The  celebration  of  her  f-stivals  was  exceedingly  tumultuous, 
as  her  priests  (called  Corybantes  or  Galli,  and  the  chief  one  Jircliigallus)  wenl 
about  with  clamorous  music  and  singing,  acting  like  madmen  and  filling  the 
air  with  the  mingled  noise  of  shrieks,  bowlings,  drums,  tabrets,  bucklers  and 
9pears. 

1  a.  The  removal  of  her  image  from  Pessinus  to  Rome,  and  the  establishment  of 
her  worship  in  the  latter  city,  was  a  remarkable  event.  '1'he  festival  called  JSIegalesia 
[from  tu),t\,i,  the  greai  mother)  was  maintained  in  her  honor. 

l.,v.  Hist.  29.  10.  II,  U.— Vol.  Max.  8.  15. 

2.  The  place  called  Pessinus  was  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Ucastv,  to  fall, 

-.    it  was  tin  spol  upon  which  the  image  of  this  goddess  fell,  being  like  the  tabled 
Ancilt  and  Palladium  senl  down  from  Jupiter. 

At   her  festival,  the  Megalesia,  Roman  matrons  danced  before  her  altar;  the  ma- 

jsistcd  in  robes ol  purple;  a  great  concourse  of  people  and  strangers  usually 

assembled,  and  Phrygian  priesis  bore  the  image  ot  the  goddess  through  the  streets  of 

ty.    The  festival  called  Hilaria  was  celebrated  in  a  similar  manner,  and  attended 

with  many  indecencies. 

3.  There  appears  to  he  a  strong  resemhlance  between  Cybele  and  Pracrili,  the  goddess  of 
naiure  among  the  Hindoos.  The  latter  is  represented  as  drawn  by  lions,  and  her  festival  is 
Rttended  u  ilh  the  beating  of  drums. 

See  M  ore1!  Hindoo  Pantheon. — Coleman'*  Mythology  of  the  Hindoos. 

§  22.  (4)  Jupiter.  The  highest  and  most  powerful  among  the  gods  was 
called  by  the  Greeks  Ztvj,  by  the  Romans  Jupiter.  It  would  seem,  that  by 
this  god  was  originally  represented  nature  in  general  ;  afterwards,  the  superior 
atmosphere i  and  finally  the  supreme  existence.     Many  tales  of  the  early  history 

if  Vrete  were  incorporated  among  the  traditions  respecting  him.  He  was  a  sop 
of  Saturn  and  Rhea,  educated  in  Crete.  He  robbed  his  father  of  his  kingdom, 
and  shared  it  with  his  two  brethren,  so  that  Neptune  received  the  sea,  Pluto 
the  infernal  world,  and  himself  the  earth  and  heavens.  The  giants,  sons  of 
the  earth,  disputed  the  possession  of  his  kingdom  with  him,  and  attempted  to 
scale  Olympus,  but  he  defeated  them  with  thunderbolts  forged  by  the  Cyclops. 
Enraged  by  the  corruption  and  wickedness  of  men,  he  destroyed  the  whole 

ace  by  a  vast  deluge,  from  which  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  alone  escaped.  The 
supposed  date  of  this  flood  is  not  far  from  1500  years  B.  C. 

Otrid,  M     uti.  i    151,  26a— ClaucUanU  Gieaiitomachia     Cf  P.  V.  §  3s6. 

§  23.  The  ordinary  residence  of  Jupiter  was  upon  Olympus,  a  mountain  of 
Fhessaly,  which  the  poets,  on  account  of  the  constant  serenity  of  its  summit, 
represented  as  a  suitable  place  for  the  abode  of  the  gods.  (Cf.  §  11.) — His 
first  wife  was  Metis,  whom  he  destroyed,  because  it  was  foretold  him,  that  she 
Would  bear  a  child  that  would  deprive  him  of  the  kingdom.  Afterwards  the 
goddess  Minerva  was  produced  from  his  head.  By  his  second  wife,  Themis, 
he  begat  the  Hitrae  and  the  Parcse. — The  third  and  most  celebrated  was  Junu, 
fry  whom  he  had  his  sons  Mars  and  Vulcan. — Tradition,  particularly  the  tales 
respe*  iin<_r  metamorphoses,  relate  numerous  amors  of  Jupiter;  e.  g.  with  Eu- 
ropa1,  Danae,  Leda,  Latona,  Maia,  Alcmena,  Semele2,  and  lo3.  Apollo,  Mer- 
cury, Hercules,  Perseus,  Diana,  Proserpina,  and  many  other  gods  and  demigods 
were  called  the  children  of  Jupiter.  The  name  of  son  or  daughter  of  Jupiter, 
however,  was  often  employed  merely  to  designate  superior  dignity  and  rank, 
and  not  intended  to  imply  literal  relationship. 

'  Ovid,  MeUoi.  n.  ^6 •»  II,  in.  2d6. a  lb.  i.  5SS 

'-  24.  The  worship  of  Jupiter  was  universally  spread,  and  numerous  temples 
were  erected  to  his  honor.  The  largest  and  the  most  celebrated  in  Greece  was 
that  in  Olyinpiu  in  Klis,  remarkable  for  its  own  magnificence,  and  for  its  colossal 
statue  of  Jupiter  wrought  by  Phidias,  and  for  the  Olympic  games  held  in  its 
vicinity  every  fifth  year.  His  oracle  in  the  grove  of  oaks  at  Dodona  was 
renowned  (cf.  P.  III.  §71),  and  considered  the  most  ancient  in  Greece. — In 
Ki.ine  the  Capitol  was  specially  dedicated  to  hire--.  ««o^  he  bad  in  that  city  many 
temples. 


P.  II.  SUPERIOR     GODS.       JUPITER.       JUNO.  9R 

1m.  Jupiter  is  generally  represented  as  sitting  upon  a  throne,  with  a  thunderbolt  in 
his  right  hand,  and  in  his  lett  a  long  scepter  resembling  a  spear;  and  the  eagle,  sacred 
to  him,  standing  near,  or,  as  in  some  monuments,  resting  at  his  feet  with  extended 
wings. 

2.  The  representation  in  the  Sup.  Plate  2  corresponds  to  the  above  description. — The 
eagle  sometimes  is  perched  upon  his  scepter.  Jupiter  is  also  spoken  of  as  wearing 
"golden  shoes  and  an  embroidered  cloak  adorned  with  various  flowers  and  figures  of 
animals." — In  the  Sup.  Plate  1  we  have  his  appearance  in  a  noble  statue, from  Spence,$ 
P  ol  y  me  t  is  --In  thestatue  at  Elis  (see  PI.  XI.  fig.  3)  he  is  presented  as  "  silting  upon 
his  throne,  his  left  hand  holding  a  scepter,  his  right  extending  victory  to  the  Olympian 
conquerors,  his  head  crowned  with  olive,  and  his  pallium  decorated  with  birds,  beasts, 
and  flowers.  The  four  corners  of  the  throne  were  dancing  victories,  each  supported  by 
a  sphinx  tearing  in  pieces  a  Theban  youth." 

On  the  Olympian  statue,  see  Flazman'i  Lect.  p.  67,  as  cued  P.  IV.  §  191.— Quatr.  dt  Qumcy,  cited  P.  IV.  5160. 

3.  As  Jupiter  Amnion,  be  was  represented  as  having  the  horns  of  a  ram.  Such 
was  the  statue  at  his  temple  in  Libya  (cf.  P.  III.  %  71).  Thus  he  appears  in  the  Sup. 
Plate  29.  On  ceremonial  occasions,  and  when  the  oracle  was  consulted,  this  siatue, 
sparkling  with  precious  stones,  was  borne  in  a  gilded  barge  on  the  shoulders  of  twenty- 
four  priests  moving  (it  was  pretended)  just  where  the  god  impelled  them,  followed  by  a 
troop  of  women  singing  hymns. 

But  the  most  singular  representation  is  that  given  in  the  Sup.  Plate  10,  exhibiting 
Jupiter  Pluvialis,  as  found  in  a  bas-relief  at  Rome,  designed  to  commemorate  his  in- 
terposition in  sending  rain  on  a  certain  occasion. 

§  25.  This  god  received  a  multitude  of  names  and  titles  derived  from  circum- 
stances of  his  history,  or  the  places  of  his  worship. 

1  a.  The  Greeks  termed  him  Z«>s,  and  applied  to  him  various  epithets,  as  the  Ida-an 
(6  'Idnfuc),  Olympic  ('OXu/itrocdj),  Dodoncean  (&o>do>i/ait>S),  thunderer  (Kepavvios),  deliverer 
(i>.evdcpios),  hosvilable  (l-ivios),  punisker  of  Hit  ■perjured,  (ookivs),  &c.  The  Romans 
styled  him  Optimug  Maximus,  CapOolinus,  Slator.  Diespiler,  Ftretriuz,  &e.  As  the 
avenger  of  crime,  he  was  called  also  Vejovis  or  Vedius ;  yet  some  consider  ibese  as 
names  of  another  distinct  divinity  ;  and  others  take  them  for  names  of  Pluto. 

2.  Among  the  ppithets  applied  by  the  Greeks  were  aiso  the  following;  from  his 
sending  rain,  opSptos,  virtus,  ve<pe\rjycperrn,  iptrtveatiis  \  from  his  darting  thunder,  dcrrc- 
pOTijrfjc,  Ppovraios.  TtpiriKipavvos  ;  from  his  protection  of  suppliants,  txiaios,  inerfaius.  The 
Romans  also  called  him  sometimes  Inventor.  Elicius.  Latialis,  Sponsor.  Valor.  Plu- 
vialis.— His  Latin  name  Jupiter  is  Irom  ZeC  IHtco,  Z  being  changed  into  J.  From  Zstj 
(in  Doric  SJetic  and  iEolic  Atu?)  came  also  probably  the  Latin  Deux.  The  word  is  by 
some  supposed  to  be  of  eastern  origin  ;  others  say  it  is  applied  to  this  deity  as  the  source 
of  life  from  (''<■>• 

3.  Very  discordant  opinions  have  been  maintained  respecting  the  meaning  of  tne 
various  fables  about  Jupiter.  It  is  evident,  that  attributes  drawn  from  many  different 
personages  and  probably  eastern  deities  were  associated  with  his  name,  in  the  descent 
of  mythological  traditions  from  one  generation  to  another.  When  the  different  tales 
are  united,  they  form  a  very  incongruous  mixture,  combining  historic  narrative,  poetic 
ornament,  and  philosophical  allegory.  , 

4.  .Sir  William  Junes,  with  much  ingenuity  and  learning,  has  attempted  to  shryv  that  the  Greek* 
and  Romans  embodied  in  their  Jupiter  the  special  attributes  which  the  Hindoos  ascribe  distinc- 
tively to  Ihe  three  divinities  of  their  famous  triad,  named  Brahma,  Vifhnu,  and  Siva.  In  essen- 
tial attributes,  Brahma  is  said  to  he  the  creator,  Vishnu  the  preserver,  and  Siva  the  destroyer 
and  re-producer.  Each  of  these  offices  is  ascribed  tojnpiter  in  the  classical  fables,  according  to 
Sir  William  —The  Hindoo  deities  are  given  in  our  Plate  XII.  as  usually  seen  in  Bengal  :  Brahma 
with  four  faces  and  four  hands,  holding  a  spoon,  a  rosary,  a  portion  of  a  Veda  or  Hindoo  sacred 
book,  and  a  vessel  of  the  water  of  ablution  ;  Vishnu  with  four  hands,  in  one  of  which  is  a  sort 
of  ring  or  discus,  which  is  said  to  send  out  flames  of  fire  when  twirled  on  his  tinner,  and  in  the 
others  a  shell  used  for  a  trumpet,  a  sort  of  club,  and  a  lotus  ;  Siva,  having  a  trident  in  one  hand 
and  a  rope  in  another  for  binding  offenders,  with  serpents  for  his  ear-rings,  and  a  string  of  human 
heads  for  li is  necklace.     He  has  a  third  eye  in  his  forehead. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  Hindoo  fables  represent  Vishnu  as  assuming  different  forms  oy 
successive  incarnations,  in  the  exercise  of  his  attributes  as  preserver.  Ten  incarnations,  or 
Jlva'ars,  are  specially  designated.  These  are  represented  by  the  ten  engraviiurs  in  our  Plate 
XIII.  "All  the  Avatars  are  painted  with  gemmed  Ethiopian,  or  Parthian,  coronets;  with  rays 
encircling  their  heads;  jewels  in  their  ears;  two  necklaces,  one  straight  and  one  pendant  on 
their  bosoms  with  dropping  gems;  garlands  of  many-colored  flowers,  or  collars  of  pearls,  hans- 
ing  down  below  their  waists  ;  loose  mantles  of  golden  tissue  or  dyed  silk,  embroidered  on  their 
hems  with  flowers,  elegantly  thrown  over  one  shoulder;  with  bracelets  on  one  arm  and  on  each 
wrist;  they  are  naked  to  the  waists,  and  uniformly  with  dark  azure  flesh;  but  their  skirts  are 
bright  yellow,  the  color  of  the  curious  pericarpium  in  the  centre  of  the  water-lily  ;  they  are 
sometimes  drawn  with  that  flower  in  one  hand;  a  radiated  elliptical  rinc,  used  a^  a  missile 
weapon,  in  a  second  ;  the  sacred  shell,  or  lefi -handed  buccinum,  in  a  third  ;  and  a  mace  <<r  bat- 
tle-axe, in  a  fourth."  Nine  of  these  incarnations  the  Hindoo  tales  describe  as  having  a  I  read) 
occurred.  The  tenth  is  to  take  place  at  some  future  period,  when  Vishnu  will  descend  from 
heaven  on  a  white  winged  horse,  and  will  introduce  on  earth  a  golden  aue  of  virtue  and  peace.— 
It  should  be  remarked  in  this  connection,  that  Crislina  is  celebrated  in  Hindoo  mythology  at  %• 


96  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

incarnate  deity.     According  to  Sir  Writ.  Jones,  he  is  considered  distinct  from  nil  the  Axsatart 
these  had  only  a  portion  of  the  divinity;  "while  Qrishva  was  the  person  of  Vishnu  himself  in 
human  form  "     In  the  Hindoo  pictures,  Crishna  sometimes  appears  among  the  Avatars;  he  is 
'■  more  splendidl)  decorated  than  any  of  them,  and  wears  a  rich  garland  of  sylvan  flowers  as  low 
a-  Ins  ankles,  «  hich  are  adorned  with  strings  of  pearls." 

iu  I  India,  in  h  s  Works  ami  LiJl  by  Lird  Teignmoutfa,  Loud   1807    18  vols.  8. 
(<ol.  iii.  p.  3:8.)— Cf.  Monthly  Papert  of  the  J.  B.  Cvmm.  (,.r  For.  Miss  ,  Nos.  ii   and  vn.  May  and  Oct.  I8S2—  Ward,  as  cited  $  12. 

§•20.  (5)  Juno.  The  wife  and  sister  of  Jupiter,  daughter  of  Saturn  and 
Rhea,  and  as  wife  of  Jupiter  mistress  of  gods  and  men,  was  called  by  the 
Greeks  "Hpo,  and  by  the  Romans  Juno.  Her  birthplace  was  assigned  by  the 
<  ks  to  Argos,  er  the  island  Samos,  and  to  other  spots  in  Greece,  althougf 
her  story  and  her  worship  were  rather  of  Phoenician  origin.  The  chief  pecu- 
liarities of  her  character  were  love  of  power,  and  jealousy  ;  the  latter  passion 
was  ci  nstantly  inflamed  and  fed  by  Jupiter's  infidelity. — In  consequence  of  this 
jealous}  she  wrought  several  metamorphoses,  as  in  the  case  of  Calisto'  and 
Galanthis2.  Hence  also  her  wrath  against  lo3  and  Semele4,  and  her  ill-will 
towards  the  Trojans  because  Paris  denied  her  the  prize  of  beauty  in  the  contest 
with  Pallas  and  Venus.  By  her  jealousy  she  often  aroused  the  anger  of  Ju- 
piter, who  once,  according  to  Homer's  representation5,  suspended  her  in  the  air 
by  a  golden  chain.  Exion's  love  for  her  was  punished  by  Jupiter  with  ever- 
lasting torture,  lie  being  bound  to  a  wheel  constantly  revolving. 

Metam.  ii.  474. *  lb.  ix.  306. 3  lb.  i.  568. •>  lb.  iii.  156. 5  Iliad,  iv.  15,  18 

§  27.  The  worship  of  Juno  was  far  spread,  and  the  number  of  her  temples 
and  festivals  was  very  great.  Her  worship  was  especially  cultivated  in  Argos. 
Samos,  Sparta.  Mycenae-,  and  Carthage,  cities  which  committed  themselves 
particularly  to  her  protection.  In  Elis  were  games,  every  fifth  year,  sacred  tc 
her,  called  'HpoTeu  This  was  the  name  also  of  her  great  festival  celebrated  at 
Argos  and  other  places,  which  was  likewise  called  txarofifioia,  because  it  was 
customary  on  the  occasion  to  sacrifice  a  hecatomb  of  oxen  at  the  temple  of  the 
goddess.     There  was  a  similar  festival  at    Rome,  called  Junonia  and  Junona- 

lia. From  her,  tutelary  angels  or  guardians  of  females  were  called  among 

the  Romans  Junones.  The  Roman  women  took  their  oaths  in  her  name,  as 
the  men  did  in  the  name  of  Jupiter.  Both  Greeks  and  Romans  honored  her  as 
the  protectress  of  marriage. — The  Romans  dedicated  to  her  the  month  of  June, 
named1  after  her. — She  is  often  described  by  the  poets  as  the  Queen  nf  gods 
ami  men. 

•  Omd,  Fast.  vi.  26. 

1.  Juno  had  a  great  variety  of  names;  as  Argiva,  Cingula,  Ecrerin.  Juga  C^vy'ta), 
Lucinia  or  Lucina,  Moneta,  Nuptialis  {VnviMa),  Opigeita,  Populonia,  Sospita,  Unxia, 

2  k.  Her  daughters  were  ILhr,  goddess  of  youth  ;  and  Ilithyia,  who  presided  over 
births.     Her  messenger  and  servant  was'  Iris,  the  goddess  of  tlie  rainbow. 

3.  Hebi  was  employed  to  hand  round  the  nectar  at  the  feasts  of  the  gods.  Her  office  of  cttp- 
bearer  afterwards  fell  to  Ganytnedes.  When  Hercules  was  admitted  to  Olympus,  Hehe  becamn 
bis  spouse.— hi  rig.  -i,  PI.  XIV  she  is  represented  as  pouring  oih  the  nectar,  with  the  bin)  of  Jove 
l,y  her  side.—  In  the  beautiful  design  presented  in  the  Sup.  Plate  7,  she  is  also  seen  pouring  out 
the  ilrink  of  the  gods. 

§  28.  The  ancient  artists  endeavored  to  exhibit  the  haughtiness  and  jealousy 
of  Juno  iu  their  representations  of  her.  Among  the  symbols  of  her  attributes, 
the  must  remarkable  was  the  peacock,  held  as  sacred  to  her;  and  found  by  her 
side  in  many  figures.  Sometimes  her  chariot  is  drawn  by  two  peacocks.  She 
was  frequently  represented  by  Roman  artists  upon  their  coins,  which,  however, 
often  contain  the  Empresses  exhibited  as  Junes. 

1.  She  is  usually  represented  as  a  grave,  majestic  matron;  usually  with  a  sceptre  n 
her  hand,  and  a  veil  on  her  head  and  a  crown  decked  with  flowers;  sometimes  site 
lire-  a  spear  iii  her  hand,  or  a  ■patera,  or  vessel  for  sacrifices.  The  peacock  is  some- 
limes  al  her  feet.  Thus  she  appears  in  our  Plate  XI.  fig.  1.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  2,  are 
*'  en  two  peacocks  and  the  chariot,  with  Iris  flying  above. — Homer  exhibits  her  in  a 
ehariot  adorned  with  gems,  bavin"  wheels  with  brazen  spokes  and  naves  of  silver,  and 
hor-i  s  with  reins  ol  gold.  But  generally  she  is  represented  as  drawn  by  peacocAs  in 
11  golden  cnariot. 

-.'.  The  fables  respecting  Juno  are  interpreted  differently  according  to  the  meaning 
vtT-hed   to  those   respecting  Jupiter.     When  Jupiter  is  considered  as  typifying,  o» 


98  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

u.legorically  representing,  the  active  productive  power  in  nature,  Juno  is  >ne  passive 
Their  quarrels  are  then  explained  as  physical  allegories. 

§  29.  (6)  Neptune.  The  government  of  the  waters  of  the  earth  was,  in  the 
division  of  authority  already  mentioned  (§  -22),  assigned  to  the  brother  of  Ju- 
piter, called  UoastSuv,  or  Neptune.  The  idea  of  a  god  ruling  the  waters  arose 
from  the  surprise  of  the  first  observers  of  the  power  of  that  element;  even  be- 
fore Neptune,  Oceanus,  son  of  the  heavei.s  and  the  earth,  and  husband  of  Thetis, 
was  honored  as  god  of  the  sea.  Oceanus  was,  according  to  Hesiotl,  one  of  the 
Titans,  and  was  considered  as  ruler  of  the  exterior  waters  encompassing  the 
earth,  while  the  interior  seas  and  rivers  were  assigned  to  Neptune. 

1.  A  statue  du»  up  at  Rome  about  the  sixteenth  century,  represents  Oceanus  as  an  old  man 
siliiiiL'  on  Hie  waves  of  the  sea,  with  a  sceptre  in  his  hand,  and  a  sea-monster  by  him.  On  an 
ancient  gem  he  is  represented  in  a  similar  manner.  In  our  Dale  XLI1I.  he  appears  in  a  recum- 
bent posture. 

2m.  The  wife  of  Neptune  was  Amphiirite,  a  daughter  of  Ncreus  or  Oceanus  ano 
Doris.  He  obtained  Amphitrite  by  the  aid  ol  a  dolphin,  and  in  return  honored  the  fish 
With  a  plan  among  the  constellations.  'J  he  principal  sons  ot  Neptune  were  Triton, 
Phorcus,  Proteus,  and  Glaucus.  The  chief  characteristics  of  these  minor  deities  ol 
the  sea  were  the  power  of  divination  and  ability  to  change  their  forms  at  pleasure.  The 
daughters  of  Nereus  and  Doris  were  the  so-called  Nereides,  or  sea-nymphs,  fifty  in 
number.      They  belonged  to  the  irain  of  Neptune  and  were  subservient  to  his  will. 

§  30.  The  principal  exploits  and  merits  ascribed  to  Neptune  are,  the  assist- 
ance rendered  to  his  brother  Jupiter  against  the  Titans;  the  building  of  the 
walls  and  ramparts  of  Troy  ;  the  creation  and  taming  of  the  horse ;  the  rais- 
ing of  the  island  Delos  out  of  the  sea;  and  the  destruction  of  Hippolytus  by 
a  monster  from  the  deep.  He  was  feared  also  as  the  author  of  earthquakes  and 
deluges,  which  he  caused  or  checked  at  pleasure  by  his  trident. The  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  his  many  names  and  epithets;  'AediaXtoj,  upholding  the 
earth;   2,uoiz&>v,  earth-shaker  ;  "irtrtfioj,  Petraeus,  Consus. 

1.  Various  etymologies  have  been  given  of  the  name  Ilooei&iov  and  Neptune.  The 
latter  is  by  some  derived  from  Nuho.  because  the  water  covers  or  conceals  the  earth; 
the  former  from  iroi«  and  <5tw,  as  Neptune  binds  the  feet,  that  is,  man  cannot  walk  on 
tl:<  water.  But  such  speculations  cannot  be  relied  on. The  government  and  pro- 
tection of  ships  was  committed  to  him.  He  also  presided  over  the  horse,  which  was 
sacred  to  him,  and  over  horse-races;  at  the  lesiival  of  the  Consuulia  all  horses  were 
allowed  to  rest  from  labor. 

2  ii.  The  Greeks  seemed  to  have  derived  the  worship  of  this  god  not  from  Egypt. 
Dut  Libya.  He  was  honored  particularly  in  cities  situated  near  the  coasts,  as  presiding 
over  their  navigation.  Thus  at  Nisyrus,  on  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  he  had  a  cele- 
brated  temple,  and  also  on  the  promontory  of  Taenarus.  Of  his  temples  at  Rome,  the 
most  noted  was  that  in  the  ninth  district  (cf.  P.  I.  §  54),  containing  a  suite  of  pictures 
representing  the  Argonauiic  voyage.  The  victims  usually  sacrificed  to  Neptune  were 
norses  and  bulls.     In  honor  of  him  the  Greeks  maintained  the  Isthmian  Games,  and  the 

K ans  the  Neptunalia  and  the  Consualia,  which  were  afterwards,  from  the  place  of 

ration,  called  Ludi  Circenses. 

§31.  His  figure  upon  remaining  monuments  is  in  accordance  with  the  dignity 
ascribed  to  him,  commanding  and  majestic,  with  a  front  calm  and  serene  even 
in  anger.  In  his  hand  he  commonly  holds  the  trident,  or  a  long  antique  sceptre, 
with  three  tines,  with  which  he  makes  the  earth  tremble  and  throws  the  waters 
into  commotion.  He  is  often  described  as  moving  upon  the  waters,  drawn  in 
a  chariot  by  dolphins  or  war-horses,  and  surrounded  by  a  retinue  of  attendants. 

The  representations  of  Neptune  are  various.  Sometimes  he  stands  upright  in  a 
large  sea-shell,  holding  his  trident,  and  arrayed  in  a  mantle  of  blue  or  sea-green  ;  as  in 
our  Plate  X.  fig.  5.  Sometimes  he  appears  treading  on  the  beak  of  a  ship.  Often  he 
is  sitting  in  a  chariot,  or  a  shell  with  wheels,  drawn  by  sea-horses;  sometimes  accom- 
panied! by  his  wife  Amphitrite  as  in  Plate  XI, III.  His  image  is  very  frequent  on  coins 
and  medals.     He  is  described  as  having  black  hair  and  blue  eyes. 

II  r,rt  En.  i.  I J  I.  Horn.  II.  xiii.  80  Pirg.  .Xn.  i.  165  Slat.  Achil.  i.  60.— See  Fonlenu,  le  Culle  desdivinitw  .lr,  faux, 
i    h>-  M>i. i.  .i.n.t.  inter.  I 

§  32  a.  (7)  Pluto.  He  was  a  second  brother  of  Jupiter,  and  received,  as 
■us  portion  in  the  division  of  empire,  the  infernal  regions,  or  the  world  of  shades. 
Under  this  idea  the  ancients  imagined  the  existence  of  regions  situated  down 
r,v  below  the  earth,  and  they  represented  certain  distant  and  desert  lands  an 


P.  II.  SUPERIOR     GODS.       PLUTO.  99 

serving  for  a  path  and  entrance  to  the  under  world.  Hence  the  fictions  respect- 
ing Acheron,  Styx,  Cocytus,  and  Phlegethon,  as  being  rivers  of  Hell.  These 
regions  below  the  earth  were  considered  as  the  residence  of  departed  souls, 
where  after  death  they  received  rewards  or  punishments  according  to  their  con- 
duct upon  earth.  The  place  of  reward  was  called  Elysium;  that  of  punish- 
ment, Jhr/arus. 

1.  The  residence  of  departed  souls  was  termed  by  the  Greeks  acm,  Hades.  It  is  im- 
portant to  bear  in  mind  this  fact  in  reading  the  passages  of  the  New  Testament,  where 
this  word  occurs.  The  term,  although  sometimes  rendered  grave,  and  sometimes  hell, 
properly  signifies  the  world  of  departed  spirits,  and  includes  both  the  place  of  happiness 
and  the  place  of  misery.     C'f.  Luke  xvi.  23. 

It  was  a  part  of  the  office  of  Mercury  to  conduct  the  shades  of  the  dead  in  the  region  called 
Hades.  Hence  he  is  sometimes  represented  as  in  the  afit  of  opening  or  shutting  the  doors  or 
gates  of  a  tomb;  as  on  the  monument  given  in  Plate  XVIII.  fig.  4.  and  in  the  Sup.  Plate  14. 
Tiiis  figure  is  given  in  Taylor's  Calmet  to  illustrate  the  expression  " Gates  of  Hades,"  in  Matt. 
xvi.  18. 

On  the  meaning  of  the  term  Hadef,  see  M.  Stuart,  Exegetical  Essays,  &c.  Ando.  1S30.  12.— .Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,  vol.  iv 
p.  539  ss. — Campbell,  Diss,  in  his  Transl  of  the  Gospels. 

2.  Departed  mortals  were  adjudged  to  Elysium  or  to  Tartarus  by  the  sentence  of  Minos  anil 
his  felluw  judges  (cf.  $  34),  in  the  Field  of  Truth. — Elysium  is  described  as  adorned  with  beauti- 
ful gardens,  smiling  meadows,  and  enchanting  groves;  where  birds  ever  warble  ;  where  th? 
river  Eririanus  winds  between  hanks  fringed  with  laurel, .and  "divine  Lethe"  glides  in  a  quiet 
valley;  where  the  air  is  always  pure,  and  the  day  serene ;  where  the  blessed  have  their  de- 
lightful  abode.  —  Tartarus  is  represented  as  a  "hideous  prison  of  immense  depth,  surrounded  by 
the  miry  bogs  of  Cocytus,  and  the  river  Phlegethon  which  rolls  with  torrents  of  flames,"  and 
guarded  by  "three  rows  of  walls  with  brazen  gates;"  here  the  Furies  torment  their  wretched 
victims,  and  all  the  wicked  suffer  according  to  their  crimes. — Virgil  speaks  of  seven  portions  in 

the  regions  of  the  departed  ;  Tartarus  and  Elysium  being  the  sixth  and  seventh. Although 

Elysium  was  considered  by  all  as  the  residence  of  the  blessed,  its  situation  is  variously  stated; 
some  placed  it  in  the  center  of  the  earth,  adjoining  Tartarus  ;  others  placed  it  in  the  middle  re- 
gions of  the  air  ;  others,  in  the  moon  ;  others,  in  the  sun  ;  more  commonly,  however,  the  man- 
sions of  the  blessed  were  said  to  be  in  the  Fortunate  Islands,  Insula?  Fortunate-  (cf.  F.  I.  J  183). — 
Tartarus  is  also  variously  located  ;  Homer  places  it  in  the  country  of  the  Cimmerians,  supposed 
by  some  to  have  been  around  Tartessus  in  Spain,  and  by  others  to  have  been  near  Bata;  in  Italy; 
Virgil  places  the  entrance  to  it,  or  rather  the  entrance  to  Hades,  in  a  cave  near  lake  Avernus  in 
Italy;  others  place  the  entrance  at  the  promontory  ofTa-narus;  others,  in  Thesprotia. — In  the 
Sup.  Plate  13.  is  a  composition  designed.to  represent  the  Tartarus  of  ancient  mythology.  Charon 
in  his  boat,  Pluto  with  his  sceptre,  and  the  three  Judges  appear  in  the  fore-ground,  with  several 
mortals  awaiting  their  sentence.  The  Furies  are  lashing  two  criminals  just  given  over  to  their 
power;  and  various  offenders  are  suffering  their  peculiar  punishments  as  narrated  by  the  poets; 
for  which  see  the  history  of  Prometheus  and  others,  especially  Ixion  and  the  other  offenders 
mentioned  under  <?  34  b. 

On  the  views  of  the  ancients  respecting  the  state  of  the  soul  after  death,  cf.  Homer,  Od.  xi.—JEschylus,  in  his  Prometheus  and 
Persje.— Plato,  in  his  Phsedo.— Cicero,  De  conlemnenda  inorte,  and  Somnium  Scipionis. — Virgil,  /En.  vi.  cf  Tibull.  El.  i.  3  vs.  57  ss. 
—Gibbon, on  Virgil's  Mn.  vi.,  in  his  Miscellaneous  Works  —Heyne,  Excursuses  in  his  editions  of  Virgil  and  Homer  (cf.  P.  V.  §  50.  5. 
5  362.  4).— C.  F.  N'dgelsbach,  Die  Homerische  Theologie  in  ihrem  Zusammenhange.  Ndrnb.  1S40.  8. — De  Fuurmant,  L'Eifet 
Poetique,  in  the  Mem.  Acid.  Inscr.  vol.  iii.  5. — Class.  Journ.  iii.  276.  xi.  3IS. 

§  32  u.  The  chief  incident  in  the  history  of  Pluto  is  his  seizure  and  abduction  of 
Il£/)o-£0t5n7,  or  Proserpine,  who  thereby  became  his  wife,  and  the  queen  of  the  lower 
world.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres.  The  circumstances  of  this  event 
are  related  fully  and  poetically  by  Claudian1  and  Ovid2,  and  furnished  the  ancient  artists 
with  frequent  subjects  for  their  skill  in  device  and  representation3. 

1  De  raptu  Proserpirae,  L.  iii. —  «  Metam.  v.  341. 3  See  Monlfaueon,  Ant.  Eitpl.  T.  I.  pi.  37-41.— See  also  our  Plate  X.  3. 

and  the  Sup.  Plate  14  ;  in  both  which  the  seizure  and  abduction  are  represented. 

The  name  of  Proserpine  was  sometimes  applied  to  Diana,  when  considered  as  a  goddess  of  the 
lower  world.     Cf.  $  39. 

%  33  u.  Pluto  is  represented  both  by  poets  and  artists  with  an  air  menacing,  terrible, 
and  inexorable.     The  latter  usually  exhibit- him  upon  a  throne,  with  a  bifurcated  seer 
tre,  or  a  key,  in  his  hand.     A  rod  is  sometimes  put  into  his  hand  instead  of  his  sceptre 
The  device  which  places  upon  his  head  a  sort  of  bushel  or  measuring-vessel,  instead 
of- a  crown,  is  of  Egyptian  origin,  borrowed  from  the  images  of  Serapis. 

1.  He  appears  crowned  with  ebony;  sometimes  with  cypress  leaves;  sometime:. 
with  flowers  of  narcissus.  He  is  also  sometimes  represented  in  the  act  of  bearing  off 
Proserpine  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  winged  dragons ;  such  is  the  appearance  in  our  Plate 
X.  fig.  3. — In  the  Sup.  Plate  11  he  appears  with  a  long  beard,  in  a  sitting  posture,  rest- 
ing his  head  on  one  hand,  holding  in  the  other  a  long  sceptre,  with  Cerberus  at  his  feet. 

2.  He  is  said  to  have  possessed  a  helmet  which  rendered  its  wearer  invisible;  like  the  magic 
ring  of  the  Lydian  Gyges  (cf.  Cic.  de  Off.  iii.  9.   Herod,  i.  8). 

§  34  a.  His  worship  was  universal ;  but  it  was  attended  with  special  solein 
ntties  in  Bceotia,  particularly  at  Coronea.     His  temple  at  Pylos  in  Messema 
was  also  celebrated.     The  Roman  gladiators  consecrated  themselves  to  Pluto. 
10 


100  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

The  victims  offered  to  him  were  usually  of  a  black  color.  Some  of  his  prin- 
cipal names  were  Ztvf  s-tvywu  Soranus,  Sumtiianus,  Februus, 

The  Greeks  named  him  UXoirotv  as  some  suppose  from  jXoStos,  wealth,  which  comes 
from  the  1 1.  earlh.     The  Romans  gave  him  the  name  Dis,  having  the  same 

sense.     He  is  also  called  "Ad^s,  Orcus,  Jupiter  infernus,  &c — His  chief  iestival  was 
bruary,  when  the  Romans  offered  to  him  the  sacrifices  called  Februa,  whence  the 
name  oi  the  month.     His  rites  were  performed  by  night  or  in  the  dark.     The  cypress 
was  sacred  to  him,  branches  of  which  were  carried  at  funerals. 

§  34  b.    Under  the  control  of  Pluto  were   the  three  judges  of  the  lower 
world,    M/ims,    Rhadamantkus,    and   JEacus.       These    decided    the   condition 
of  all    the   spirits   brought   into   Pluto's  realms  by  Charon.     Minos   held   th 
first  rank.    They  were  sons  of  Jupiter.     They  appear  in  Grecian  history  as  rea 
persons. 

1  u.  At  the  entrance  to  the  world  of  shades,  in  Pluto's  vestibule,  lav  the  dog  Cerbe 
-its,  a   three-headed   monster,  that  hindered   the  spirits  irom   returning  to  the  upper 
world.     The  most  memorable  of  those  represented  as  punished  in  Tartarus  were  Ixion, 
ius,  Tityus,  Phlegyas,  Tantalus,  the  Danaides,  and  the  Aloides. 

2.  Charon  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox.  His  office  was  to  con- 
duet  the  souls  of  the  dead  in  a  boat  over  the  rivers  Siyx  and  Acheron  to  the  realms  of 
Pluto.  As  all  were  obliged  to  pay  to  him  an  obolus,  a  small  piece  of  money,  it  was 
customary  to  place  a  coin  for  that  purpose  under  the  tongue  of  the  deceased  before  the 
funeral  rites.  Such  as  had  not  been  honored  with  a  funeral  were  compelled  to  wander 
on  the  shore  a  hundred  years  before  they  could  be  transported. 

In  the  Sup.  Plate  14,  Charon  is  seen  sitting  in  his  boat,  in  the  act  of  receiving  the  obolus  from 
a  mortal  introduced  by  Mercury. 

3.  The  falile  respecting  Charon  is  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians,  who  had  the  custom  of  a  trial 
and  sentence  upon  their  deceased,  before  allowing  them  the  honors  of  burial.  For  this  triai  all 
were  carried  across  a  lake  in  a  boat,  whose  helmsman  was  called  Charon. 

BoUi'n,  Anc.  Bin.  bk.  i.  ch.  2.  sec!.  2—  Cf  Class.  Joum.  vol.  xxiii.  p.  7.— Bulletin  (Us  Sciences  HMoriques,  vol.  iv.  p.  332. 

4.  There  are  numerous  representations  on  the  monuments  of  Egyptian  art  which  seem  to  refer 
to  this  trial  or  judgment  of  the  soul.  It  appears  to  be  often  symbolized  by  the  figure  of  a  pair  of 
scab  a  or  balances,  as  if  it  were  a  weighing  »f  the  soul  (ipvxoo-Taoia);  to  which  there  may  be  an 
allusion  in  the  prophet's  interpretation  of  the  mysterious  writing  on  the  wall  of  Belshazzar's 
dining-room  (Dan.  v.  27).  In  fig.  B.  of  our  Plate  XVIII.  is  a  representation  of  this  kind;  in 
Which  we  see  the  Egyptian  balances,  and  a  number  of  priests  and  allegorical  or  mythical  per- 
sonages. 

This  drawing  is  reduced  from  one  given  in  the  great  French  work  styled  Descriptmi  de  I'Egypte,  &c.  cf.  I\  IV.  §  231.— See  Hem 
1e  Vliittilut,  Classe  WHutoire  el  Lit.  Anc  vol.  v.  p.  6-1.  sur  la  Psychostasie,  ou  pesee  des  ames,  with  plate. 

§  35.  (8)  Apollo.  The  earliest  and  most  natural  form  of  idolatry  was  the  wor- 
ship of  the  stars,  and  especially  of  the  sun,  whose  splendor,  light,  heat,  and  salutary 
influence  upon  all  nature,  were  taken  as  the  supernatural  and  independent  powers 
of  a  deity.  Hence  the  ancient  fiction  ascribing  personality  to  this  luminary, 
which  was  worshiped  by  the  Egyptians  under  the  name  of  Horns,  by  the  Per- 
sians under  that  of  Mithras,  by  the  later  Greeks  and  Romans  under  that  of 
Phcebus  (<Ijot.5o?)  and  Jlpollu.  The  two  latter  people,  however,  considered  their 
H/ck;  and  Sol  as  a  separate  divinity,  and  attached  to  the  history  of  Apollo 
many  circumstances  not  connected  with  his  original  character  as  the  god  of 
light. 

The  worship  of  the  Persian  Mithras  ("Mithras  Persiilicus"),  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  at 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Pompey  ;  altars  being  erected  with  the  inscription,  Deo  Soli  invictu  Mithras  — 
Some  ofthe  antique  representations  of  this  god  are  very  remarkable.  On  the  engraved  stones 
called  Abraxas  (cf  P.  IV.  $  200),  be  often  appears  under  the  figure  of  a  lion,  or  of  a  man  with  a 
lion's  he  id  In  the  Sup.  Plate  9,  are  two  representations.  The  first  is  from  a  bas-relief  found 
it  Home,  about  1500;  the  image  is  a  man  draped  below  the  loins,  having  two  wings  on  each 
shoulder,  with  B  bead  partly  that  of  a  lion,  and  a  lighted  flambeau  in  each  hand ;  a  serpent 
twines  around  bis  shoulders  and  wings,  and  from  his  mouth  issues  a  sort  of  fillet  or  ribin, 
which  in  the  original  monument  floats  over  a  blazing  altar.— The  other  is  from  a  marble  bas- 
relief,  found  at  Home  In  a  bouse  near  the  theatre  of  Pompey;  in  this  Mithras  appears  a  vigorous 
young  man,  with  a  turban  on  his  bead,  his  knee  resting  on  a  prostrate  bull ;  with  one  hand  he 
holds  the  nostrils,  and  with  the  other  plunges  a  dagger  (.aciriaces)  into  the  neck  of  the  animal;  a 
dog  leaps  up  to  catch  the  falling  blood,  while  another  lies  near  by,  apparently  barking;  a  scor- 
ploi   adheres  to  the  lower  side  ofthe  hull,  ami  a  slain  or  sleeping  serpent  is  stretched  at  his  feet. 

The  moi nt   has  several  accompanying  images,  some  of  which  are  given  in  the  engraving, 

»KI gh  not  in  their  original  place  ;  two  youths  appear  with  flambeaux,  that  ofone  being  in- 
verted;  a  man  with  a  radiated  head  occupies  a  chariot  with  four  horses  leaping  in  apparent 
fnghl  ;  in  another  chariot  i>  a  woman  with  horns  or  crescents  attached  to  her  head,  almost 
thrown  out  by  the  stumbling  of  her  horses;  denoting  doubtless  the  sun  and  innnn. 

se-  Mcmifauam,  Ai.ii.,.  Eipl,  vol.  i.  p.  367-384.— Creuzer,  Symbolik  und  Mythologie,  &c.  vol.  i.  p.  345  m.— Cf.  SmitA,  n.:ci 
*  Ao'KJ.  n.  6. 


P.   II.  SUPERIOR     GODS.        APOLLO.        DIANA.  101 

§  36.  According  to  both  Greeks  and  Romans,  Apollo  was  the  son  of  Tupitei 
and  Latona,  horn  on  the  island  Delos.  He  was  regarded  as  the  god  of  the 
sciences  and  the  arts,  especially  poetry,  music,  and  medicine.  They  ascribed 
to  him  the  greatest  skill  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  which  he  proved  in 
killing  the  serpent  Pytho,  the  sons  of  Niobe,  and  the  Cyclops.  The  last 
achievement  incensed  Jupiter,  and  he  was  banished  from  Olympus.  Dunne 
his  exile  Apollo  abode  as  a  shepherd1  with  Admetus  king-  of  Thessaly.  He 
also  assisted  Neptune  in  raising  the  walls  of  Troy,  beguiling  the  toil  of  the 
laborers  with  his  lyre  and  songs.  His  musical  contest2  with  Pan  and  Marsyas 
is  referred  to  the  same  period  of  his  history. — Other  memorable  circumstances 
in  his  history  are  his  love  for  Daphne  and  her  transformation3  into  a  laurel-tree; 
that  of  Clytie  for  him  and  her  metamorphosis4  into  a  sun-flower;  his  friendship 
for  Hyacinthus5,  who  was  killed  by  Apollo's  inattention,  but  changed  into  the 
flower  of  that  name  ;  and  for  Cyparissus,  also  accidentally  slain  and  changed 
into  a  tree6;  the  indiscreet  request  of  his  son  Phaeton7,  to  guide  his  fathi  r's 
chariot  for  one  day,  and  the  fatal  consequences  of  the  attempt. 

1  Ov.  Met.  ii.  6S0. «  vi.  382.  xi.  146 3  Mel.  i.  452. *  iv.  2C6,  256. *»  x.  162. 6  x.  106. '  i  750. 

§  37  a.  The  worship  of  Apollo  was  much  celebrated  among  both  Greeks  and 
Romans.  As  the  god  of  inspiration  and  prophecy,  he  gave  oracles  at  Didyma, 
Patara,  Claros,  and  other  places.  His  temple  at  Delphi,  and  the  oracle  con- 
nected with  it,  was  the  most  celebrated  ;  next  in  fame  was  that  in  Argos,  and 
the  one  at  Rome  on  the  Palatine  hill,  built  by  Augustus  and  adorned  with  a 
famous  library.  The  Greeks  celebrated  in  honor  of  Apollo  the  Pythian  games, 
and  the  Romans  those  called  ludi  Jipollinares  and  the  ludi  secu/ares.  The 
laurel  and  olive,  the  wolf  and  hawk,  the  swan  and  grasshopper,  the  raven, 
crow,  and  cock,  were  sacred  to  Apollo. 

1  n.  The  following  names  were  applied  to  Apollo:  Cinihius,  Delius,  Nomius,  Pa- 
tareus,  Pythius  (IKtfios),  Smintheus,  Thymbrmus. 

2.  He  had  also  the  following  names:  Ao|ias,  Xlatav,  *E*r»j/?«JA«s,  To|o</>dp«c,  AAj$ik«/coj ; 
Vuli a  ring,  Epidelius,  Lycius,J)elphmius,  Delphicus,  Actius. 

§  37b.  The  image  of  this  god,  as  expressed  by  poets  and  artists,  was  the 
highest  ideal  of  human  beauty,  a  tall  and  majestic  body,  and  an  immortal 
vouth  and  vigor.  Accordingly  he  appears  on  extant  monuments  with  long 
hair,  crowned  with  laurel,  having  in  his  hand  a  bow  and  lyre,  and  a  quiver  on 
his  shoulder,  naked,  or  but  lightly  clad.  The  most  celebrated  monument  is  the 
marble  statue,  called  the  Apollo  Belvidere. 

A  view  of  this  monument  is  given  in  our  Plate  XI. IV.  fig.  3,  drawn  from  Winckelmnun.  See 
P.  IV.  $  186.  4.   Cf.  Tibtdl.  L  in.   Ele.  4.  v.  27. 

1.  "  Sometimes  he  is  painted  with  a  crow  and  a  hawk  flying  over  him,  a  wolf  and  a 
laurel-tree  on  one  side  and  a  swan  and  a  cock  on  the  other,  and  under  his  feet  grass- 
hoppers creeping."  Sometimes  he  is  exhibited  in  the  midst  of  the  Muses:  cf.  ^  103. 
He  also  appears,  with  a  radiant  head,  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses ;  thus  he  is 
seen  in  our  Plate  XI.  4.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  2  his  figure  is  given  as  represented  on  many 
monuments;  here  is  seen  also  an  altar  with  a  lyre  sculptured  on  it. — A  statue  of  Apollo 
stood  upon  the  promontory  of  Actium,  as  a  mark  to  mariners,  and  was  seen  at  .  great 
distance  at  sea. 

2.  The  stories  respecting  Apnllo  resemble  those  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  respecting  Cruhna, 
who  is  sometimes  painted  in  company  with  vine  damsels,  who  are  whimsically  grouped  into  the 
form  of  ati  elephant,  on  which  he  sits  and  plays  upon  his  flute.  Crishna  is  also  frequently  repre- 
sented as  the  destroyer  of  the  great  serpent  ;  in  some  views  he  is  held  in  the  folds  of  the  serpent, 
which  is  hiting  his  font ;  in  others,  he  holds  the  serpent  triumphantly  in  the  graep  of  his  bands, 
and  crushes  its  head  heneath  his  foot. 

Cf.  .Sir  Wm.  Junes,  as  cited  5  25.  A.—.tsmtk  Ratarchcs,  vol.  viii.— Calmel's  Diet.  &c.  vol.  iii.  p.  529  of  ed.  Char'e«to»u,  1813. 

§38.  (9)  Diana.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Jupiter,  and  was  born  of  Latona 
on  the  island  Delos,  at  the  same  time  with  Apollo.  As  in  Apollo  the  sun  was 
deified  and  adored;  so  was  the  moon  (luna,  osXqvij)  in  Diana,  who  was  called 
by  the  Greeks  "Aprs/wij.  She  was  also  recognised  as  the  goddess  01  hunting 
or  the  chase,  of  which  she  was  passionately  fond  in  her  youth.  She  was  like- 
wise viewed  sometimes  as  a  goddess  of  the  infernal  regions,  under  the  name  of 
Htcute.  As  presiding  over  the  chase,  she  received  from  Jupiter  a  how  with 
arrows,  and  a  train  of  sixty  nymphs. — She  also  obtained  from  him  the  grant  of 
her  petition  to  live  a  virgin,  and  was  therefore  the  goddess  of  chastity.    Hence 


102  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

her  displeasure  at  the  transaression  of  one  of  her  nymphs,  Ca'isto',  and  hei 
transformation  of  Actseon2  into  a  stag.  The  only  one,  towards  whom  she  was 
not  indifferent,  was  the  shepherd  or  hunter,  Endymion.  She  slew  the  nymph 
Chione3  from  jealousy  of  her  heauty,  and  the  daughters  of  Niobe4  because 
Latona  was  slighted  by  their  mother. 

i  On  Met.  ii.  464. «  iii.  194. 3  jj,.  321. «  vi.  148-312.— Cf.  Horn.  II.  xxiv.— Hyg.  fab.  9. 

Tlie  story  ofNiobe  and  her  children  (cf.  $  81,  $  131),  afforded  to  poets  and  artists  a  rich  subject 
for  the  embellishments  of  fancy.  The  number  of  the  children  is  variously  staled  ;  Homer  gives 
her  six  sous  and  as  many  daughters;  while  others  say  seven,  and  some  even  ten.  In  the  splen- 
did group  of  statuary  called  JViube  and  her  Children  (cf  I'.  IV.  {  lb6.  -).  seven  suns  and  seven 
daughters  are   represented.     Montfaucon  gives  an  engraving  from  a  most   beautiful  antique, 

found  at  II e,  in  which  Apollo  and  Diana  appear  in  the  air  discharging  llieir  arrows  upon  the 

unhappy  family;  the  youngest  daughter  clings  to  tier  mother;  a  horse  is  leaping  in  fury  upon 
i  daughter  ;  one  son  lies  dead  on  ihe  plain  ;  t  he  oilier  children  are  in  altitudes  of  distress. 
In  our  Sup.  Plate  17,  this  subject   is  represented  in  a  composition,  in  which  Amphion  is  intro- 
duced, and  a  com  ourse  of  the  citizens  of  Thebes.— A  person  dying  by  plague  or  pestilence  was 
n  be  si  i  in,  if  a  male,  by  the  arrows  of  Apollo;  if  a  female,  by  the  arrows  of  Diana. 
■-  Bxp.  vol.  i.  p.  107.— Mayo,  Mythology,  vol   iii.  p.  109  ss. 

§  39.  Nowhere  was  the  worship  of  Diana  so  much  regarded,  nowhere  had 
she  a  temple  so  splendid,  as  at  Ephesus.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  234.  3.)  With  this 
exception,  that  in  Chersonesus  Taurica  was  the  most  celebrated,  especially 
through  the  story  of  Orestes  and  lphigenia.  Her  principal  temple  at  Rome 
was  lhat  erected  by  Servius  Tullius  on  Mount  Aventinus.  In  Rome  the  festi- 
val of  the  ludi  seculares  were  sacred  to  her  in  conjunction  with  Apollo,  and  she 
was  particularly  honored  under  the  name  of  Luciiut,  as  presiding  over  births. 
In  this  view  she  was  also  called  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  Ilithyia  (tiXti&via), 
although  this  was  the  name  (cf.  §  27)  of  a  distinct  divinity. 

1.  The  poppy  was  sacred  to  Diana.  The  Athenians  sacrificed  to  her  goats,  or  a 
white  kid.  sometimes  a  pig  or  ox.  The  inhabitants  oi  Taurica  offered  on  her  altar 
strangers  thai  were  shipwrecked  on  their  coast. 

2  u.  Anions   her   names  were  Phoebe,  Cynthia,   Delia.  Hecate,  Diet ynna,  Agrotera 
■KdypoTipa)i    Trivia  (rptorJirts),  from  her  statues  being  placed   in  crossways  as  she  pre- 
over  streets;    Chitone   (xtTWH) ;  and    Triformis    (rpi,iiop0oc),  from  her  threefold 
character  as  goddess  of  the  moon  or  month,  the  chase,  and  the  lower  world. 

•'  Diana  is  called  Triformis  and  Tergemina:  first,  because  though  she  is  hut  one  goddess,  yet 
«he  has  three  different  names  as  well  as  three  different  offices :  in  the  heavens  she  is  called 
[.una  :  on  the  earth  she  is  named  Diana  ;  and  in  hell  she  is  styled  Hecate  or  Proserpina  :  in  the 
heavens  sin-  enlightens  everything  by  her  rays ;  on  the  earth  she  keeps  under  all  wild  beasts  bj 
her  bow  and  her  dart  ;  and  in  hell  she  keeps  all  the  ghosts  and  spirits  in  subjection  to  her  by  he 
power  and  authority:  secondly,  because  she  has.  as  the  poets  say,  three  heads  ;  the  head  of  a 
horse  on  the  right  side,  of  a  do;:  on  the  left,  and  a  human  head  in  the  midst ;  whence  some  call 
her  three-headed  or  three-faced  :  thirdly,  according  to  some,  because  the  moon  has  three  phases 
nr  shapes  ;  the  new  moon  appears  arched  with  a  semi-circle  of  light ;  the  half-moon  fills  a  semi- 
circle with  light ;  and  the  full  moon  fills  a  whole  circle  or  orb  with  splendor." 

'  i  Ither  names  or  epithets  were  applied  to  her:  Xo\sia,  xwriyds,  6piaiKoiTo<;,  loxiiipa 
and  roj-oQdpos. 

§  40.  As  goddess  of  the  chase,  she  is  represented  in  monuments  of  art,  tall 
and  nimble,  with  a  light,  short,  and  often  flowing  costume,  her  legs  bare,  her 
feet  covered  with  buskins,  with  bow  and  arrows,  either  alone,  or  accompanied 
by  he  nymphs;  often  with  a  hound  near  her:  often  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn 
by  t"  o  white  stags. 

In  mr  Plate  X.  fig.  T,  she  is  seen  in  her  chariot  drawn  by  stags.— In  the  Sup.  Plate  15,  she  is 
given  ns  represented  in  a  beautiful  statue,  supposed  to  have  come  from  the  same  hands  as  the 
Apollo  Belvidere. 

1.  •'  Sometimes  she  appears  with  wincrs,  holding  a  lion  in  one  hand,  and  a  panther  in 
the  other,  with  a  chariot  drawn  by  two  heifers,  or  two  horses  of  different  colors." 

2  u  As  the  goddess  of  night,  or  the  moon,  she  is  represented  in  long  robes,  with  a 
large  starred  veil,  having  a  torch  in  her  hand  and  a  crescent  on  her  head. 

See  Plate  XI. I  —  Cf  Plate  XIV.  fig.  2.— See  i  76. 

:'.  ».  We  have  figures  of  the  Ephesian  Diana,  in  the  Egyptian  style,  and  in  Greek 
imitation  ol  it,  in  which  she  is  exhibited  with  numerous  breasts,  and  very  similar  to 
Isis,  whereby  the  fruitfulness  of  nature  seems  to  have  been  represented. 

Montfaucon  gives  several  of  these  figures.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  presented  in  our 
Sup  Plate  II.  ;  on  the  head  of  Ihe  statue  is  a  double  mural  crown  ;  a  large  festoon  is  suspended 
from  Hie  iifik.  and  within  it  are  two  images  of  Victory  ;  on  each  arm  are  two  lions  ;  the  body 
tapers  to  the  feel  like  a  Hermes,  bm  is  divided  into  four  portions,  the  first  of  which  is  occupied 
t>y  numerous  breasts,  the  second  by  heads  of  slags,  and  the  third  and  fourth  jj-  heads  of  oxen. 

i    In  the  Sup   Plate  12    are  three  views  of  a  "statue  of  Diana  Trifom.X  trom  Montfaucon  • 


PLATK   XIII. 


104  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

presenting  the  three  faces  successively;  the  Brsi  face  on  the  right  with  a  torch  in  each  hand] 
the  next  face,  with  a  knife  (cultrum)  in  the  righl  hand,  and  a  whip  (Jlagellum)  in  the  left;  the 
third,  u  nli  a  key  in  the  right  hand  and  a  serpeni  in  the  led. 

§  11  a.  (10)  Minerva.  Under  the  name  of  Minerva  among  the  Romans  and 
of  ria'/v.uc  and  'Airm  among  the  Greeks,  ancient  fiction  personified  and  deified 
the  idea  of  high  intelligence  and  wisdom.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Jupiter, 
sprung  from  his  head.  She  is  said  lirst  to  have  revealed  herself  near  the  lake 
Tritonis  in  Libya,  from  which  circumstance  she  was  called  Tritonia. 

1.  Some  derive  this  epithet,  and  the  Greek  Tpirdyivzia,  from  the  word  t/iitu  signi- 
fying head. 

2,  Minerva  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  been  originally  the  Egyptian  deity  worshiped  particu- 
larly ai  Sais  under  the  name  of  Neith  or  Netha  Various  etymologies  of  the  Greek  name  'AOrji/a 
have  In  >mi  given  ;  among  them  is  the  conjecture  which  derives  it  from  the  name  of  the  Egyptian 
deitj .  by  inverting  the  order  of  the  letters  ;  Netha  (v>?0a),  being  thus  changed,  would  form  aOrjv. 

§  11  b.  The  Greeks  ascribed  to  this  goddess  the  invention  of  many  arts  and 
sciences1,  which  had  a  great  influence  on  their  civilization.  She  was  regarded 
as  inventress  of  the  flute,  of  embroidery  and  spinning,  the  use  of  the  olive,  and 
various  instruments  of  war;  in  short,  of  most  works  indicating  superior  intelli- 
gence or  skill.  Arachne's  contest  with  her  in  working  with  the  needle,  and 
consequent  despair  and  transformation  are  beautifully  described  by  Ovid.2 

i  On.  Pastor,  iii.  815. a  On.  Metam.  vi.  5. 

§  42.  The  city  of  Athens  was  consecrated  to  Minerva,  and  boasted  of  receiv- 
ing its  name  from  her.  The  splendid  temple  at  that  place  dedicated  to  her  was 
called  Purlin  ntm,{  in  reference  to  her  virgin  purity  (rtap^svoj).  She  had  other 
temples,  at  Erythrse,  Tegea,  and  Suninm,2  and  several  at  Rome.  Her  principal 
festivals  among  the  Greeks  wTere  the  Panathenaea,  the  greater  and  the  less,  and 
among  the  Romans,  Quinquatria,  on  each  of  which,  games  and  contests  were 
held.  The  owl  was  sacred  to  Minerva,  and  is  often  found  on  her  images  and 
on  the  Athenian  coins.3 

i  Respecting  the  PaMenon,  see  P.  I.  §  107.    Cf.  P.  IV.  §  -234.  3.  §  242.  $  243.  I. »  On  the  remains  of  the  temple  of  Suninm, 

cf.  Am.  Quart.  Rsv.  col.  vi.  p.  234. s  See  the  Attic  coin  given  in  Plate  XL.  rig.  5. 

The  following  is  the  story  respecting  the  name  of  the  city  of  Athens  : — When  Cecrops  built 
t  new  city,  Neptune  and  Minerva  contended  about  iis  name,  anil  it  was  resolved  in  the  assem- 
bly of  the  gods,  that  whichsoever  of  the  two  deities  found  out  the  most  useful  creature  to  man, 
should  uive  the  name  to  the  city.  Neptune  struck  the  ground  with  his  trident,  and  a  horse 
issued  from  the  earth.  Minerva  caused  an  olive  to  spring  up.  The  latter  was  pronounced  the 
more  useful  thing,  and  Minerva  therefore  gave  Iho  city  her  own  name,  'Atir/va.  Dr.  Clarke 
imagines  that  this  story  had  its  origin  from  the  fact,  that  the  plains  of  Greece  were  once  covered 
or  nearly  so  with  water,  which  was  afterwards  removed  by  evaporation  and  other  causes,  and 
thus  a  cultivable  soil  was  presented  to  the  inhabitants, 
ravels  in  various  countries,  &c.  Part  II.  sect.  ii.  ch.  12. 

Minerva  is  usually  represented  in  military  armor,  with  a  helmet,  and 
the  JEgis,  or  her  peculiar  cuirass  bearing  on  it  Medusa's  head,  and  with  a  spear 
and  often  a  shield  or  buckler  in  her  hand.  Her  helmet  is  generally  ornamented 
with  the  figure  of  the  owl,  but  presents  various  forms. 

1.  In  our  Plate  XI.  fig.  6,  she  appears  holding  in  her  left  band  an  image  of  Victory, 
witli  her  righl  resiing  on  a  round  shield  bearing  on  it  a  Medusa;  her  spear  leans  on  her 
right  shoulder ;  the  ^Egis  is  seen  on  her  breast.  In  ibe  Sup.  Plate  ii.  she  is  in  a  sining 
posture,  with  herspear  and  buckler;  ibe  owl  appearing  at  her  feet.  In  the  Sup.  Plate 
20,  the  owl  appears  on  one  side  and  a  cock  on  the  other;  the  jEgis  on  her  breast  is 
here  very  distinct. 
The  term  iririf  (.;(i  ,'c)   signifies  literally  a  goat-skin.     Homer  represents  the  tBgU  as  a  part  of 

.he  ar r  of  Jupiter,  whom  he  distinguishes  by  the  epithet  atyioxos  ;  yet  he  speaks  of  Minerva 

i-  using  it  (cf.  //.  ii.  447-449.    xvfii.  204.    x.\i.  400). 

In.  The   colossal  statue  of  Minerva,  wrought  by  Phidias,  and  the  Palladium  were 
much  celebrated;  the  former  on  accounl  of  the  perfection  ol  its  workmanship  (cf.  P.  I. 
160,  161,  179);  the  latter  on  account  of  the  superstitious  confidence 
pla  ■'•<!  in  n  by  the  Trojans,  Creeks,  and  Romans. 

The  Palladium  was  a  statue  of  Pallas,  with  a  spear  in  one  hand  and  a  distaff  in  the  other 
tlinui  three  cubits  high  Ii  was  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  imo  the  citadel  of  Troy  or 
Mono  before  ll  was  pletelj  built,  and  that  the  oracle  nf  Apollo  being  consulted  upon  this  oc- 

urrencc,  answered,  thai  "the  city  si hi  be  sal"  so  long  as  that  image  remained  within  it." 

When  the  Greeks  besieged  Troy,  it  was  therefore  thought  ofthe  first  consequence  to  obtain  this 
.uiage,  Ulysses  iind  Diomedes  succeeded  in  getting  ii  by  Btealih  [Vir.  A'.n  ii.  If>'2).  it  was  said 
in  have  been  aftprwurds  recovered  from  Diomedeg  by  jltneas. carried  to  Italy,  and  finally  lodger 

it  the  temple  of  Vesta. 


P.  II.  SUPERIOR    GODS.       MARS.       VENUS.  105 

3  u.  Besides  the  names  Minerva,  Pallas,  and  Athena,  this  goddess  was  often  called 
Uap6h  >s,  'Epyd-ns,  and  'Epydvn,  IloXtas;  she  is  also  termed  Musica,  Pylolis,  and  very 
often  TXavKuiTTis  or  Cassia. 

§44.  (11)  Mars.  The  god  of  war  and  battles  was  a  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  and  educated  in  Thrace.  He  was  viewed  as  presiding  over  rude  and 
fierce  war,  the  origin   of  which  was  ascribed  to  him,  while   Minerva  had  the 

credit  of  inventing  tactics  and  the  proper  military  art. Notwithstanding  the 

high  idea  which  Homer  gives  of  the  strength  and  heroism  of  Mars,  he  repre- 
sents him  as  taken  prisoner  by  Otus  and  Ephialtes,  and  wounded  by  Diome- 
des;  it  was,  however,  by  the  help  of  Minerva1.  Besides  these  occurrences,  his 
amors  with  Venus  and  his  dispute  with  Neptune2  respecting  the  son  of  th6 
latter,  Hallirrhotius,  who  was  put  to  death  by  Mars,  constitute  all  that  is  re- 
markable in  his  history. 

i  Horn.  II.  v  3S3,  SS5. *  Apnllod.  iii.  14 Pausan.  i.  21. 

§  45  a.  He  was  most  worshiped  in  Thrace,  where  probably  the  whole  con- 
ception of  such  a  god  originated.  He  had  however  temples  and  priests  in  most 
of  the  Grecian  cities. 

"  Mars  was  never  a  favorite  deity  with  the  Hellenic  tribes  of  Greece,  and  his  worship 

was  comparatively  neglected It  is  not  easy  to  discover  the  origin  of  this  deity; 

he  seems  to  have  heen  derived  from  the  Pelasgi,  or  some  other  warlike  and  barbarous 
tribe,  rather  than  Egypt.  He  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  northern  Odin,  and 
probably  was  the  same  deity  under  another  name."      Tooke's  Pantheon,  Lond.  ed.  1831. 

§  45  b.  The  Romans  regarded  him  as  the  father  of  Romulus,  and  the  founder 
and  protector  of  their  nation.  They  erected  to  him  many  temples,  consecrated 
to  him  a  large  public  place,  the  Campus  Martins,  and  a  peculiar  order  of  priests, 
the  Salii,  who  celebrated  his  festival  with  music  and  dancing  in  solemn  pro- 
cessions. 

1.  It  was  a  special  business  of  these  priests  to  guard  the  ancilia,  or  sacred  shields  , 
respecting  which  see  P.  III.  §  215. — A  very  ancient  hymn  sung  in  honor  of  Mars  by 
the  Romans  is  still  preserved  ;  see  P.  IV.  $  114.  4. — To  Mars  was  offered  the  sacrifice 
eai'ed  Suovetaurilia  ;  a  representation  of  which,  as  found  in  an  ancient  bas-relief,  is 
give. ,  in  our  Plate  XXIX. 

2.  Several  animals  were  consecrated  to  Mars;  the  horse,  for  his  vigor;  the  wolf,  for 
his  5erceness :  the  dog,  for  his  vigilance.  Magpies  and  vultures  were  also  offered  to 
him  on  account  of  their  greediness. 

§  46.  The  ancient  artists  have  represented  Mars  in  full  manly  vigor,  with  a 
strong  but  agile  body,  and  an  air  calm  and  collected,  rather  than  vehement  oi 
passionate.  He  commonly  appears  equipped  in  armor;  sometimes  naked; 
sometimes  in  the  attitude  of  marching,  as  Mars  Gradivus. 

1.  He  is  also  represented  as  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  furious  horses,  covered  with 
armor  and  brandishing  a  spear  in  his  right  hand  ;  thus  he  is  seen  in  our  Plate  XI.  fig.  7. 
Sometimes  Bellona,  the  goddess  of  war,  bearing  in  her  hand  a  flaming  torch,  drives  the 
chariot  over  prostrate  warriors  ;  such  is  ihe  representation  given  in  the  Sup.  Plate  10. 
Sometimes  he  is  represented  as  attended  with  a  horrid  retinue;  Clamor,  Anger,  Dis- 
cord, Fear,  Terror,  and  Fame.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  6,  he  appears  as  ready  for  inarching  ; 
with  his  plumed  helmet,  coat  of  mail,  spear,  and  shield. 

2.  Bellona,  called  by  the  Greeks  'Ewu,  is  sometimes  said  to  be  the  wffe,  sometimes  the  sister, 
and  sometimes  the  daughter  of  Mars.  She  had  a  temple  at  Rome,  and  before  it  was  a  pillar 
called  Bellica,  over  which  the  herald  threw  a  spear  when  war  was  proclaimed. 

3  u.  Mars  was  called  "Apr);  by  the  Greeks ;  other  names  given  to  him  are  Odrysius, 
Strymo?iius,  Eny alius,  Thurius,  Quirinus,  Ultor. 

§  47.  (12)  Venus.  The  ideal  of  the  most  perfect  female  beauty,  and  the 
love  awakened  by  it,  was  in  eastern  fiction  expressed  and  personified  in  an 
imaginary  goddess;  she  was  called  by  the  Romans  Venus,  and  by  the  Greeks 
'AfpoHitq.  According  to  the  common  story,  she  was  born  from  the  foam  (ouj>po$) 
of  the  sea;  in  Homer  she  is  presented  as  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Dione. 
After  her  birth  she  came  first  to  Cytherea,  and  thence  to  Cyprus. — Many  of  the 
gods  sought  her;  but  Vulcan  obtained  her  as  his  spouse. 

I  a.  She,  however,  loved  Mars,  Mercury,  and  Adonis  especially,  although  with  un- 
requited passion  ;  the  early  death  of  the  latter  she  bitterly  lamented. 

(Kid,  Metam.  x.  500,  717  ss. — Bioti,  Idyl  on  the  death  of  Adonis. — See  also  Theocritus,  Idyl  xv.  which  is  a  beautiful  littlu  corned* 
neogala  ug  the  story  of  Adouis ;  the  scene  is  laid  in  Alexandria,  at  the  time  of  a  festival  in  his  honor. 


106  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

The  story  respecting  Adonis,  the  voune  favorite  of  Venus,  is.  that  heini;  encaged  in  hunting, 
nf  which  he  was  excessively  fond,  he  received  a  mortal  wound  from  a  wild  boar.    At  this  Venus 

«:i>  inn I.rately  grieved,  and  Proserpina  restored  him  lo  life  on  condition  of  his  spending  sis 

months  with  Venus  and  six  with  herself.  Tt  lias  been  explained  thus  :  Adonis,  or  Adunai,  was 
an  oriental  title  of  the  sun.  signifying  Lord  ;  the  hoar,  supposed  to  have  killed  him,  was  the  em- 
blem  of  winter,  during  which  the  productive  powers  of  nature  being  suspended,  Venus  was  said 
tolamenl  Ihi  loss  of  Adonis  until  he  was  restored  again  to  life;  whence  both  the  Syrian  and 
Argivc  u  omen  annually  mourned  his  death,  and  celebrated  his  renovation."— Adonis  is  supposed 

t,,  i„-  the  sa deity  with  the  Syrian  Tammiiz  (.cf  Kiekiel  viii.  14). — Lucian  (De  Syria  Dea)  gives 

mi  acco  mi  nfthe  festival  JSdonia,  held  in  honor  of  him  at  Byblus.     Cf.  P.  III.  i>  77.  2. 

.2  it.  [n  her  contest  with  Juno  and  Minerva.  Paris  awarded  to  Venus  the  prize  of 
beauty.     Hence  her  memorable  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the  Trojans. 

The  most  celebrated  places  of  her  worship  were  Golgi,  Paphos,  and 
A.mathu.8,  upon  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which  was  wholly  consecrated  to  her; 
Cythera,  Cnidos,  and  Eryx  in  Sicily;  all  situated  near  the  sea,  and  in  delight- 
ful n-oinns.  In  Rome  she  was  honored  as  the  pretended  mother  of  iEneas,  the 
stor  of  the  nation,  although  her  worship  was  first  formally  introduced  from 
Sicily,  in  the  sixth  century  after  the  building  of  the  city. 

I.  At  Hierapolis,  in  Syria,  was  a  splendid  temple  in  honor  of  Venus,  under  the  name  of  As- 
ian, o  the  Ashturoth  of  tin-  Holy  Scriptures. 

!  ira.— Cf.  Mayo,  Mythology,  vol.  ii. — Calmet,  vol.  iii.  p.  372.  ed.  Chariest.  1813.— Class.  Journal,  No.  liii. 

2u.  Tin-  pigeon  or  dove,  the  myrtle,  and  the  rose,  were  especially  sacred  to  the 
goddess  of  love. 

:'•.  The  swan  and  the  sparrow  were  also  sacred  to  Venus.  Her  sacrifices  were  goats 
and  swine,  with  libations  of  wine,  milk,  and  honey. 

S e  have  considered  the  worship  of  Venus  as  derived  from  corruptions  of  the  traditions  re- 

Bpecting  the  universal  deluge;  her  rising  from  the  sea  being  a  type  of  the  world  emerging  from 
tin  waves  of  the  Hood. — Bryant's  Mythology.— .BoJioeM's  Myth.  Diet. 

§  -1!>.  The   poets   and  artists  of  antiquity  endeavored  in  the  description  and 

representation  of  Venus  to  embody  the  fullest  and  purest  idea  of  female  beauty. 

The  ii    >t  distinguished  antique  statue  of  her  is  the  famous  Medicean  Venus  at 

Florence. 

RcspcclniL'  II, i;  s'alue,  fce  P-  IV.  .$  l-(i.  5. 

1.  She   is  represented  on   coins  and  gems,  and  in  the  descriptions  of  the  poets,  in 
various  ways  ;  someiimes  she  is  clothed  with  a  purple  manlle  glittering  with  diamonds, 
ber  head   crowned   with    myrtle   and  roses,  riding  in   a  chariot   made   of  ivory,  finely 
■  d,  painted  and  gilded,  and  drawn  by  swans,  doves,  or  sparrows.     Someiimes  she 
■  tided  wnli  the  Graces  and  several  Cupids.     At  one  time  she  appears  like  a  young 
viri/in.  rising  from  the  sea  and  riding  in  a  shell;  at  another,  she  holds  the  shell  in  her 
hand.     In  our  Plate  X.  fig.  <>,  she  stands  on  a  wave  of  the  sea,  supported  by  two  Tri- 
with  two  attendant  Cupids.     In  the  Sup.  Plate  6,  she  stands  in  a  shell,  with  long 
wing  a  mantle  around  her.     In  the  celebrated  picture  by  Apelles  (cf.  P.  IV. 
rig  from  the  bosom  of  the  waves  and  wringing  her  tresses  on  her 
should)  rs.     In  some  monuments  she  holds  one  hand  before  her  bosom  and  with  the 
rs  her  mantle  close  about  her  limbs ;  Montfaucon  gives  a  figure  very  similar 
to  this,  From  a  statue  formerly  in  the  gallery  of  Versailles.     In  the  Sup.  Plate  7.  she  is 
6een  in  ;i  reclining  posture,  with  Cupid  resting  his  elbow  on  her  lap.  while  the  Graces 
person,  and  two  doves  conduct  her  car  on  a  cloud.    In  an  ancient  paint- 
ing, given  in  tin   Sup.  Flair  8,  she  supports  in  her  arms  the  dying  Adonis.     In  some 
representations  she   has  golden  sandals  on  her  feet,  and   holds  before   her  a  brilliant 
mirror.     The  Sicyonians  exhibited  her  with  a  poppy  in  one  hand  and  an  apple  in  the 
tther.     In  Elis  she  was  painted  as  sitting  on  a  goat   and  treading  on  a  tortoise. — She 
usually  had  a  belt  or  girdle  called  Cestus,  in  which  all  kinds  of  pleasures  are  said  to 
in  foldt  d. 

hjuesartender  Venus,  in  his  .tntiquar.  Aufsillzi.—Manso,  Abhandl.  uber  die  Venus.  In  his  I'ermclie  Ulter 

2  a  \  arioue  attributes  wire  given  to  her,  under  the  different  characters  of  Venus 
Urania,  Marina,  Victrix,  &c.  She  was  likewise  known  under  the  names  Erycina, 
Anadyament  [dvaivoiibnq),  Paphia,  Idalia. 

Ii'     names  and  epithets  wen  exceedingly  numerous ;  as,  Cypna,  TLavAniios,  CytJie- 
tea,    •'  1    '  '<        Vi   licordia,     Kraifja,   Acidalia,    Libertina,    Suligenita, 

§  50.  The  son  of  this  goddess,  "Epwj,  Amor,  or  Cupid,  was  her  common 
companion,  and  the  >_rod  of  love,  which  he  was  supposed  to  influence  by  his 
arrow—.  He  is  represented  with  a  bow  and  arrows",  often  with  a  burning  torch 
mi  bis  hand.  He  was  very  frequently  exhibited  on  ancient  works  of  art,  and 
u  b great  v.irii  t_\  of  form--''.    Often  several  Cupids  appear  in  company. — 'Avrcpuf, 


P.  U.  SUPERIOR    GODS.       VULCAN.  101 

.in/ems,  who  is  usually  considered  the  trod  of  mutual  love,  was  orio-inal'.v  t)  n 
god  that  avenges  despised  love.     He  is  sometimes  represented  as  wrestlui" 

with  Cupid. 

«  See  our  Plate  XL  fig.  9. 1  Cf.  Mamo,  as  cited  \  49.  1.— See  Plile  X.  fig.  6,  and  Sup  Plates  7  and  9. 

1  u.  The  attachment  of  Cupid  to  Psyche  is  the  chief  incident  in  his  history  and  forma 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  allegories  of  antiquity. 

The  allegory  is  found  in  Jlpulnns  (cf.  P.  V.  J  471.  2).  For  expositions,  if.  Keightley,  p  148,  as 
cited  $  12.2.  (b). — Psyche  is  usually  represented  with  the  wings  of  a  butterfly;  as  in  the  Btatue 
(Psyche  in  terror  of  Venus)  given  in  our  Sup.  Plate  8.— See  also  Plate  XL VII.  tig.  5;  cf.  P.  IV.  it  198. 

2.  Hymenaeus  was  also  one  of  the  imaginary  companions  of  Venus.  He  presided 
over  marriage.  He  was  represented  as  of  fair  complexion,  crowned  with  the  amaracut 
or  swift  marjoram,  carrying  in  one  hand  a  torch  and  in  the  other  a  veil  of  flame  color, 
indicating  the  blushes  of  a  virgin. 

In  the  Sup.  Plate  9,  Hymenaeus  is  seen  leading  by  a  chain  Cupid  and  Psyche ;  from  an  antique 
sculpture  representing  their  ntiptiuls. 

§  51.  (13)  Vulcan.  In  unenlightened  periods,  the  violent  agencies  of  the 
elements,  as  well  as  the  appearances  of  the  heavenly  luminaries,  excited  as- 
tonishment and  were  deified.  Traces  of  the  worship  of  fire  are  found  in  the 
earliest  times.  The  Egyptians  had  their  god  of  fire,  from  whom  the  Greeks 
derived  the  worship  of  'Hrjwrro;,  called  by  the  Romans  Vulcanus  or  Vulcan. 
Fable  styles  him  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno.  On  account  of  his  deformity 
his  mother  thrust  him1  from  Olympus;  or,  according  to  another  story,  Jupiter 
hurled  him  out,  because  he  attempted  to  help  Juno  when  fastened  by  the  golden 
chain.  He  fell  upon  the  island  Lemnos,  afterwards  his  chief  residence,  and 
was,  according  to  the  later  fictions2,  lamed  by  his  fall. 

<  Horn.  II.  xviii.  395.  i.  590. *  Vol.  Flat.  Argon,  ii.  87. 

§  52.  To  Vulcan  was  ascribed  the  invention  of  all  those  arts  that  are  con 
nected  with  the  smelting  and  working  of  metals  by  means  of  fire,  which  ele- 
ment was  considered  as  subject  to  him.  His  helpers  and  servants  in  such 
works  were  the  Cyclops,  sons  of  Uranus  and  Gaia,  whose  residence  also  was 
in  Lemnos,  and  of  whom  there  are  commonly  mentioned  three,  Brontes,  Ste- 
ropes,  and  Pyrakmon.  These  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Sicilian  Cyclops 
of  a  later  period. 

1.  The  epithet  Cyclopean  is  applied  to  certain  structures  of  stone,  chiefly  walls,  in 
which  large  masses  of  rough  stone  are  nicely  adjusted  and  fitted  together. 

Cf.  P.  IV.  §  231.  3. Fr^-i  L'Histoire  des  Cyclops,  Mem.  Acad,  lnscr.  xxiii.  27. 

2u.  Mount  A.rna  was  represented  as  the  workshop  of  Vulcan  ;  so  also  Lipara,  one 
of  the  iEolian  isies,  called  likewise  Vulcanian. — VVorks  requiring  peculiar  art  and 
extraordinary  strength,  especially  when  metals  were  employed  as  materials,  were 
called  by  the  poets  Vulcan's  masterpieces.  Among  these  were  the  palaces  of  Phcebus1, 
of  Mars2,  and  Venus3;  the  golden  chain  of  Juno4,  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter3,  the 
crown  of  Ariadneb,  the  arms  of  Achilles7,  and  of  iEneas8,  &c. 

«  Ok.  Metim.  ii   I. »  Stat.  Tlieb.  ni.  38. 3  Claud.  Epithat.  Honor,  et  Mar.  v.  58. *  Pausan.  Att.  c.  20.  Lacon.  c.  17. 

s  Ov.  Metam.  i.  258. 6  Ou.  Fast.  iii.  513. '  Bam.  II.  xviii.  468 8  Virg.  iEn.  viii.  407. 

3.  Vulcan  is  said  to  have  formed,  by  request  of  .Jupiter,  the  first  woman ;  she  was  called  Pan- 
dora, because  each  of  the  goils  gave  her  some  present  or  accomplishment. 

In  the  Sup.  Plate  4,  is  a  composition  designed  to  exhibit  the  gods  assembled  to  bestow  their  gifts  on  the  woman.— See  Hesiod, 
Works  and  Days,  vs.  94. 

§  53.  According  to  the  earlier  fictions,  Vulcan  had  for  his  wife  Chans,  o« 
Aglaia;  and  according  to  the  later,  Venus,  after  Minerva  had  rejected  him. 
Harmonia  was  his  daughter,  or  the  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus.  The  Giants 
Cacus  and  Caiculus  were  called  his  sons. — He  was  worshiped  particularly  in 
Lemnos,  and  the  Vulcanian  isles.  A  temple  was  dedicated  to  him  upon  J3tna. 
At  Rome  the  Vulcanalia  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  him,  and  at  Athens  the 
XaXxfia. 

1.  A  calf  and  a  male  pis  were  the  principal  victims  offered  in  sacrifice  to  him. — Tlio.^e 
who  followed  arts  and  employments  requiring  the  use  of  fire,  especially  rendered  honor 
and  worship  to  Vulcan.  "  The  lion,  who  in  his  roaring  seems  to  dart  fire  from  his 
mouth,  was  consecrated  to  Vulcan  ;  and  dogs  were  set  apart  to  keep  his  temple." 

2  a.  Some  of  his  names  are  the  following:  Lemnius,  Jhclciber,  C y ll lopt des  (kv\\o- 

T(id»(f),  Amphigyeit   tnutjtiyvneic.). 

3  Some  writers  derive  the  name  and  story  of  Vulcan  from  Tubal-Cain,  mentioned  by  Moses 


108  GREEK  AXE  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

iv   22)     Cf  TIolwM,  Myth.  Diet. The  ancients  gave  various  etymologies  )f  the  name 

!  ii  was  derived  from  volitans,  because  the  sparks  of  fire  fly  in  the  air;  the  account. 
given  i'v  Varro  is  similar  (see  <J  54.  2). 

§  54.  Vulcan  was  usually  represented  as  engaged  in  his  work,  with  liammei 
and  pincers  in  his  hands;  sitting  more  frequently  than  standing.  His  lameness 
is  nut  indicated  in  any  existing  monuments,  although  it  was  in  some  ancient 
statu 

1.  Cicero,  speaking  of  one  of  these  statues,  says  (De  Nat.  Deor.  i.  30),  "  We  ad- 
mire tha'  Vulcan  ol  Alliens,  made  byAlcamenes;  he  is  standing,  clothed,  and  appears 
lame  without  rmv  deformity."— Some  of  the  common  representations  of  this  god  are 
seen  in  our  Plate  X.  fig.  4,  and  Sup.  Plate  6. 

2.  "That  by  Vulcan  is  understood  fire,  the  name  itself  discovers,  if  we  believe  Varro,  who  says 
lhai  the  won  is  derived  from  the  force  and  violence  of  fire  (Vulcanius,  quasi  Volica- 
nui  quod  iir,                   m  volitat,  vel  a  vi  ac  oiulentia  ifrvis);  and  therefore  he  is  painted  with  a 

b|Ue  h.-it.  :t  -\  n<t>.  I  o(  the  celestial  or  elementary  fire."    (TWce.) "Vulcan  was  represented 

covered  with  sweat,  blowing  with  his  nervous  arms  the  tires  of  his  forges.  His  breast  was 
hairy    and   his   forehead   blackened  with  smoke.     Some  represented  him  lame  and  deformed, 

holding  a  han r  in  the  air  ready  to  strike;  while  with  the  ether  hand  he  turns  with  pincers  a 

thunderbolt  on  bis  anvil  (aKftwv).  lie  appears  on  some  monuments  with  a  bmg  beard,  disheveled 
hair,  half  naked,  and  a  small  round  cap  on  bis  bead,  with  hammer  and  pincers  in  bis  hand." 
(/.<!«/>. 1- -The  medals  of  l.einnos  usually  bear  a  representation  of  Vulcan,  with  the  legend  .Deo 
V  ulcano. 

3.  The  representations  of  Vulcan  show  that  the  anvil  of  ancient  times  was  formeil  like  'he  inoJern.  It  was  placed  on  a  large  block 
of  wood  (dx/iiS'/trciv) ;  cf.  Horn.  O.I.  viii.  274.  I''irs.  JF.u.  vii.  629  —  In  eaily  times,  it  was  made  of  bronze,  as  were  also  tha 
Unimeranl  pincers  ;  cf.  Horn.  Od.  iti.  433.— Smith's  Diet.  Ant.  p.  512. 

§  55.  (11)  Mercury.  The  Greeks  borrowed  the  worship  of  this  god  from  the 
Egyptians,  whose  Hermes  Trismegistus  is  so  celebrated  in  their  early  history. 
According  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  fables,  'Ep/wj,  Mercurius  or  Mercury,  was 
the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia.  Maia  was  a  daughter  of  Atlas,  found  by  Jupiter 
in  the  cave  Cyllene  in  Arcadia,  and  afterwards  with  her  six  sisters  placed  by 
him  among  the  stars,  thus  forming  the  constellation  named  Pleiades  from  their 
mother  Pleione. 

The  principal  characteristics  of  Mercury  were  cunning  and  dexterity,  which 
he  exhibited  even  in  his  childhood,  and  not  always  in  the  most  praiseworthy 
manner.  This  appears  from  the  tricks  related  of  him,  and  from  the  circum- 
stance, that  he  was  considered  as  the  god  not  only  of  mercature,  but  also  of 
theft;  although  the  latter,  in  early  times  was  not  viewed  so  much  as  a  crime, 
as  an  evidence  of  power  and  adroitness.  Mercury  stole  the  cattle  of  Admetus 
guarded  by  Apollo,  Apollo's  arrows,  the  girdle  of  Venus,  the  pincers  of  Vul- 
can, kr. 

1  u.  By  his  flute  the  guardian  of  Io,  even  the  hundred-eyed  Argus,  was  lulled  to 
bIi  i  p.  I  Ov.  Me  tarn.  t.  668.)— The  principal  means  ot  his  success  in  his  teats  was  his 
eloquence;  this  art  was  ascribed  to  him  in  a  high  degree.  He  invented  also  the  lyre, 
attaching  strings  to  the  shell  ofjthe  tortoise,  and  presented  it  to  Apollo.  In  return 
Apollo  gave  him  the  celebrated  wand  (cadtici  us),  the  origin  of  which  is  variously  stated ; 

ficacy  was  potent  in  calming  the  passions  and  stilling  contention.  Mercury  carried 
this  rod  as  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  and  employed  it  to  awaken  dreams,  and  to  con- 
duct the  shades  of  the  dead  to  the  lower  world  ;  lor  he  was  called  to  offices  and  labors 
in  thai  world,  as  well  as  on  earth  and  in  Olympus. 

2  The  eadueeus  was  a  rod  with  wings  at  one  end,  and  entwined  by  two  serpents  in  the  form 

of  equal  semicircles.    Originally  it  was  nothing  re  than  a  rod  adorned  with  green  leaves,  and 

w  il  ha  ■-kill  fully  tied  knot  as  the  symbol  of  traffic.  In  a  later  aire  these  decorations  were  changed 
bi  tin  poets  into  serpents  and  wings.  Various  interpretations  of  the  meaning  of  it  have  been 
given,  Prudi  uce  is  general!)  supposed  to  be  represented  by  the  two  serpents,  and  the  wings  are 
the  Bymbol  of  diligence:  both  necessary  in  the  pursuit  of  business  and  commerce,  which  Mer- 
cury pair zed.' 

On  tin  inner  »f  Mercury,  Clasi.  Journal,  nvi.  224  —BiMiger'a  Amalthea,  i.  104.—  Bbltigcr's  Vaseiigem,  ii.  97. 

§  56a.  Mercury  is  usually  represented  as  a  slender  youth,  holding  his  wand, 
almosl  always  in  motion,  ■  ither  flying  or  rapidly  marching,  wearing  a  winged 
bill  (priii.sus).  and  winged  sandals  [la/aria).  Sometimes  he  holds  a  purse  in 
his  hand,  as  the  god  of  commerce;  sometimes  a  tortoise  appears  by  him  in 
reference  to  his  invention  of  the  lyre.  The  cock  was  sacred  to  him,  and  appears 
Bom<  times  as  an  attribute  in  the  images  of  Mercury. 

1.  In  our  Plate  XI.  fig.  -.',  we  have  a  common  representation  of  Mercury  flying;  and 
another  similar,  in  the  Sup.  Plate  2. — In  the  Sup.  Plate  7,  he  is  seen  attending  on 
lupitcr  and  Juno   -In  our  Plate  XVIII.  fig.  4,  and  in  the  Sup.  Plate  14  (illusirationi 


P.   II.  SUPERIOR     GODS.       MERCURY.       BACCHUS.  109 

named  Door  of  Hell  and  Chiron),  he  appears  in  his  office  of  conductor  of  the  shades 
of  the  dead.     Cf.  §  32  a.  1. 

2  m.  The  monuments  called  Henna  (see  P.  IV.  §  1C4)  were  originally  statues  oi 
Mercury.  They  had  their  origin  when  art  was  in  a  very  imperfect  state,  but  were 
ufterwards  retained,  and  were  used  to  represent  other  gods  and  memorable  men. 

§  56  b.  The  worship  of  Mercury  was  very  common  among  Egyptians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  and  many  temples  were  consecrated  to  him.  At  Rome  there  was 
a  particular  festival  {jetlum  Mercatorum)  held  for  the  expiation  of  merchants, 
in  honor  of  Mercury. 

1.  At  this  festival,  held  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  the  votaries  sacrificed  to  him  a  sow 
or  a  calf,  and  offered  especially  the  tongues  of  animals,  and  sprinkling  themselves  with 
water,  prayed  to  him  to  forgive  all  their  artful  measures  or  falsehoods  in  pursuit  of  gain. 

2  u.  The  more  common  epithets  applied  to  Mercury  are  Cyllenius,  Atlniil  utiles,  Ales, 
A«orceus  (dyopaTof),  Caducifer. 

3.  Other  common  epithets  are  'Apyeu/rivrri;,  t'luvroip,  and  'oSrjyng ;  he  is  also  termed 
56\io$t crafty;  K'phio;,  as  presiding  over  wealth;  rpuci^aAoj,  because  his  statues  were  placed 
where  three  ways  met. 

§  57.  (15)  Bacchus.  The  Greeks  and  the  Romans  worshiped  the  inventor 
and  god  of  wine,  under  the  name  of  Bacchus,  Bax^oj;  the  former  also  called 
him  Aidn>erof.  In  the  fictions  of  both,  he  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semi  le, 
a  daughter  of  Cadmus.  In  answer  to  her  request,  Jupiter  appeared  to  her  in 
his  full  majesty  and  divinity,  the  fiery  splendor  of  which  caused  her  death.1 
Jupiter  saved  alive  the  infant  Bacchus  not  yet  born,  and  carried  him  in  his  own 
thigh  until  the  proper  time  of  his  birth.  Hence,  according  to  some  etymolo- 
gists, the  poets  called  him  bi'&vpa/j.^os,  as  having  been  twice  born;  a  name 
which  was  afterwards  given  to  the  irregular  hymns2  sung  at  his  festivals. 

i  Ot>  Met.  iii  260. *  Cf.  P.  V.  5  22.   P.  iii.  5  77.  3. 

§  58.  The  ancients  ascribed  to  Bacchus  manifold  offices,  and  related  a  multi- 
tude of  achievements  as  performed  by  him.  Especially  was  he  celebrated  for 
his  advancement  of  morals,  legislation,  and  commerce;  for  the  culture  of  the 
vine  and  the  rearing  of  bees ;  and  for  his  military  expeditions  and  success, 
particularly  in  India.  He  was  universally  worshiped  as  a  god,  and  a  miracle- 
worker,  except  in  Scythia. 

1  u.  The  power  ascribed  to  him  is  illustrated  in  the  story  respecting  Midas,  king  ol 
Phrygia,  who  restored  to  Bacchus  his  nurse  and  preceptor  Silenus,  and  received  as  a 
compensation  the  fatal  attribute  of  turning  into  gold '  every  thing  he  touched. — Some 
of  the  remarkable  incidents  of  his  story  are,  changing  the  Tyrrhenian  sailors  into  dol- 
phins2 ;  his  residence  upon  the  island  Naxos,  where  he  found  Ariadne,  forsaken  by 
Theseus,  and  espoused  her,  but  likewise  forsook  her,  and  after  her  death  placed  her 
crown  among  the  stars3;  his  descent  to  Hades  in  order  to  convey  his  mother  Semele 
back  to  Olympus,  where  she  was  deified  under  the  name  of  Thyone. 

i  Ooid.  Metam.  xi.  85. '  Met.  iii.  650. a  Fast.  iii.  459. 

2.  Bacchus  is  also  said  to  have  traveled  into  India  with  an  army  composed  of  men  and  women 
The  achievements  of  different  personages  are  doubtless  ascribed  to  him.  Diodorus  Siculus  says 
that  there  were  three  who  bore  this  name.     Cicero  says  there  were  five. 

3  >/.  He  is  called  by  various  names ;  Lyaeus,  Thyoneu? ,  Evan,  Nyctelius,  Bassareus. 
Thriambus,  Thyrsiger  (cf.  Ov.  Met.  iv.  11),  Liber,  Bimater,  &c. 

§  59.  The  worship  of  Bacchus,  originating  very  early  in  tne  East,  probably 
in  India,  was  among  the  earliest  and  most  general  practiced  in  the  Grecian  or 
Roman  territories.  Pentheus  and  Lycurgus,  who  refused  to  participate  in  it, 
were  punished  with  death  ;  and  the  daughters  of  Minyas  and  Orchomenos,  foi 
the  same  reason,  were  changed  into  bats.  Thebes,  Nysa,  Mount  Citheeron, 
Naxos,  and  Alea  in  Arcadia,  were  renowned  for  their  festivals  in  honor  of 
Bacchus. — The  vine  and  ivy  and  the  panther  were  especially  sacred  to  him. 
Goats  were  usually  offered  in  sacrifice  to  him,  because  they  are  particularly 
injurious  to  the  vine. 

1.  The  Oscophoria,  Epilania,  Apatitria,  Ambrosia,  and  Ascolia,  are  named  as 
festivals  of  this  god. 

2  u.  The  most  eminent  of  his  festivals  were  the  Trieterica  and  the  Dionysia  (see  P. 
III.  §  77.  3),  in  which  his  military  enterprises  were  commemorated.  These  celebra- 
tions at  length  became  wild  and  licentious  orgies,  and  were  finallv  on  that  account 
abolished  (cf.  Liv.  xxxix.  8,  ss.)  in  Rome  by  the  senate,  in  the  year  of  the  city  %8. 

On  the  worship  o(  Bacchus,  see  Frnel,  Le  Culte  Je  Bacchus,  Mtm.  Acad.  Inscr  vol.  Jtxiii.  p.  W2.— O.  F .  Cratztr.  Uwav-wk  t 


110  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY 

eomm.nl.  Acad,  de  Rerum  Bacchic  originibug  et  causis.  Heid,  lb.  1809.  4.-  Rollc,  Recherches  sur  le  Culle  de  Bacchus.  Pans, 
3  roll.  8. 

3    Iii  Beveral  points  ihe  story  and  worship  of  Bacchus  resemble  those  of  the  Egyptian  Osiris 
There  is  also  ihnughl  lo  I"'  a  striking  resemblance  between  Bacchus  am)  the  Scliivu  of  India  (cf. 

Rhodi .  as  :ited  <-■  13) sir  Wm.  Jones  (as  cited  £  25.  4).  considers  Bacchus  and  the  Hindoo  Kama 

i:.  i..- ill.  sun.-.    "The  first  poet  of  the  Hindoos,"  says  he,  "was  the  great  Valmic,  and  his  Ha- 

mayav  is  an  epic  poem  on  t lie  same  subject,  which  in  unity  of  action,  magnificence  of  imagery, 

egance  of  style,  lar  surpasses  the  learned  and  elaborate  work  of  Nonnus  entitled  Diony- 

tiaea  (cf  I'.  V.  $  76),  hair  of  which,  or  twenty-four  books,  I  perused  with  great  eagerness  when 

I  was  very  young,  and  should  have  traveled  to  the  c ilusion  of  it,  if  other  pursuits  had  not 

engaged  me.  1  shall  never  have  leisure  to  compare  the  Dionysiacks  with  the  Ramayan,  but  am 
confident  thai  an  accurate  comparison  of  the  two  poems  would  prove  Vionysos  and  Huma  to  have 
'.I.  en  the  same  person." 

•  ml,  De  la  Religion,  vol.  ii.— Kosj,  Antisymbolik.— Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  viii. 

4.  Il  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  ihe  abominations  of  Ihe  Dionvsiac  festivals  are  lo  this  day  practiced  at  Ihe  temple  of  Juggernaut  in 

,..     This  eod  has  two  annual  festivals.     At  Ihe  one  called  Ihe  car-festival,  his  image,  ■'  a  block  of  wood,  having  a  frighlful 

into)  black,  with  a  distended  mouth  of  a  blooily  color,"  is  brought  out  of  the  temp!e  in  gorgeous  array  and  placed  on  a  slu- 

car  rising  high  like  a  tower,  which  rests  on  low  wheels  and  is  drawn  by  the  crowd  of  votaries,  attended  with  Rags  and 

.  mud  ihe  sound  of  musical  instruments  and  the  shouis  of  an  immense  multitude  of  pilgrims  assembled  from  various  and 

listant  resions.     In  our  Plate  XIII  a.  is  a  representation  of  this  ceremony  ;  the  burses,  which  appear  attached  to  Ihe  car,  are  wooden. 

The  car  is  covered  «  ilh  indecent  figures  painted  all  over  it      At  intervals  the  car  is  slopped,  and  the  priests  and  boys  connected  with 

Ihe  temple  render  worship  by  obscene  songs  and  lascivious  actions  lo  please  Ihe  god.  as  they  say,  and  cause  him  lo  move— See  Haul, 

ion,  4c.  of  Ihe  Hindoos. 

§  60.  The  ancient  representations  of  Bacchus  are  much  more  dignified  than 
those  with  which  the  later  artists  woe  accustomed  to  degrade  him.  By  the 
poets  and  artists  of  antiquity  he  was  exhibited  as  a  handsome  agreeable  boy, 
just  on  the  border  of  youth,  with  a  form  more  resembling  a  female,  than  that 
of  Mercury  or  Apollo,  and  with  a  joyful  look.  Of  no  other  god  have  we  a  greater 
number  or  variety  of  representations,  in  statues,  bas-reliefs,  and  gems,  than  of 
Bacchus  with  his  train,  Silenus,  the  Fauns  and  Satyrs,  and  Bacchanals. 

1.  Among  the  various  representations  of  this  god,  we  sometimes  find  him  with 
swollen  cheeks,  and  a  bloaied  body.  He  is  crowned  with  ivy  and  vine  leaves,  having 
in  his  hand  a  t"  Ay  raws,  an  iron-headed  javelin,  encircled  with  ivy  or  vine  leaves  ;  as  in 
our  Plate  X.  fi 7 .  8,  where  he  appears  also  as  a  handsome  youth,  holding  a  wine-cup  in 
cue  hand.  and  a'teaded  by  a  panther.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  15,  he  is  a  youth  holding  the 
thyrsud  and  leaning  upon  a  column,  with  a  tiger  at  his  feet.  Sometimes  he  appears  an 
infant,  holding  a  thyrsus  and  cluster  of  grapes  with  a  horn.  Sometimes  he  is  on  the 
shoulders  of  Pan,  or  in  the  arms  of  Silenus.  On  the  celebrated  gem  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  211) 
which  is  given  in  our  Plaie  XLVIII.,  he  appears  a  bloated  young  man,  borne  by  Satyrs 
also  attended  by  Cupids  and  Bacchanals.  Sometimes  he  is  in  a  chariot,  drawn 
by  tigers,  leopards,  or  panthers,  surrounded  by  his  retinue  of  Satyrs  and  Bacchae,  and 
followed  by  old  Silenus  on  an  oas. 

For  various  other  representations,  see  Montfauam,  Antiq.  Expl.  vol.  i.  Plates  142-167. 

2.  Tn  our  Plate  XLVIII.  we  have  also  a  representation  of  Silenus,  as  given  from  an  antique  hy 
M.  nit  fa  nee  ii  ;  recumbent  on  the  hide  of  a  panther,  with  one  hand  resiiiifr  on  a  skin  full  of  wine, 
and  the  oilier  on  an  inverted  goblet.— An  image  of  silenus  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  (.Hist.  Mat. 
xixvi.  5),  as  existing  in  the  marble  quarry  of  Paros,  said  lo  lie  the  work  of  nature.  There  is 
now  in  the  same  quarry  a  curious  bas-relief,  of  which  the  image  of  Silenus  forms  a  part.  Dr. 
Clarke  supposes  this  image  to  have  been  a  lusus  naturtt,  and  the  other  pieces  now  in  the  bas- 
relief  to  have  been  added  In  il  h\  sculpture.      "  It  represents  a  festival  of  Silenus.     The  demigod 

t^  figured  in  tin-  upper  pari  of  it  as  a  cprpulent  drunkard,  with  ass's  ears,  accompanied  by  laugh- 
ing satyrs  and  dancing  girls.  A.  female  figure  is  represented  sitting  with  a  fox  sleeping  in  her 
lap.  A  warrior  is  also  introduced,  wearing  a  Phrygian  bonnel  [see  Plate  XXII.  fig.  n  and  o]. 
There  are  twenty-nine  figures;  and  below  is  this  inscription:  AAAMAS  OAPY2H2  NYM<I>A1Z. 

§  61.  ijvi)  Ceres.  However  useful  the  planting  f  the  vine  might  be,  agri- 
culture in  general  was  much  more  so,  and  formed  one  of  the  earliest  and  most* 
common  pursuits  of  men.  The  observation  of  its  importance  and  of  the  pro- 
ducliveness  of  nature  occasioned  the  conception  of  a  particular  divinity,  to 
whom  its  discovery  and  improvement  were  ascribed.  The  usual  name  for  this 
divinity  was  A^/t^r^p  among  the  Greeks,  and  Ceres  with  the  Romans.  She 
was  considered  as  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  goddesses,  and  was  called  a 
daughter  of  Saturn  and  sister  of  Jupiter.  Her  native  place  was  Enna,  situated 
in  a  It  rtile  region  of  Sicily. 

In  this  country  sin-  is  said  to  have  first  taught  men  to  cultivate  grain,  and  to 
instruct  tin  in  Ln  all  the  labors  pertaining  to  it.  To  her  is  ascribed  also  the 
establishing  of  laws,  and  the  regulation  of  civil  society.  Afterwards  she  im- 
parted  her  favors  to  other  hinds,  and  the  people  of  Attica  particularly  boasted 
..f  In  r  proti  Ction,  and  her  instruction  in  agriculture  and  the  use  of  the  plough. 
H\\t-  associated  Triutolemus  with  her  as  a  companion  in  her  travels,  and  sent 


PLATE  XIII  a. 


Ill 


112  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

nim  over  the  earth,  to  teach  husbandry,  and  thereby  raised  him  te  the  rank  of 

a   gCld. 

hid  lo  Ceres.-Or.rf,  Fast.  iv.  507-562.    Meiam.  v.  612-661. 

§  G2.  'I'lif  seizure  ami  abduction  of  her  daughter  Proserpine  by  Pluto  has 
bei  n  already  mentioned  (§  32 u).  Ceres  sought  for  her  with  a  burning  torch 
everywhere,  ami  thus  diffused  universally  a  knowledge  of  agriculture  and  good 
morals.  She  at  length  discovered  that  Pluto  had  borne  her  to  his  realms,  sup- 
plicated .lupiter  for  her  deliverance,  and  received  a  favorable  answer,  on  con- 
dition that  Proserpine  had  tasted  of  no  fruit  of  the  infernal  world.  But  she 
had  justttasted  of  the  pomegranate,  and  therefore  received  her  freedom  and 
liberty  to  return  to  this  world  only  for  half  the  year. 

Ovid,  Meiam.  iv.  552.— Claudian,  Ue  Raptu  Proserpina;.    Cf.  P.  V.  §386. 

1  u.  To  the  history  of  Ceres  belong  also  the  following  mythical  circumstances;  hei 
changing  herself  into  a  horse  and  into  one  ol  the  Furies,  to  escape  the  pursuit  of  Nep- 
tune ;  her  transformation  ol  Lyncus  into  a  lynx  on  account  ot  his  perfidy1 ;  and  her 
punishment  oi  Erysichihon,  who  had  violated  a  grove  sacred  to  her,  by  afflicting  him 
with  insatiable  hunger-,  so  that  he  devoured  at.  last  his  own  limbs. 

'  Ov  Met.  v.  649. »/i  viii.  738.— Callim.  Hymn,  in  Cer.  v.  29.— See  Ernati'i  Excursus,  in  his  ed.  of  Callimachus  (cited 

P.  V.  5  70.  2).  vol.  i.  p.  262. 

2  u.  Ceres  bore  several  names  and  epithets,  as  Ar/c'j,  eco-uoip6po; ,  Si™ ;  and  Eleusinia, 
Erinnys,  &  <■. 

t  he  name  Snaiirrip  is  by  some  derived  from  Si)  for  yn  and  pnrrjp,  signifying  mother- 
earth. 

See  Knight's  Enquiry  into  the  symbol.  Lang.  &c.  Class.  Journ 

§  t)3.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  festivals  of  this  goddess  was  the  ©ta/xotyopia, 
which  was  maintained  in  many  Grecian  cities,  especially  in  Athens,  in  honor 
of  her  as  having  taught  the  use  of  laws.  Still  more  celebrated,  however,  were 
the  Eleusinian  Mysteries,  which  were  likewise  sacred  to  Ceres,  and  which  were 
of  two  sorts,  the  greater  and  the  less,  the  latter  held  annually,  the  former  only 
ivcry  fifth  year.  Besides  these,  the  Greeks  and  Romans  honored  her  with 
several  festivals  before  and  after  harvests,  e.  g.  the  npo^posia,  and  the  'Ax^a, 
the   Cerealia  and  the  Ambarvalia. 

■  On  the  Btauinian  Mysteries,  see  P.  III.  §  77.  4.  P.  IV.  §  V.  —  Warburton.  in  his  Divine  Legation  of  Mow.— J.  Mairsii,  Elen 
linia.  Lugd.  Bat.  1619.  4.— Saintt  Croix,  Recherches  histor.  et  crit  sur  les  Mysteres  (Silv.  de  Sacy  ed  )  Par.  1817.  2  vole.  8.- 
Ouwarrjf,  Essai  sur  les  mysteres  d'Eleusi*.  St.  Petersb.  1815.  &.— Bougainville,  in  the  Mem.  Acad,  btscr.  ixi.  S3.— Class,  limrn 
liii.  399.  xiv.  165.  iv.  117.  • 

On  the  Thumophoria,  see  Dutheil,  as  cited  P  V.  §  65  3. On  the  Amharvalia,  cf  P.  III.  §  219. 

1.   Among  the  ceremonies  in  her  worship  were  the  sacrificing  of  a  pregnant  sow,  and 

mrning  of  a  fox  (vulpium  combustw).     "  A  fox  was   burnt  to  death  at   her  sacred 

—  tied  round  n  ;  because  a  fox  wrapt  round  with  stubble  and  hay  set  on 

fire,  being  let  go  by  a  boy.  once  burnt   the  growing  corn  of  the  people  of  Carseoli,  a 

town  of  iltc  -Eipii,  as  the  foxes  of  Samson  did  the  standing  corn  of  the  Philistines." 

Cf  Ovid,  Fast.  iv.  681.—  Judges  iv.  4.—  Classical  Jiumol,  vi.  325. 

2.  The  ruins  of  the  famous  temple  of  Ceres  at  Eleusis,  where  the  Mysteries  were  celebrated, 
were  conspicuous  when  I)r  Clarke  visited  Hie  spot,  tie  found  also  a  fragment  of  a  colossal 
statue  of  the   goddess  among  the   m.ddering  vestiges  of  her  once  splendid  sanctuary.     With 

er1  ion  lhal  traveler  procured  the  removal  of  Hie  statue,  in  order  to  its  being  transported 

i  nd. 

Part  ii.  sect.  2.  ch.  18.— Land.  Quart.  Rev.  xvii.  202. 

§  64.  The  symbolical  accompaniments  to  the  imacre  of  Ceres  are  ears  of 
corn,  and  the  poppy,  her  usual  ornament.  She  is  often  exhibited  with  a  torch 
in  her  hand,  to  signify  her  search  after  Proserpine. 

iions  she  appears  a  tall  and  majestic  lady  with  a  garland  on  her 
head  composed  of  ears  of  corn,  a  lighted  torch  In  one  hand,  and  a  cluster  of  poppies  and 

ol  com  in  the  other.  Thus  she  appears  in  our  Plate  XI.  fig.  5,  and  in  the  Sup. 
Plate  !  "■  ippears  as  a  country  woman  mounted  upon  the  back  of  an  ox, 

ing  a  basket  and  a  hoe.  Sometime!  she  was  represented  as  in  a  chariot  drawn 
by  w  ns.     Her  associate  Triptolemus  also  appears  occupying  her  chariot 

iOt.  \l...  v.i  B 

§  li.r>.  (17)  Vesta.    The  ideas  conceived  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  fables  respect 

ing  tin-  earth  as  .1  person  ami  goddess  were  exceedingly  numerous  and  various. 

Besides  Gaia,  Titsea  or  Tellus,  who  represented  the°earth  taken  in  a  general 

1     'bey  in  -1'jimd  <  lybele  to  denote  the  earth  as  inhabited  and  cultivated  : 


P.  II.  INFERIOR     GODS.       oCELUS.  ]]3 

Ceres  more  particularly  signified  the  fertility  of  the  soil ;  and  the  name  of 
Vest  a  or  'Erm'a  was  employed  to  represent  the  earth  as  warmed  hy  internal 
heat.  The  latter  goddess  also  represented  civil  union  and  domestic  happiness, 
being  supposed  to  preside  over  the  household  hearth.  She  was  called  the 
daughter  of  Saturn  and  Rhea,  and  said  to  have  first  taught  men  the  use  of  fire. 

1  u.  Jupiter  guarantied  her  vow  of  perpetual  celibacy  (Ov.  Fast.  iv.  249),  and 
granted  to  her  the  first  oblations  in  all  sacrifices. 

2.  She  is  sometimes  termed  Vesta  the  younger,  to  distinguish  her  from  Cybele  (§19), 
who  is  also  called  Vesta  the  elder.     Vesta  the  younger  is  the  same  with  Ignis  or  lire. 

§  66.  The  establishment  of  family  habitations  was  ascribed  to  Vesta,  and  for 
this,  altars  were  usually  erected  to  her  in  the  interior  or  front  of  all  houses. 
The  same  was  done  in  the  buildings  termed  ripvrai'ua,  which  were  usually 
found  in  the  Greek  cities  near  their  center;  that  at  Athens  (P.  I.  §  115)  was 
the  most  famous.  More  rarely  were  temples  raised  for  her.  In  her  temple  at 
Rome  the  celebrated  Palladium  was  supposed  to  be  kept. 

The  temple  of  Vesta  erected  by  Nunia  at  Rome  was  round,  and  without  any  image 
of  the  goddess.     It  still  exists.  Cf.  P.  I.  §  GO. 

§  67  a.  She  was  represented  in  a  long  robe,  wearing  a  veil,  bearing  in  her 
hand  a  lamp,  or  sacrifical  vase.  It  is,  however,  more  frequently  a  priestess  of 
Vesta  that  is  thus  represented. 

In  Plate  XI.  fig.  10,  from  a  medal  given  by  Montfaucon,  we  have  such  a  representation.  In 
the  Sup.  Plate  3.  Vesta  is  seen  as  represented  in  a  beautiful  statue  mentioned  by  Montfaucon 
(Vol.  i.  p.  64). — Vesta  is  sometimes  exhibited  holding  in  one  hand  a  javelin  or  a  Palladium; 
sometimes  also  with  a  drum  in  one  hand  and  an  image  of  Victory  in  the  other. 

$  67  u.  Her  priestesses  among  the  Greeks  were  widows.  But  those  among  the  Ro- 
mans under  the  name  of  Vestales,  the  vestal  virgins,  were  much  more  celebrated  ;  the 
mother  of  Romulus  having  belonged  to  the  order,  although  their  first  regular  institution 
is  ascribed  to  Numa.  (Cf.  P.  III.  §  218.)  Their  principal  duty  was  to  watch  and  keep 
alive  the  sacred  fire  of  Vesta,  and  guard  the  Palladium  (cf.  §43).  Their  rigid  seclusion  was 
rewarded  by  various  privileges,  and  a  peculiar  sacredness  was  attached  to  their  persons. 

J.  The  extinction  of  the  fire  of  Vesta  was  supposed  to  forbode  sudden  and  terrible  disasters, 
and  if  it  ever  happened,  all  business  was  at  once  interrupted  until  expiation  had  been  made  with 
great  ceremony.  Negligence  on  the  part  of  the  virgins  was  severely  punished.  The  fire  wai 
every  year  renewed  or  replaced,  on  the  Calends  of  March,  by  fire  produced  from  the  rays  of  the 
sun. 

2.  In  our  Plate  XXVIII.  is  a  representation  of  a  priestess  of  Vesta,  holding  a  pan  of  firt  In 
the  same  Plate  is  seen  a  Vestal  holding  the  cribrum  or  sieve;  from  a  statue  in  honor  of  the  Ves- 
tal Tuccia,  who  is  said  to  have  vindicated  her  innocence  by  bringing  water  in  a  sieve  from  the 
Tiber.    Cf.  Val.  Max.  viii.  2. 

On  Vesta  and  the  Vestals;  iiuy,  i.  20  —Plutarch,  Life  of  Numa.— Class.  Journ.  xv.  123,257.  xvi.  Sl.—Kadal,  Histoire  del 
Vestales,  in  the  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  Imcr.  vol.  iv.  p.  161,  227. — Lipsius,  de  Vesta,  in  his  Works.— Duyuy,  La  maniere  dont  ltt 
anciens  rallumoient  le/eu  sacre,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr,  xxxv.  p.  395. 


II. — Mythological  History  of  the  Inferior  Gods. 

§  68.  The  divinities  included  in  the  class,  which  are  here  denominated  Inferior goa» 
are  Coelus  or  '0»pav6s ;  Sol  or  "HXioi  ;  Luna  or  Sf Xiot  ;  Aurora  or  'Ho\  ;  Nox  or  N»J; 
Iris,  T/H4- ;  TEolus  or  Ai'oXo? ;  Pan,  Ylai>;  Latona  or  Arjr.,3 ;  Themis  or  6fyu>- ;  iEscula- 
pius  or  'A<nrXi77r(o*5 ;  Plutus  or  UXoOroj ;  Fortuna  orTux'?;  and  Fama  or  $17/117 ;  which 
were  all  common  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  But  to  this  class  are  also  to  be  referred 
several  divinities,  which  were  peculiar  to  the  Greeks  as  distinguished  from  ihe  Romans; 
and  also  several,  which  were  peculiar  to  the  Romans  as  distinguished  from  the  Greeks 

§  69.  (1)  Coelus.  Although  this  god  was  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
ancient,  and  the  father  of  Saturn,  yet  not  much  importance  was  attached  to  his 
worship  either  among  the  Greeks  or  Romans.  His  wife  was  the  goddess  of  the 
earth,  Titwa  or  Gaia ;  their  offspring  were  the  Titans,  the  Cyclops,  and  the  Cen- 
iimani.  Through  fear  that  these  sons  would  deprive  him  of  his  kingdom,  he 
precipitated  them  all  to  Tartarus,  whence  they  were  liberated,  however,  by  the 
aid  of  Saturn,  who  himself  usurped  his  father's  throne.  Venus  and  the  Furies 
were  called  daughters  of  Uranus,  or  Coelus. 

§  70  n.  The  fictions  respecting  this  god  perhaps  had  some  foundation  in  the  histor* 


114  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

of  early 'nations.  According  to  the  account  of  Diodorus1,  Uranus  would  seem  to  navi» 
been  a  king  ol  the  Atlantides2,  the  founder  of  their  civilization,  and  the  author  of  many 
useful  inventions.  Among  other  things  lie  was  a  diligent  observer  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  and  became  able  to  announce  beforehand  many  of  their  changes.  Admiration 
oi  -a  li  knowledge  might  lead  to  his  deificaiion.  Perhaps  it  might  occasion  the  use  of  his 
name  Ovpa  <J$]  to  signify  the  heavens.  The  idea,  however,  of  a  deity  thus  called,  ap- 
pears  to  have  bi  en  very  ancient. 

■  s<e  Diod.  Sic  iii.  56.  v.  4-1. *  The  Atlantides  were  a  people  of  Africa,  living  near  Mt.  Alias. 

§  71.  (-2)  Sol.  Although  the  Greeks  and  Romans  worshiped  Apollo  as  the 
god  and  dispenser  of  light,  and  in  view  of  this  attribute  named  him  Phoebus, 
yet  they  conceived  another  distinct  divinity,  distinguished  from  Apollo  espe- 
cially in  the  earlier  fables,  under  the  literal  name  applied  to  designate  the  sun, 
viz.  Sol  or  "Htuoj.  These  words,  therefore,  were  employed  to  express  not  only 
the  actual  body  in  the  heavens,  but  also  a  supposed  being  having  a  separate 
and  personal  existence.  In  the  Homeric  Hymn  addressed  to  Melius,  he  is 
called  the  son  of  Hyperion  and  Euryphaessa.  Eos  and  Selene  are  called  his 
sisters.  Many  circumstances,  which  are  mentioned  as  pertaining  to  him,  are 
also  related  of  Phoebus  or  Apollo,  when  considered  as  the  god  of  the  sun. 

i.  Metamorph.  ii. 

§  72  a.  The  early  prevalence  of  Sun-worship,  which  was  one  of  the  first  and 

most  natural  forms  of  idolatry,  renders  it  probable,  that  the  worship  of  this  god 

was  early  introduced  into  Greece.      Many  temples  were  consecrated  to  Helius. 

The   island  Rhodes  in  particular  was  sacred  to   him,  where  was  erected  his 

celebrated  colossal  statue.     Among  the   Romans  his  worship  was  organized 

with  special  solemnities  by  Heliogabalus,  who  had  been  a  priest  of  the  same 

god  in  .Syria,  and  afterwards  erected  a  temple  to  his  honor  at  Rome. 

Of  his  splendid  temple  at  Heliopolis  or  B.ialbec  in  Syria,  said  to  have  been  erected  by  Antoni- 
nus Pius,  interesting  remains  still  exist.   Cf.  P.  I.  $  166. 

§  72  b.  Sol  or  Helius  is  represented  usually  in  a  juvenile  form,  entirely 
clothed,  and  having  his  head  surrounded  with  rays,  and  attended  by  the  Horse, 
and  the  Seasons.  He  is  sometimes  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses, 
which  bear  distinct  names. 

1.  Helius  is  represented  on  coins  of. the  Rhodians  by  the  head  of  a  young  man 
crowned  with  rays;  a  specimen  is  seen  in  our  Plaie  XI V.  fig.  1 — A  view  of  the  colossal 
Biatue  of  Helius  erected  at  Rhodes  is  given  in  Plate  VI.  This  was  reckoned  among 
the  si  ven  wonders. 

2  The  seven  wonders  of  the  world  were,  1.  The  statue  of  the  Sun  at  Rhodes,  70  cubits  high,  placed 
across  the  harbor  so  that  a  large  vessel  could  sail  between  its  legs;  2.  The  Mausoleum,  or  sepulchre 
of  M.iu-olns.  king  i if" ('aria,  built  of  marble,  above  400  feet  in  compass,  surrounded  with 36  beautiful 
Columns(P.III.$187.);3.  The  statue  of  Jupiter  in  Olympia  by  Phidias  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  170);  4.  The  tem- 
ple of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  with  127  pillars,  60  feel  in  height,  with  a  splendid  image  of  the  goddess; 
5.  The  walls  of  Babylon  built  by  Semiramis,  50  or  80  feet  wide,  and  60  miles  in  circuit  (Rollin's 
Anc.  Hist.  bk.  iii.  ch.  1);    6.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt;   7.  The  palace  of  Cyrus. 

§  73.  (3)  Luna.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Hyperion  and  Theia,  and  was 
called  2i7,yr]  by  the  Greeks,  being  distinct,  in  name,  descent,  and  story  from 
Diana  oi  Ap?£/u$,  who  was,  however,  taken  as  goddess  of  the  moon.  To 
Luna  was  ascribed  great  influence  in  relation  to  the  birth  of  men.  Pandia  was 
said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Luna  and  Jupiter  or  Saturn".  In  common  with  her 
brother  Helius,  Luna  seems  to  have  been  especially  worshiped  by  the  Atlan- 
tides. 

B  Cf.  /7o»/ict*,  Hymn  lo  Luna. 

1  o  Both  the  Creeks  and  Romans  consecrated  appropriate  temples  to  her,  although 
(he  worship  ol  Diana  as  the  goddess  of  the  moon  was  much  more  prevalent  among 
them.  She  was  represented  like  Diana  in  this  character,  as  a  goddess  riding  in  a  chariot 
through  the  skies,  with  the  stars  as  her  attendants. 

'-'  bhe  is  i.  pres<  nt<  d  on  coins  by  the  bust  of  a  fair  young  woman  with  a  crescent  on 
Iter  In  ad ;  as  seen  in  Plate  XIV.  fig.  3. 

§  71.  ( 1 )  .  lurora.  A  sister  of  Luna,  of  the  same  parents,  was  the  goddesa 
of  the  morning  or  day-dawn;  styled  by  the  Greeks  'Ewj  or  'Hbu/pa;  by  the 
Iv'.  •,,ans  Aurora.  By  others  she  is  said  to  have  been  the  daughter  of  the  giant 
Pallas,  and  therefore  called  Pallantias.  Orion  and  Tithonus  were  her  prin- 
"inal  lovers,  and  Lucifer  and  Memnon  her  most  distinguished  sons.     The  latter 


P.  II.  INFERIOR     GODS.       AURORA.       IRIS.  115 

is  memorable  for  the  honors  paid  to  him  in  Egypt,  and  for  his  famous  vocal 
statue  at  Thebes. 

1.  The  statue  of  Memnon  is  supposed  to  lie  one  of  those  existing  at  the  present  day  among  the 
ruins  of  ancient  Thebes,  near  the  place  now  called  Med  i  net  Abou.  A  part  of  the  body  of  it  is  said 
to  be  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  called  by  the  Arabians  Salamat,  the  statue  which  bids 
good  morning,  a  name  evidently  originating  in  a  belief  of  the  ancient  and  common  tradition  ; 
which  was,  that  this  statue  uttered  sounds  at  the  rising  of  the  sun,  when  it  shone  upon  it.  The 
statue  is  covered  with  inscriptions  by  persons  declaring  that  they  had  heard  its  voice  at  the 
risinii  of  the  sun. — Mr.  Wilkinson  states,  from  experiment  actually  made  by  himself,  that  if  a  per- 
son in  the  lap  of  this  colossus,  which  is  in  a  sitting  posture,  give  it  a  blow  with  a  hammer,  it  will 
cause  a  sound  to  a  person  standing  at  its  foot  as  if  from  an  instrument  of  brass. 

See  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  on  the  contrivance  by  which  the  statue  of  Memnon  was  made  vocal  ;  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Roya. 
Society  of  Literature,  vol.  ii.  Lond.  I&34.—  M.  Lttronue,  Inscriptions  Greojues  et  Latines  du  Colossus  de  Memnon,  &c,  in  saint 
Tiansactions,  vol.  iii.   Lond.  1837 — *Amer.  Quart.  Review,  No.  ix. 

2  u.  Cephakis  was  insensible  to  the  love  of  Aurora  towards  him,  although  she  seized 
and  bore  him  away  from  his  beloved  Frocris,  whom,  after  his  return  to  her,  he  had  the 
misfortune  to  kill  ihrough  an  accident  occasioned  by  her  jealousy.— The  early  death 
of  a  youth  was   frequently  called  in   poetic  language,  a  seizure  or  theft  by  Aurora 

(Wjitpac  rpirayn). 
On  the  story  of  Cephalus,  see  Ovid,  Metam.  vii.  661,  703. 

§  75.  This  goddess  was  considered  as  the  harbinger  of  the  sun  and  of  th<» 
day,  and  was  sometimes  called  by  the  literal  name  of  the  latter  among  the 
Greeks,  'Hfitpa.  By  the  poets  she  is  represented  as  a  beautiful  young  woman, 
whose  chariot  was  drawn  by  white  or  light  red  horses,  and  who  opened  the 
portals  of  the  Sun  with  rosy  fingers.  Homer  designates  her  by  the  epithet 
Pobo8uxtv%oi. 

She  is  described  as  rising  from  the  ocean  in  a  saffron  robe  (KpoKcmhr\oc.),  in  a  rose- 
colored  chariot,  and  scaitering  the  dew  upon  the  flowers.  She  was  called  the  mother 
of  the  stars  and  of  the  winds. 

In  the  Sup.  Plate  10,  she  is  beautifully  represented  as  driving  in  her  chariot,  accom- 
panied by  the  Hours,  and  a  flying  Cupid  with  a  torch  in  his  hand. 

§  76.  (5)  Nose.  The  night  was  personified  in  ancient  fable  and  placed  among 
the  divinities  as  a  daughter  of  Chaos.  On  account  of  this  early  origin  she  is 
called,  in  the  Orphic  Hymns,  the  mother  of  gods  and  men.  Generally,  how 
ever,  she  is  an  allegorical  rather  than  a  mythological  personage;  and  in  such  a 
sense,  sleep,  death,  dreams,  the  furies,  &c.  are  called  her  children. 

1 1.  A  black  cock  was  the  offering  commonly  presented  to  her.  A  black  sheep  was 
also  offered  to  her  as  mother  of  the  Furies. 

2  u.  According  to  the  descriptions  of  poets,  and  in  some  representations  by  art,  she 
is  exhibited  as  enveloped  in  a  long  dark  robe,  with  her  head  covered  with  a  veil  spangled 
with  stars.  Sometimes  she  has  black  wings,  or  is  drawn  in  a  chariot  by  two  horses  with 
a  retinue  of  stars. 

3.  Pausanias  describes  a  statue  of  Nox,  holding  in  her  right  hand  a  white  child,  and 
a  black  child  in  her  left,  representing  sleep  and  death  ;  thus  she  appears  in  our  Flate 
XXXVI.  She  has  also  been  described  as  a  woman  with  her  face  veiled  in  black, 
tiowned  with  poppies,  and  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  owls  and  bats.  In  fig.  2  of  Plate 
XIV.,  drawn  from  an  ancient  engraved  gem,  she  holds  a  veil  over  her  head,  and  three 
stars  appear  above  it.  In  plate  XLI.  she  makes  a  more  splendid  appearance  with  a 
large  spangled  veil,  and  a  torch  inverted  ;  thus  she  is  painted  in  an  ancient  illuminated 
manuscript. 

§  77.  (6)  Iris.  By  the  name  of  vIpi<;  was  designated  among  the  Greeks  the 
rainbow,  as  personified  and  imagined  a  goddess.  Her  father  was  said  to  be 
Thaumas,  and  her  mother  Electra,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Oceanus.  Her 
residence  was  near  the  throne  of  Juno,  whose  commands  she  bore  as  messengei 
to  the  rest  of  the  gods  and  to  mortals.  Sometimes,  but  rarely,  she  was  Jupiter'.t 
messenger,  and  was  employed  even  by  oiner  deities. 

1.  Being  the  messenger  of  Juno,  she  was  not  unfrequently  sent  on  errands  of  strilo 
and  discord  ;  whence  some  have  thought  her  name  derived  from  epis,  strife.  Others 
derive  it  from  hpos,  to  speak  or  declare- 

2  u.  She  had  also  sometimes  in  reference  to  dying  females  an  office,  which  was 
usually  assigned  to  Proserpine,  to  cut  off  their  hair,  and  thereby  effect  their  dissolut'on. 
Virg.  JEn.  iv.  693,  704.  The  rainbow  was  the  path  by  which  she  descended  from 
Olympus  and  returned  thither. 

3.  She  is  represented  with  wings  having  the  various  colors  of  the  rainbow,  and  often 
«ppears  sitting  behind  Juno  as  waiting  to  execute  her  commands.  In  the  Sup.  Plate 
11 


116  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

20.  she  appears  descending  on  a  cloud.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  7,  she  is  seen  with  Meicurj 
and  Hebe,  unending  on  Jupiter  and  Juno. 

§  78.  (7)  Mollis.  Under  the  name  of  jEolus  both  Greeks  and  Romans 
worshiped  a  god  and  ruler  of  winds  and  storms.  He  was  called  the  son  of 
Jupiter,  sometimes  of  Neptune,  and  by  others,  of  Hippotes,  an  ancient  lord  of 
the  Lipari  Isles.  From  Jupiter  he  received  his  authority  over  the  winds,  which 
had  previously  been  formed  into  mythical  persons,  and  were  known  by  the 
names  Zephyrus,  Boreas,  Notus,  and  Eurus,  and  were  afterwards  considered 
the  servants  of  yEolus. 

1  u.  He  held  them  imprisoned  in  a  cave  of  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  sea,  and 
let  them  loose  only  to  further  Ins  own  designs  or  ihose  of  others,  in  awakening  storms, 
burricani  -  and  floods.  (Cf.  Horn.  Odyss.  x.  1. —  Virg.  JEn.  i.  52.)  He  is  usually  de- 
scribed by  the  poets  as  virtuous,  upright,  and  friendly  to  strangers. 

2.  The  name  JEolus  is  thought  to  have  come  from  aWXoy,  changeable. — The  island 
where  /Eolus  is  said  to  have  reigned  was  Strongyle  (TrpoyyvXri),  so  called  on  account  oi 
its  round  figure,  the  modern  Slromboli. 

See  //cy/ie,  Eicun.  ad  Mn.  i.  51.— Cf.  Pliny,  N.  H.  iii.  8. 

3.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  10.  are  two  engravings  marked  as  representations  of  JEolus.  In  one,  a 
vigorous  man  supporting  himself"  in  the  air  by  wings  is  blowing  into  a  shell  trumpet  like  a  Triton, 
while  his  shorl  mantle  is  waving  in  the  wind  ;  this  is  from  a  bas-relief  on  an  altar,  found  near 
Nettuno  in  Italy,  with  the  inscription  .Urn  Venter-am;  and  it  probably  is  merely  the  representa- 
tion of  one  of  the  winds,  perhaps  Eurus  ;  cf.  }  l()s  b  — In  the  other,  we  have  a  fragment  of  a 
square  stone,  which  originally  contained  in  bas-relief  a  representation  of  the  circle  of  the  Zodiac 
with  its  twelve  signs,  which  were  sculptured  within  the  circle;  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  circle 
appear  the  busts  of  Jupiter,  Diana,  Mercury,  and  Venus;  in  the  corner  is  the  bust  of  a  man  with 
wiiil's  on  the  forehead,  blowing  with  inflated  cheeks,  which  probably  represents  one  of  the  four 
principal  winds,  the  other  comers  of  the  piece  having  had  each  a  wind  represented  in  it. 

See  Montfaucon,  Aniiq.  Expl.  vol.  i.  plate  ccxxiv. 

§  79.  (8)  Pan.  One  of  the  most  singular  of  the  inferior  gods,  was  Pan, 
whose  worship  was  universally  regarded.  He  was  the  god  of  shepherds  and 
herdsmen,  of  groves  and  fields,  and  whatever  pertained  to  rural  affairs.  His 
worship  was  probably  derived  from  the  Egyptians.  He  was  said  to  be  the  son 
of  Mercury  and  Dryope;  but  his  genealogy  was  variously  stated.  His  favorite 
residence  was  in  the  woods  and  mountains  of  Arcadia.  From  his  love  to 
Syrinx,  who  was  changed  into  a  reed1,  he  formed  his  shepherd-pipe  out  of  seven 
reeds,  and  called  it  by  her  name.  His  pride  in  this  invention  led  him  into  his 
unlucky  contest  with  Apollo2.  He  also  invented  a  war-trumpet,  whose  sound 
was  terrific  to  the  foe;  a  circumstance3  which  gave  rise  to  the  phrase,  panic 
fear  or  terror  (rtavixbv  Ssi/xa). 

1  Oo.  Metam.  i.  6<2. »  lb.  x.  146. 3  Pausan.  Phoc.  c.  23. 

§80.  Fan  was  originally,  among  the  Egyptians,  worshiped  in  the  form  of  a 
goat,  and  under  the  name  of  Mendes1.  In  Greece,  Arcadia  was  especially 
sacred  to  him,  and  here  he  is  said  to  have  given  oracles  on  Mount  Lycaeus. 
His  festivals,  called  Auxaia  by  the  Greeks,  were  introduced  by  Evander  among 
the  Romans,  and  by  them  called  Lupercalia2.  Goats,  honey,  and  milk  were 
the  usual  offeiings  to  Pan. 

i  Herat,  ii.  46. »  Ov.  Fast.  ii.  31,  267. 

1  u.  His  Greek  name  Ilav,  signifying  the  whole  or  all,  had  reference  to  the  circum- 
stance thai  he  was  considered  the  god  of  all  the  natural  world  ;  or,  according  to  others, 
it  was  derived  from  nam  (to  J 'red),  and  referred  to  his  patronage  of  shepherds  and  their 
flocks.     The  Romans  called  him  likewise  Inuus,  Lupercus,  Maenalius,  and  Lycaeus. 

2.  "The  figure  of  Pan  (cf.  Sil  Ital.  xiii.  326)  is  a  rude  symbol  of  the  universe,  and  he  appears 

ti  have  i n  originally  a  personification  of  the.  JJnima  Mundi,  or  terrestrial  soul,  by  which  some 

Bfieieni  nations  believed  thai  the  entire  universe  was  directed."— This  god  does  not  appear  in 
the  poems  of  Homer  or  Ilesiod. 

3  u.  His  image  was  generally  human  only  in  part,  having  commonly  the  form  of  a 
iatyr,  with  ears  sharp-pointed  and  standing  erect,  with  short  horns,  a  flat  nose,  a  body 
covered  with  hair  or  spotted,  and  the  feet  and  legs  of  a  goat. 

4.  Suchi  his  image  in  Plate  XIV.  fig.  4,  and  in  Sup.  Plate  15 ;  in  both  of  which  he  has 
in  one  hand  a  crooked  staff  and  in  the  other  a  pipe  of  reeds,  and  an  amphora  lies  beside 
him.  Ip  some  representations,  his  head  was  crowned  with  pine,  which  was  sacred 
to  him- 

§  8  .  (ft)  Latona.  She  was  called  \rjtu  by  the  Greeks,  and  held  a  distin- 
guished pine,,  us  mother  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  on  this  account  was  often 
ar;ked  among  the  superior  deities.     She  was  daughter  of  Cceus  or  Polus  and 


P.  II.  INFERIOR     GODS.       THEMIS.       AESCULAPIUS.  117 

Phoebe,  and  one  of  the  objects  of  Jupiter's  love.  The  jealousy  and  anger  of 
Juno  was  excited  against  her,  and  she  adjured  the  goddess  of  earth  to  allow 
Latona  no  place  to  bring  forth  her  offspring.  Neptune,  however,  granted  the 
island  Delos  for  the  purpose.  But  here  she  found  no  sure  asylum,  and  fled  to 
Lycia,  where1  she  was  hindered  from  quenching  her  thirst  at  a  lake  by  some 
peasants.  These  offenders  were  in  return  changed  into  frogs. —  Still  more 
severe  was  her  vengeance  in  the  case  of  Niobe2,  a  daughter  of  Tantalus  and 
wife  of  Amphion  king  of  Thebes.  Niobe  slighted  the  divinity  of  Latona,  and 
the  latter  engaged  both  her  children,  Apollo  and  Diana,  to  avenge  her;  they,  by 
their  arrows,  slew  the  seven  sons  and  seven  daughters  of  Niobe,  who  by  grief 
was  changed  into  stone. 

I  Or.  Me'am.  vi.  335. ?  Ov.  Metam.  li.  321.     See  also  §  38. 

§  82.  This  goddess  was  honored  particularly  in  Lycia,  on  the  island  Delos, 
at  Athens,  and  in  many  of  the  Grecian  cities.  In  Crete  a  festival  was  sacred 
to  her,  called  'Exfivaia. 

1  u.  Laiona  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  goddess  of  night ;  and  it  is  possible  that 
her  name  originated  in  this  Idea,  derived  from  A</«oj,  to  be  concealed,  as  nature  was 
buried  in  profound  darkness  before  the  bin  li  ot  the  Sun  and  Moon  or  Apollo  and  Diana. 

2.  She  is  usually  represented  as  a  large  and  comely  woman  with  a  black  veil,  so 
painted,  or  in  engraved  gems  expressed  by  a  dark-colored  vein  in  the  stone. 

§83.  (10)  Themis.  The  goddess  of  justice  (©sutj)  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Titanides,  or  daughters  of  Uranus  and  Titaea.  To  her  is 
ascribed  the  first  uttering  of  oracles,  and  also  the  first  introduction  of  saciifices 
into  GreM-e.  She  had  by  Jupiter  three  daughters,  Aixr,  Enoata,  and  'Eipjjvjj, 
which  were  commonly  called  the  Noras  ('Opcu),  who  are  represented  by  the 
poets  in  various  lights,  but  particularly  as  ooddesses  presiding  over  the  division 
and  distribution  of  time  (§  105).  Astraea  also  was  by  some  called  a  daughter 
of  Themis. 

1  u.  Astrcra  was  likewise  a  goddess  of  justice,  or  rather  of  property;  and,  according 
to  Ovid's  account  (Met.  i.  149),  was  the  last  ot  the  divinities  to  qui'  the  earth.  She 
was  placed  among  the  constellations  of  the  Zodiac  under  the  name  ol  Virgo,  anciently 
called  Erigone. 

2.  Aslripa,  who  acenrdins  to  some  was  the  daughter  of  Titan  and  Aurora,  was  represented 
(cf.  Aul.  Gell.  Noct.  Att  xiv.  4)  as  a  virgin  with  a  stern  countenance,  holding  in  one  hand  a  pair 
of  balances,  and  in  the  other  a  sword  or  scepter  or  a  long  iod  or  spear ;  thus  she  appears  in  the 
Snp.  Date  1>5,  drawn  from  an  engraved  gem. 

3  u.  There  was  still  another  goddess.  Nemesis,  Nr/irai?,  who  was  supposed  to  judge 
respecting  moral  anions,  and  to  exercise  vengeance  towards  unrighteousness.  She  was 
calied  Adrastia  sometimes,  from  the  circumstance  that  Adrastus  first  erected  a  temple 
to  her,  and  also  Rhamnusia  from  having  a  temple  at  Rhamnus  in  the  territory  of  Attica. 

4.  At  her  temple  in  Rhnninus  was  a  large  and  beautiful  statue,  ranked  among  the  best  wnrk3 
of  Phidias — In  Plate  XXXVI.  are  two  representations  cf  Nemesis,  from  ancient  gems ;  in  eac^ 
the  wheel  appears  at  her  feet;  in  one  she  has  wings,  and  holds  in  one  hand  a  branch  with  a 
ribin  attached  ;  in  the  ntbei  representation  she  holds  a  rod  or  scepter. 

See  Herder's  Zerslreuten  Blillern,  Saninil.  2.  p.  213. 

§  84.  (11)  JEsculupiwi.  In  proportion  as  men  in  the  early  ages  were  igno 
rant  of  the  efficacy  and  use  of  remedies  for  disease,'  there  was  the  greater  ad- 
miration of  those  who  were  distinguished  in  the  art  of  healing,  and  the  greater 
readiness  to  deify  them.  Hence  the  deification  of  ^Esculapius,  who  was 
viewed  as  the  god  of  Medicine,  and  said  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph 
Coronis1.  Hygeia,  the  goddess  of  health,  was  called  his  daughter,  and  two 
celebrated  physicians  belonging  to  the  age.  of  the  Trojan  war,  Machaon  and 
Fodalirius,  were  called  his  sons,  and  honored  like  him  after  their  death.  JEs- 
culapius  was  killed  with  a  thunderbolt  by  Jupiter,  at  the  request  of  Pluto.  His 
most  celebrated  grove  and  temple  was  at  Epidaurus2,  where  he  was  worshiped 
under  the  form  of  a  serpent. 

»  Ov.  Melim.  li   591. 1  Ov   Mel.  »v   622. 

1.  The  ruins  of  the  temple  at  Epidaurus  are  still  visible  at  the  place  now  called  Jero,  pro- 
nounced Yero,  a  corruption  perhaps  of  'Itpoi'  (sacra  wrfes).  There  weie  at  this  ancient  seat  of 
the  god  of  health  medical  springs  and  wells,  which  may  yet  be  traced. 

_'lar«'«  Travels,  part  ii.  seel.  2.  ch   iv.  —  F icret,  Culle  rendu  a  .Esculapius,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inser.  xxi.  2S. 

2  u.  The  serpent  was  usually  attached  as  a  symbol  to  the  image  of  this  god,  etthe 
free  or  wound  about  a  staff,  expressing  the  idea  of  health,  or  prudence  and  foresight. 


|19  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

3   In  Plate XIV  fi"  fi  JEseulapius  holds  in  one  hand  a  round  vase  or  patera,  from  w .lien  a 

nroeni  is  eating  '  In  the  Sup.  Plate  21,  he  is  seen  as  presented  in  an  ancieni  statue  del a  ted 

i„  Montlaiicon  :  on  his  left  is  the  trunk  uf  a  tree,  around  which  the  serpent  winds;  on  Ins  nirht 
stands  TeUspkorus   who  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  .Xsculapius,  and  was  considered  as  ihe  god  of 

eonvalea is;  Telesphorua  appears  here,  as  in  all  representations  ol  nun.  in  a  robe  covering 

his  arms  and  whole ly,  with  a  1 1  upon  Ins  head.    £3sculapius  and  Tclesphorus  appear  to- 
gether t im^  on  a i  of  t  'ai  ti  alia. 

I    Hygi  ia  may  be  considered  as  the  same  with  the  Roman  goddess  of  health,  Saltjs. 

Romans  honored  Salus  with  a  temple  and  festivals.     One  ol  the  city-gates,  being 

is  .-ailed  Porta  Salutaris.     She  was  represented  with  a  bowl  in 

hi  r  righi  hand  and  a  serpi  ni  in  her  left.     Her  altar  had  a  serpent  twining  round  it  and 

lifting  his.  head  upon  it. 

In  sup   Plate  21,  we  have  a  representation  or  Ilytreia  from  a  beautiful  stalue;  she  sits  on  a 

r,„  |t)  u  hi ,.  h  o>d  raised  and  holding  a  scepter,  and  the  other  holding  a  howl,  towards  wnich 

a  large  serpent  i>  advancing  his  head  over  her  lap. 

(12)  Plutus.  The  god  of  riches,  WJovtos,  was  probably  of  allegorical 
rather  than  mythical  origin,  since  his  name  in  Greek  is  but  the  common  term 
for  wraith.  His  father,  according  to  the  fable,  was  Jasion,  a  son  of  Jupiter  by 
Eleclra,  and  his  mother  was  Ceres,  who  gave  him  birth  in  a  beautiful  region  in 
i  ;rete-  Jupiter,  as  it  was  allegorically  represented,  deprived  him  of  sight,  and 
his  usual  residence  was  low  beneath  the  earth.  —  By  some  Plutus  is  considered 
as  the  same  personage  as  Pluto,  ruler  of  the  world  of  spirits,  and  this  may 
have  been  the  case. 

1  „.  It  is  nol  known  by  what  figure  he  was  visibly  represented.  Pausanias  barely 
remarks,  lhat  in  the  temple  of  Fortune  at  Thebes,  he  appeared  in  the  form  ol  an  infant 
in  the  arms  of  that  goddess,  and  at  Athens  the  goddess  of  Peace  held  him  as  an  infant 
in  her  arms. 

2.  "  Plutus  was  blind  and  lame,  injudicious,  and  mighty  timorous.  He  is  lame,  be- 
large  estates  come  slowly.  He  is  fearful  and  timorous,  because  rich  men  watch 
ihi  ir  treasures  with  a  great  deal  of  iear  and  care." 

§  86.  (13)  Fortune.  Of  a  like  allegorical  character  was  the  goddess  of  For- 
tune,  TvzWi  Fortuna,  to  whom  was  ascribed  the  distribution  and  the  superin- 
tendence of  prosperity  and  adversity  in  general.  Among  the  Greeks  she  had 
temples  at  Elis,  Corinth,  and  Smyrna;  and  in  Italy,  before  the  building  of 
Rome,  she  was  honored  at  Antium,  and  especially  at  Praeneste.  The  Romans 
made  her  worship  in  general  very  splendid,  and  gave  her  various  epithets  ori- 
ginating from  different  occasions;  as  Fortuna  Publica,  Equestris,  Bona,  Blanda, 
Virgo,  Vinlis,  Muliebris,  &c. 

1  ii.   In  the  temple  at  Antium  were  two  statues  of  Fortune,  which  were  consulted  as 
s,  and    gave   answer   by  winks  and   nods  of  the   head,  or  by  means  of  the  lot. 
ii  divinations  were  practiced  also  at  Praeneste,  where  her  temple  was  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  celebrated. 

Set  Hotact.  Odes,  t.  i.  od.  35.  (Ad  Fortunam).— Cf.  P.  III.  §  222. 

J.  "  The  goddess  of  Fortune  is  represented  on  ancient  monuments  with  a  horn  of 

and    si itimes  two   in  her   bain's,     She  is   blindfolded,  and  generally  holds  a 

wheel  in    her  hand  as  an   emblem  <>l  her  inconstancy.     Sometimes  she   appears  with 
and  tn  ids  upon  the  prow  of  a  ship,  and  holds  a  rudder  in  her  hands." 
Her  image  in  Plate  XI V.  tig  9,  is  taken  from  an  Imperial  coin;  in  her  left  hand  is  a  horn  of 
pleiily  ;  In-r  riL'ht  resis  upon  a  rudder ;  a  wheel  is  behind  her.    In  the  Sup.  Plate  18,  she  appears 
it  the  w  he<  I,  with  the  images  of  the  sun  and  moon  on  her  head. 

§  B7.  (11)  Fame.  The  goddess  styled  ^/.ir;,  or  Famn,  was  also  of  allego- 
rieal  origin.  Viroil  calls  her  the  youngest  daughter  of  Earth,  who  gave  birth 
tu  this  child,  in  revenge  for  the  overthrow  of  her  sons,  the  Giants;  in  order 
that  she  mighl  divulge  universally  the  scandalous  conduct  of  Jupiter  and  the 
other  muls.  She  had  a  place  in  the  Greek  Theogony,  and  was  honored  with  a 
temple  ai    Athens.     She  was  viewed  as  the  author  and  spreader  of  reports  both 

good  and  lead. 

1  c .  'I  he  poets  represented  her  as  having  wings,  always  awake,  always  flying  about, 
accompanied  by  vain  fear,  groundless  joy,  falsehood  and  credulity. 

CI   i',,.-    r.     It.  173.—00.  Met.  ill. 39. -Slat. Theb.  iii.  426. 

2  In  the  Sup  Plate  18,  Is  a  representation  of  Fame  with  her  wings  extended  as  just  ready  lo 
1v  with  her  linger  pointing  upwards. 

i      /•'  Vies  peculiar  to  the  Greeks.     Athough  generally  the  same  deities  were 

con, i i  to  ihe  Greeks  and  R ins^  each  nation  had  some  peculiar  to  itself.     These 

i  m  ihe  class  of  Inferior  Gods.     Those  peculiar  to  the  Greeks  were 


PH.  INFERIOR     GODS.       DEITIES    PECULIAR    TO    ROMANS.  119    . 

iess  numerous  and  important  than  those  peculiar  to  the  Romans  ;  and  nearly  all  of  them 
may  be  reduced  under  one  or  other  of  the  four  following  divisions. 

1.  Places,  rivers,  mountains,  &c,  personified.  Almost  every  important  city  was 
converted  into  a  goddess,  whose  image  was  placed  on  its  coins.  Almost  every  river  and 
Stream  also  was  made  into  a  god,  of  whom  some  fabulous  tale  was  related;  thus  Ah 
pkeus  is  said  ui  have  pursued  the  nymph  Arethusa  from  Greece  to  iSicily. 

2.  Eminent  personages  deified.  '1  he  most  important  of  the  deities  belonging  to  this 
division  would  come  under  the  class  denominated  Heroes  ;  although  many  of  them  are 
seldom  if  ever  thus  classed,  as  Orpheus,  Homer,  Trophonius,  &c. ;  besides  many  of 
later  times. 

3.  Virtues  and  vices  personified.  The  Greeks  did  not  carry  such  personifications  so 
far  as  the  Romans;  yet  imaginary  deities  were  thus  formed,  and  aliars  were  erecied  to 
them  in  Athens  and  other  cities.  Some  deified  among  the  Greeks  are  not  distinctly 
named  among  the  Romans;  e.  g.  Chance,  '  Avrojiaria ;  Voracity, 'A66n<payia;  Lust, 
under  the  name  of  Kdrurrtj,  Cotytto,  a  notorious  prostitute. 

4.  Particular  pursuits  and  conditions  of  life  ascribed  to  some  guardian  spirit.  Thus, 
'EpyniT)  designated  a  goddess  of  weaving,  distinct  from  Minerva,  to  whom  this  term  is 
applied.  'Ei'uw,  the  goddess  of  war,  nearly  corresponded  to  the  Roman  Bellona  ;  and 
Kw/<oj,  the  god  of  feasting,  and  Mco//oj,  the  god  of  jesting,  are  recognized  in  the  Latin 
Comus  and  Momus. 

§  89.  (16)  Deities  peculiar  to  the  Romans.  These  may  be  arranged  under  the  fol- 
lowing divisions: 

1.  Places,  rivers,  &c,  personified. — 2.  Pursuits  and  conditions  of  life  ascribed  to 
guardian  spirits. — 3.  Eminent  persons,  especially  emperors,  deified. — 4.  Virtues  and 
vices  personified. — 5.  Foreign  deities  introduced. 

§90.  Of  the  first  division,  Roma  and  Tiber  are  the  principal.  Roma  was  honored 
by  the  Romans  with  temples,  sacrifices,  and  annual  festivals,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
common  figures  on  their  medals. 

In  Plate  II.  is  a  splendid  representation  of  the  goddess  Roma,  from  a  painting  formerly  belong- 
ing to  the  Barherini  faintly.— In  the  same  Plate  is  given  also  a  representation  of  the  Tiber  as  * 
god. — For  similar  representations  of  Italy,  Judca,  l\ie  Danube,  Sec,  set'  PI.  XLII.;  cf.P.  IV.  J  139  2. 

§  91.  In  the  second,  various  rural  deities  are  particularly  to  be  noticed. 

1m.  Terminus.  In  order  to  express  and  render  still  more  sacred  the  rights  of 
property  and  the  obligations  of  fixed  boundaries  in  landed  possessions,  the  Romans  in- 
vented a  god,  who  had  it  for  his  peculiar  province  to  guard  and  protect  them,  called  Ter- 
minals. His  statue,  in  the  form  of  those  called  He rmce[,  was  employed  usually  to  mark 
the  limits  of  fields.  Numa  first  introduced  this  usage,  and  ordained  a  particular  festi- 
val, the  Terminalia,  which  was  celebrated  in  the  month  of  February  by  the  occupants 
and  proprietors  of  contiguous  iands2.  Upon  these  occasions  offerings  were  presented  to 
the  god  on  the  boundaries  or  separating  lines.  He  had  a  temple  on  the  Tarpeian  rock. 
— Oftentimes  the  statues  of  other  gods,  particularly  the  rural,  were  placed  in  the  form 
of  Henna,  to  mark  the  limits  of  landed  property,  and  Jupiter  himself  was  sometimes 
represented  under  the  name  of  Terminus,  or  received  the  epithet  Terminalis. 

»  See  5  56.  P.  IV.  §  164.  2. ^  Cf.  Ovid,  Fast.  ii.  639. 

2  w.  Priapus.  The  Romans  ranked  Priapns  among  the  deities  whose  province 
was  the  protection  of  fields  and  cultivated  grounds.  His  image  was  usually  placed  in 
gardens  (Hor.  1.  i.  sat.  8),  which  were  considered  as  more  particularly  his  care. 

Images  of  Priapns  were  sometimes  worn  as  a  sort  of  amulet  (fascinum)  to  guard  against  evil 
charms,  and  hung  upon  the  doors  of  houses  and  gardens.  The  god  whose  special  province  it 
was  to  prciterl  from  the  charm  of  the  evil  eye  was  named  Fascinus. — Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xix.  4. 
xxiv.  4— See  P.  III.  J  227.  3. 

Priapns  is  usually  represented  with  a  human  face  and  the  ears  of  a  goat ;  he  has  a  sickle  or 
scythe  to  prune  the  trees  and  cut  down  the  corn,  and  a  club  to  keep  off  thieves  ;  his  body  termi- 
nates in  a  shapeless  trunk. — An  ass  was  generally  sacrificed  to  him. 

Representations  of  Priapns  are  given  in  Plate  XLV.  and  in  the  Sup.  Plate  23.  In  the  latter, 
with  an  extended  arm  he  holds  a  bell  in  his  hand.  In  the  former,  which  is  from  a  large  anaglyph 
or  hiis-relief  given  by  Montfaucon  after  Bnissard,  we  may  observe  the  rites  practiced  at  the  fes- 
tival of  this  god.  It  is  celebrated  by  women  ;  two  priestessps  are  close  by  the  statue,  one  of 
whom  is  pouring  water  or  some  other  liquid  upon  the  image  from  a  hottle  ;  four  others  are 
encaged  in  sacrificing  an  ass  ;  behind  the  animal  stand  two  others  in  peculiar  costume,  one 
holding  apparently  a  sislrum,  the  other  a  bowl  or  round  vase;  on  the  left  of  the  statue  are  two 
women  plaj  ing  on  the  double  tibia,  and  others  hearing  baskets  of  fruit  and  flowers  and  vessels 
of  wine  ;  on  the  right  are  two  playing  on  the  tympanum,  one  dressed  like  a  bacchanal  with  a 
child  on  her  neck,  and  others  with  their  offerings  of  fruit,  flowers,  and  wine. 

3  u.  Vertumnus.  Under  this  name  an  old  Italian  prince,  who  probably  intro- 
duced the  art  of  gardening,  was  honored  after  deaih  as  a  god.  The  Romans  considered 
him  as  specially  presiding  over  the  fruit  of  trees.  His  wife  was  Pomona,  one  of  the 
Hamadryads  (cf  §  101).  a  goddess  of  gardens  and  fruits,  whose  love  he  gained  at  lasv 
after  changing  himself  into  many  forms,  from  which  circumstance  his  name  (Oi>.  Met. 
xiv.  623)  was  derived.  This  goddess  is  represented  on  some  monuments  of  ancient 
art,  and  is  designated  by  a  basket  of  fruit  placed  near  or  borne  by  her. 

Vertumnus  is  generally  represented  as  a  young  man,  crowned  with  flowers,  -.Dveieu  up  i» 


120  GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

the  waist   arid  holding  in  his  right  hand  fruit,  and  a  crown  of  plenty  in  the  left. "--In  the  Sup 
).,,,,   ■  is  in  his  left  hand,  and  the  fruit  in  his  right  ;  he  is  fully  draped,  with  (lie  head 

a  i,l  lee  nfa  swine  hanging  fr Ilia  Bhoulder    This  maj  be  supposed  to  correspond  to  his  statue 

iiientinm  d  bj  Cicero  iVerr.  i.)  and  by  Horace  (Epis.  20)  as  standing  in  a  street  of  Rome. 

I,,  ,i„.  .,,;,.  Plate  is  n  representati if  Pomunn,  from  an  ancient  niiment;  she  is  without 

drapery,  holding  a  (lower  in  one  hand  and  a  melon  in  the  other,  resting  against  the  trunk  of  a 
w  hich  a  basket  of  fruit  is  suspended. 

4  Mi  Flora.  The  Romans  had  also  a  particular  goddess  of  blossoms  and  flowers, 
whom  they  worshiped  under  the  name  ol  Flora.  She  is  said  to  have  been  the  same  as 
the  Grecian  r.ym|  although  others  maintain,  that  she  was  originally  ut  a 

Bui  this  goddess  seems  not  to  have  been  wholly  unknown  to  the 

Greeks,  -  Plinj     V  II    xxxvi   5)  speaks  of  a  statue  ot  her  made   by  Praxiteles. 

She  was  represented  as  very  youthful,  and  richly  adorned  with  flowers.     She  had  a 

A  and  games  at  Rome,  celebrated  {Ov.  Fast,  v- 283)  in  the  month  of  April,  called 

'/./.-  they  presented  seem  sol  unbounded  licentiousness. 

The  indecency  of  this  festival  was  checked  on  one  occasion  by  the  presence  of  C'ato.  who  chose 

however  to  retire  rather  than  witness  it  [VaUr.  Max   ii.  10).     By  some  the  festival  is  said  to 

have  I ii  instituted  in  honor  of  an  infamous  woman  by  the  name  of  Flora. 

1,,  oui  Plate  XIV.  fig.  5,  Flora  is  represented  with  a  garland  of  flowers  on  her  head,  and  a 
horn  of  plenty  on  hei  left  arm;  as  she  appears  in  several  antiques.  In  Sup  Plate  23,  she  is 
given  from  a  beautiful  statue,  once  at  Hume,  and  copied  by  Le  Brim  ;  not  however  identical 
H  ii'i  in,-  celebrated  Flora  Farnese  (cf  P.  IV.  #  186.  II). 

5  k.  Feronia.  Another  goddess  of  fruits,  nurseries,  and  groves,  among  the  Ro- 
mans,  wa    Fi  ronia.     She  had  a  very  rich  temple  on  Mount  Soracte,  where  also  was  a 

specially  sacred  to  her.  She  was  honored  as  the  patroness  of  enfranchised  slaves 
(p.  Ill  »  324),  who  ordinarily  received  their  liberty  in  her  temple.  It  was  pretended 
that  the  real  votaries  of  this  goddess  could  walk  unhurt  on  burning  coals.  Her  name 
was  derived  according  to  sunn  from  a  town,  called  Feronia,  near  Alt.  Soracte:  accord- 
ing to  others,  from  the  idea  of  her  bringing  relief  [fero)  to  the  slave;  or  from  that  of 
■  es,  or  causing  them  to  bear  fruit. 

6k.  Pales.  Another  goddess  of  the  same  class,  was  Pales  (from  pabulum),  to 
whom  was  assigned  the  care  oi  pasturage  and  ihe  feeding  of  flocks.  In  her  honor  a 
rural  festival  (Ov,  Fast.  iv.  721)  was  held  in  the  month  of  April,  called  Palilia  or 
Parilia. 

On  the  festival  of  Pales  the  shepherds  placed  little  heaps  of  straw  in  a  particular  order  and  at 
a  ci  rtain  distance  :  then  they  danced  and  .leaped  over  them  ;  then  they  purified  the  sheep  and 
the  rest  of  the  cattle  with  the  fume  of  rosemary,  laurel,  sulphur,  and  the  like.  The  design  was 
to  appease  the  goddess,  that  she  might  drive  away  the  wolves,  and  to  prevent  the  diseases  inci- 
dent to  cattle.  Milk,  and  wafers  made  of  millet,  were  offered  to  her.  that  she  might  render  the 
pastures  fruitful.     Pales  is  represented  as  an  old  lady,  surrounded  by  shepherds. 

7.  Numerous  other  rural  gods  and  goddesses  of  inferior  character  were  recognized 
by  the  Romans.  Among  the  minor  rural  goddesses,  we  find  Bubona,  having  the  care 
en;  Seia  or  Segetia,  having  the- care  of  seed  planted  in  the  earth;  Hippona,  pre- 
siding  over  horses ;  Collina,  goddess  oi  bills;  Vallonia,  empress  of  the  valleys ;  Run- 
vina,  the  goddess  of  weeding;  Volusia,  with  several  other  goddesses,  who  watch  over 
the  corn  in  its  successive  steps  to  maturity  {<■{'.  §  5.  3);  Mellona,  the  goddess  who  in- 
vented 'hi  arl  nf  making  honey.  Among  the  male  deities  of  the  same  class,  we  find 
Occator,  thi  god  oi  harrowing;  Stercutius,  the  inventor  of  manuring ;  and  JPUumnus, 
i  ntor  "i  the  arl  of  kneading  and  linking  bread. 

In  the  latter  period  of  the  Republic  and  during  the  first  ages  of  the  Empire, 
the  Roman  system  of  divinities  was  greatly  augmented.  Almost  ever)/  profession  and 
employm  ni  and  condition  in  life  bad  its  tutelar  timl  or  gods,  whose  names  thus  became 
innumerable,  but  who  never  obtained  a  universal  worship.  For  a  knowledge  of  these, 
we  are  mainly  indebted  to  the  writings  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  especially  Augustinus 
ivilali  Dei,\  iv.),  against  polytheism.  To  this  class  belong,  for  example,  Bellona-, 
the  goddess  of  war,  corresponding  in  some  degree  to  'Ei/uoi  among  the  Greeks  (§  46); 
Juturna,  the  goddess  ol  succor;  Anculi  and  Anculce,  deities  presiding  over  servants  ; 
Vacuna,  goddess  oi  leisure;  Strenua,  goddess  of  diligence ;  Laverna,  goddess  of 
'heft;  Cunina,  goddess  of  cradles,  &c. 

Mi  calted  into  deities.     Febris  (fever),  e.  g.  had  her  altars  and  temple,  and  was 

.vnrshiped  that  ^li>-  might  not  hurl;  and  so  of  others  of  this  species. — Mephitis  was  goddess  of 
■"\ a  exhalations.    '/'«<-.  Hist.  iii.  33. 

1  we  should  mention  Victoria,  a  deity  of  much  consideration  at  Rome. 

rin-  hall  ol  ihe  senate  was  ml, inn, I  by  her  altar,  and  a  statue  in  which  ^\w  appears  as 
'  a  in  i  tale,  standing  o  i  .i  globe,  with  flowing  garments,  expanded  wings,  anj 

n  crow  n  ut  laurel  in  her  out-stretched  hand."     The  senators  were  sworn  on  the  altar 
ol  tin  (observe  the  laws  of  the  empire.    A  contest  arose  between  the  pagans 

imil  tin-  Christians  on  this  subject,  the  latter  finally  effecting  the  removal  of  this  altai 
;if  Victory. 

Set/'  n.  Syn>tmchum,  cf.  P.  V.  §  387. 

In  ,iiir  Plate  XIV.  li>  10,  and  iu  the  Sup.  Plate  18,  Victory  is  seen  as  represented  in  the  statue 
mentioned  above. 


PLATE     XIV. 


]22  GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

?i  u.  D  eified  Emperors.  To  the  gods  already  mentioned,  we  may  add  those 
which  were  constituted  by  the  apoihisosis  of  'he  emperors  and  their  favorites.  Thus 
a  Caesar,  an  Augustus,  a  Claudius,  an  Antinous,  and  others,  were  elevated  to  the 
rank  ol  gods.  Sometimes  this  was  dour  in  their  lifetime  by  the  vilest  adulation,  but 
more  frequently  after  death,  in  order  to  (latter  their  descendants. 

Il  would  probably  be  as  proper  to  rank  the  deified  emperors  (cf.  $  133)  in  the  fourth  class  of 
our  division  Thej  should  be  mentioned  in  this  place,  however,  as  belonging  strictly  to  the 
number  of  ihe  Roman  divinities,  in  distinction  from  Greek. 

$  '.)">  u.  Virtues  and  Vices.     The  poets  were  accustomed  to  give  a  personal  re 

ntation  to  abstract  ideas,  especially  to  moral  qualities,  to  virtues  and  vices;  and 

in  this  way  originated  a  multitude  of  divinities  purely  allegorical,  which  were,  how- 

ever,  sometimes  mingled  with  the   mythological,  and  were  honored  with  temples, 

and   significant   images  and  symbols.     Such  were  Virtus,  Honor,  Pietas,  In- 

vidia,  i'rinis.  and  the  like. 

Virtus  was  worshiped  in  the  habit  of  an  elderly  woman  sitting  on  a  square  stone— The  tem- 
pt.- oi  Honor  stood  close  by  that  of  Virtus,  and  was  approached  by  it.  The  priests  sacrificed  to 
Honor  with  bare  heads. 

The  i pie  of  Fit!es  (good  faith)  stood  near  the  Capitol.    The  priests  in  sacrificing  to  her 

covered  their  hands  and  heads  with  a  while  cloth.     Her  symbol  was  a  white  dog,  or  two  hands 
joined,  ami  sometimes  two  virgins  shaking  hands. 

The  temple  of  Spes  (hope)  was  in  the  herb-market.  Her  image  is  on  some  of  the  coins.  She 
is  in  the  form  of  a  woman  standing,  with  her  left  band  holding  lightly  the  skirls  of  her  garments, 
and  in  her  right  a  plate,  with  a  sort  of  cup  on  i!  fa  shinned  to  the  likeness  of  a  flower ;  with  this 
inscription,  Si-es  P.  It.  Similar  to  this  is  her  appearance  in  Plate  XIV.  fig.  8,  drawn  from  a 
medal  of  TitUS. 

\  temple  to  Pietas  was  dedicated  in  the  place  where  that  woman  lived  who  fed  with  the  milk 
of  her  own  breasts  her  mother  in  prison.   Cf.  I'lin.  N.  H.  vii  c.  36. 

Concordia  had  many  altars.  Her  image  held  a  bowl  in  the  right  hand,  and  a  horn  of  plenty  iu 
the  left.  Such  is  her  appearance,  sitting  on  a  chair  of  state,  in  Plate  XIV.  fig.  11,  taken  from  a 
consular  coin      Her  symbol  was  two  hands  joined  together  and  a  pomegranate. 

In  the  later  periods  of  Rome,  Paz  had  a  very  magnificent  temple  in  the  Forum,  finished  by 
Vespasian.  The  goddess  of  peace  or  security  is  often  represented  on  Imperial  coins.  In  Plate 
XIV.  fig  12,  from  a  coin  of  Titus,  she  appears  as  a  woman  resting  on  a  column,  with  a  spike  of 
Wheal  in  the  lefi  hand,  and  a  scepter  like  the  w  and  of  Mercury  in  the  right,  held  over  a  tripod. 

Finns  was  represented  with  a  human  face  and  a  serpent's  body;  in  the  end  of  her  tail  was  a 
scorpion's  s  t  i  1 1  <_r . 

Invidie  >>  described  as  a  meager  skeleton,  dwelling  in  a  dark  and  gloomy  cave,  and  feeding  on 
snakes.    On.  Melam.  ii.  761. 

\>  \'i'<.  foreign  Gods.  It  is  proper  to  notice  here  some  Egyptian  deities,  whose 
worship  was  partially  introduced  at  Rome. 

1.  <  IsiRiS.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Jupiter  by  Niobe,  and  to  have  ruled 
first  over  the  Argives,  and  afterwards,  leaving  them,  to  have  become  an  illustrious 
kino  of  the  Egyptians.  His  wife  was  Isis,  who  is  by  many  said  to  be  the  same  with 
tin  In.  daughter  of  Inachus,  who  was  according  to  the  fables  changed  by  Jupiter  into 
a  cow.  i  Isiris  was  at  length  slain  by  Typhon,  and  his  corpse  concealed  in  a  chest  and 
thrown  into  the  Nile.  Isis,  after  much  search,  by  the  aid  of  keen-scented  dogs  found 
tin  body,  and  placed  it  in  a  monument  on  an  island  near  Memphis.  The  Egyptians 
paid  divine  honor  to  his  memory,  and  chose  the  ox  to  represent  him,  because  as  some 
say  a  lame  ox  appeared  to  them  alter  the  body  of  Osiris  was  interred,  or  according  to 
others,  because  Osiris  had  instructed  them  in  agriculture. 

Osiris  was  generally  represented  with  a  cap  on  his  head  like  a  mitre,  with  two  horns  ;  he  held 
H  sin  k  in  Ins  left  hand,  and  in  his  right  a  whip  with  three  thongs.  Sometimes  he  appears  with 
•In-  head  of  a  hawk. 

In  tin-  Sup.  Plate  26,  are  two  engravings  marked  as  representations  of  Osiris  The  first  is  ac- 
cording to  a  colossal  stalue,  dug  up  at  Rome,  and  taken  by  some  for  an  Isis.  The  second  is  from 
another  sculpture,  and  shows  the  hawk's  head.  In  Plate  XV.  he  is  seen  in  a  silting  posture  — 
Cf  Monlfaucon,  Ant.  Exp.  vol  2.  p.  '278,  290.— The  image  of  a  hatch  with  a  vessel  on  its  head,  and 
ihai  of  the  ibiu  with  a  serpent  in  its  bill,  have  been  taken  by  some  as  emblems  of  Osirisjsee 
Plate  VIII. 

2.  Isis.  She  was  the  wife  of  Osiris.  Io  after  her  metamorphosis  is  said,  after 
wandering  over  the  earth,  to  have  c e  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  there  she  was 

<  '1  io  the  form  of  a  woman.  She  reigned  alter  her  husband's  murder,  and  was 
deified  by  the  Egyptians.  The  cow  was  employed  as  her  symbol,  but  more  commonly 
tne  sisiruiii. 

Im-  i-  often  represented  as  holding  a  globe  in  her  hand,  with  a  vessel  full  of  ears  of  corn.  Her 
»od)  sometimes  nppears  enveloped  in  a  sort  of  net.  On  some  monuments  she  holds  in  her  lap  a 
child,  tier  son  lli.ru*.  who  is  also  ranked  among  the  deities  of  Egypt, 

In  the  Sup  Plate  26,  she  is  seen  holding  her  son.  on  whose  head  is  a  cap  surmounted  by  a 
Jiobe  ;  her  nwn  head  is  formed  into  thai  nfa  cow,  with  a  hawk  on  the  forehead,  surmounted  by 
1  singnlai  cap  Io  Plate  XV.  sin-  is  seen  as  represented  on  the  hiac  Table.  In  the  same  Plate 
II-  i  n-  i-  en  in  as  found  on  that  Table. 

Oriril  nn-l  frit  u  r.|  ling  the  ran  anil  111.-  moon.     Their  story  is  by  others  viewed  as  corresponding 

i  Venui  and  Adooii      '  i   Knight'i  Enquiry,  \  .)— Some  resemblances  have  been  pointed  cut  between  Isis  and  ha.  a  Jeitj 
the  Hindoo!   u  I  I'"".  .  god  ten  worshiped  among  the  northern  tribes  of  Europe  (cf.  Tac  Germ.  9).— See  Craaer'i  Symbolik. 

The  Egyotiana  had  numerous  festivals  which  were  connected  with  the  fables  re 


P.  II  INFERIOR    GODS.       FOREIGN    GODS.  123 

specting  Isis  and  Osiris.  The  chief  festival  adopted  by  the  Romans  was  termed  the 
lata;  which  lasted  nine  days,  and  was  attended  v\iih  such  licentiousness  as  to  he  at 
length  prohibited  by  the  senate. 

The  Fsiae  Table  is  a  curious  monument,  which  receives  its  name  from  its  being  supposed  tr 
represent  the  mysteries  of  Isis.  The  original  was  obtained  at  Rome,  A.  D  1525,  ami  came  after 
gome  time  into  the  cabinet  of  the  duke  of  Mantua,  where  it  remained  until  the  pillage  of  that 
city,  A.  1).  1630;  it  is  said  to  he  now  (I8:t9)  in  the  royal  gallery  at  Turin.  It  is  described  as  a 
tablet  of  copper  or  bronze,  "almost  four  feet  long,  and  of  pretty  near  the  same  breadth  ;"  and 
"covered  with  silver  mosaic,  skilfully  inlaid  ;"  "the  ground-work  being  a  black  enamel."  It 
is  divided  into  three  equal  compartments  by  two  horizontal  lines  of  hieroglyphics  ;  the  middle 
compartment  being  subdivided  by  two  perpendicular  lines  of  hieroglyphics  into  three  compart- 
ments, a  larger  one  in  the  center,  and  a  smaller  one  at  each  side  of  it.  The  five  compartments 
thus  formed  are  crowded  with  figures,  with  hierngly  phics  interspersed.  The  whole  is  surrounded 
by  a  border,  also  crowded  with  figures  and  hieroglyphics.  The  engravings  in  our  Plate  XV.  are 
ail  drawn  from  this  Table.  In  that  Plate  Isis  is  given  as  seen  in  the  center  of  the  Table,  silting 
in  a  splendid  gate-way. 

A  fine  engraving  of  the  whole  Tahle  with  some  explanation,  is  given  by  Montfaucon,  Ant.  Expl  vol.  ii.  p.  340,  as  cited  §  \Z.  2  (d). 
—It  is  given  also  in  Caulw,  Recueil  des  Anliquiles,  vol.  vii.  p.  34,  cited  P.  111.  §  13.  2  —  Cf.  Shuckfurd,  Sacr.  and  Prof.  Hist.  Con 
bk.  viii. — Encycl.  Ameri.  vol.  vii.  83.— Mayo,  Mythology,  vol.  ii.  >J. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  ruins  discovered  at  Pompeii,  is  a  Temple  of  his.  The  columns 
which  surrounded  it  are  almost  entirely  preserved.  The  temple  itself  was  entirely  built  of  nrick, 
and  on  the  outside  covered  with  a  very  solid  stucco.  It  had  the  form  of  a  square,  ami  was  not 
eovered,  but  was  surrounded  by  a  covered  gallery,  which  was  supported  by  columns,  and  served 
for  a  shelt'-r  in  bad  weather.  "  In  this  temple  have  been  found  all  the  instruments  which  apper- 
tain to  the  religious  ceremonies,  ami  even  the  skeletons  of  the  priests,  who  had  been  surprised 
unci  buried  by  the  shower  of  cinders  in  the  middle  of  the  occupations  of  their  ministry.  Theit 
vestments,  the  cinders  and  coals  on  the  altars,  the  candelabra,  lamps,  sistruins.  ihe  vases  which 
rontained  the  lustral  water,  patera;  employed  in  the  libations,  a  kind  of  kettle  to  preserve  the 
intestines  of  the  victims,  cushions  on  which  they  placed  the  sialue  of  the  goddess  Isis  when  they 
offered  sacrifices  to  her,  the  attributes  of  the  divinity  with  which  ilie  temple  was  adorned,  &c, 
are  still  shown.  Many  of  these  vases  have  the  figure  of  an  ibis,  of  a  hippopotamus,  of  a  lotus  ; 
and  what  renders  them  still  more  important,  they  were  found  exactly  in  the  situation  in  which 
they  were  used ,  so  that  there  can  now  be  no  doubt  as  to  their  reality  and  lheir  use.  The  walls 
of  Ihe  temple  were  adorned  with  paintings,  relating  to  the  worship  of  the  goddess;  there  were 
figures  of  priests  in  the  costume  of  their  order  :  their  vestments  were  of  white  linen,  the  heads 
of  the  officiating  priests  were  shaved,  their  feet  covered  with  a  fine  thin  lace,  through  which  the 
muscles  might  be  distinguished."    Stuart,  Diet,  of  Architecture,  article  Pompeii. 

3.  Apis.  This  is  the  name  of  the  ox  in  which  ( Isiris  was  supposed  to  reside,  rather 
than  a  distinct  deity.  The  ox  thus  honored  was  known  by  certain  marks;  his  body 
was  all  black,  excepting  a  square  spot  of  white  on  his  forehead,  and  a  white  crescent 
or  sort  of  half-moon  on  his  right  side  ;  on  his  back  was  the  figure  of  an  eagle  ;  under 
his  tongue  a  sort  of  knot  resembling  a  beetle  (cant hams);  and  two  sorts  of  hair  upon 
his  tail.  This  ox  was  permitted  to  live  twenty-five  years.  His  body  was  then  em- 
balmed, placed  in  a  chest,  or  "Zopis,  and  buried  with  many  solemnities.  A  season  of 
mourning  then  followed,  until  a  new  Apis,  or  ox  properly  marked,  was  brought  to 
sight. — It  is  a  curious  fact  that  Belzoni,  who  succeeded  in  finding  an  entrance  into  the 
second  of  ihe  great  pyramids  of  Egypt,  found  in  the  corner  of  a  large  and  high  cham- 
ber in  the  interior  of  the  pyramid  a  Sopd;,  which,  on  being  carefully  opened,  presented 
the  bones  of  an  ox. 

Mnf.vis  is  the  name  of  the  sacred  ox  consecrated  to  the  Sun,  and  worshiped  espe 
cially  at  Heliopolis.     He  is  described  as  being  white. 

In  Plate  XV.  are  two  representations,  from  the  Isiac  Tahle,  supposed  to  be  Jipis  and  Mnevis, 
each  is  attended  by  two  priests  ;  under  the  head  of  each  is  a  standard  supporting  something, 
perhaps  the  eating-trough  of  the  sacred  animal. 

Cf  Land.  Quart.  Rev.  x'tx.  201.— Banitr.  L'Orig.  du  culte  que  les  Egyptiens  rendoient  aux  aniinaux,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Imcr 
iii.  84.— Also  Blanchard,  Des  ammaux  rejpectes  en  Egypte,  in  the  Mem.  tyc.  ix.  20.— Prichard,  as  cited  §  12.  2  (  f ). 

4.  Serapis.  This  was  one  of  the  Egyptian  deities,  considered  by  some  to  be  the 
same  with  Osiris.  Magnificent  temples,  generally  called  Serapea,  were  erected  to  him 
at  Memphis,  Canopus,  and  Alexandria.  Tacitus  relates  a  marvelous  tide  oi  the  re- 
moval of  an  effigy  of  this  god  from  Sinope,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Pontus  Euxi- 
nus,  to  Alexandria.  The  worship  of  the  god  existed,  however,  in  Egypt  at  a  much 
earlier  period.  The  mysteries  of  Serapis  were  introduced  at  Rome  under  the  eni- 
perors,  but  soon  abolished  on  account  of  their  licentiousness. — Some  derive  the  name 
from  5>«ij  and  "Art;,  as  having  signified  at  first  merely  the  chest  or  box  in  which  the 
body  of  Apis  was  deposited. 

In  the  Sup.  Plate  2t,  we  have  a  verv  remarkable  statue  at  Serapis;  resembling  as  to  the  form 
of  the  body  that  of  Cyhele  in  Sup.  Plate  5,  and  that  of  Diana  Ephesia  in  Sun.  Plate  16;  around 
the  body  twines  a  huge  serpent,  whose  tail  is  grasped  in  the  hand  of  Serapis,  while  the  head 
appears  at  his  feet;  on  the  portions  between  the  folds  of  the  serpent  are  various  figures  of  per- 
sons and  animals.— In  the  Sup.  Plate  2r>.  we  have  another,  more  in  the  Roman  style;  Serapis 
sits,  in  full  drapery,  with  sandals  on  his  feet  ;  one  arm  raised  in  earnest  action  ;  given  by  Mont- 
faucon  as  belonging  to  the  cabinet  of  Fauvel.  In  the  same  Plate  is  another  representation  front 
an  AWains  (cf.  P   IV.  J  ''00.  2) ;    he  holds  a  spear  in  his  right  hand,  a'  d  points  upward  with  the. 

other;  a  Cerberus  stands  at  bis  side. In  all  these  images  we  notice  the  face  and  beard  of  a 

Jupiter,  and  also  the  calatkus  or  basket  on  the  head  which  is  the  mark  of  Serapis. 


J  24  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some,  and  the  notion  is  adopted  by  Dr  E.  D.  Clarke,  that  the  Egyptian  Apis  was  a  symbol  of  Joseph  ;  an! 
hat  the  various  legends  connected  with  the  worship  of  this  god  grew  out  of  the  history  of  th.U  patriarch.— Cf.  Vouiui,  de  Theologu 
Gentili.    Amst.  1642.— Clarke,  Travels,  P.  ii.  sect.  2.  ch.  5. 

5.  Anubis.  This  was  another  deity  connected  in  fable  with  Osiris.  He  was  said 
to  be  the  son  of  Osiris  and  to  have  accompanied  Isis  in  her  search  after  her  husband. 
II,  is  ri  pn  ii  nted  as  having  the  head  of  a  dog.  He  is  also  called  Hermanubis  ;  or,  as 
othi  rs  say.  the  latter  is  the  name  of  another  deity  of  a  similar  character. 

He  appears,  to  be  represented  in  the  monument  exhibited  in  our  Plate  XVIII.  fig.  B.  Cf 
$  34.  '1  -  In  the  Sup.  Plate  27,  we  have  images  of  Anubis.  The  first  is  from  a  piece  of  inarbli 
sculpture  given  by  Montfaucon  from  Boissard;  lie  stands  with  one  foot  on  a  crocodile,  holding 
in  Ins  left  hand  a  caduceus,  and  in  the  rii:ht  a  short  rod  attached  to  a  globe  ;  by  bis  bead  on  out 

side  is  a  palm  lent",  mi  ii ther  a  laurel -branch ;  on  his  right  is  seen  also  the  head  of  Serapis, 

m  his  loft  that  ot  Apis,  from  which  circumstance  the  inscription  on  the  original  monument, 
6EOI  VAIIA'MM.  is  supposed  to  designate  Serapis,  Apis,  and  Anubis.  The  other  image  in  this 
is  drawn  from  an  engraved  gem;  presenting  Anubis  with  the  Roman  coat  of  mail  and  a 
bow  and  arrow. 

Cl  mii  i  i'ii  his  is  by  some  considered  to  be  the  same  as  Anubis;  but  this  name  in  Egyptian 
•n\  i  hology  merely  designates  the  dog  as  converted  into  a  divinity.  The  term  ( 'ynocephali  is  ap* 
plied  by  Greek  writers  to  a  rue  of  beings  said  to  exist  in  Asia  (I)md.  Sic.  iii.  34).  The  image  in 
Sup.  Plate  27,  is  given  by  Montfaucon,  under  the  name  of  Cercopuliecvs,  as  being  the  nionkey- 
gori  of  Eeypt, 

.'Et. i  his  designates  tlie  cat,  as  deified  by  the  Egyptians,  and  especially  honored  at  Bubastis; 
whence  the  name  Diana  Bubastis,  applied  to  the  same  animal.  Their  images  are  given  in 
Sup.  Plate  27. 

i,.  Hakpocrates.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Horus,  son  of  Isis,  and  was 
worshiped  as  the  god  of  Silence.  He  was  much  honored  among  the  Romans,  who 
placed  liis  statues  at  the  entrance  of  their  temples.  He  was  usually  represented  in 
the  figure  of  a  boy,  crowned  with  an  Egyptian  mitre,  which  ended  at  the  points  as  it 
wiir  in  two  buds  ;  in  his  left  hand  he  held  a  horn  of  plenty,  while  a  finger  of  his  right 
hand  was  fixed  upon  his  lips  to  command  silence  and  secrecy. 

Cf.  Porphyry,  Cave  of  Nymphs  (cf.  P.  V.  §  199.  2).— Class  Juurn.  iii.  142.— Mon$ez,  Recueil  des  Antiques.     Par.  1S04.  4. 

In  Plate  XL VII.  fig.  1.  from  an  Abraxas,  we  have  Harpocrates  sitting  on  the  lotus  flower;  cf.  P. 
IV.  $  198.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  25,  the  first  image  of  Harpocrates  presents  him  with  a  singular 
head-covering,  from  which  a  large  horn  descends  below  the  shoulder.  The  second  is  remark- 
aide.  In  cause  he  has  the  wing  hi'  Mercury,  the  panther-skin  of  Bacchus,  the  owl  of  Minerva,  the 
hound  of  Diana,  the  serpent  of  jEsculapius,  together  with  the  born  of  plenty. 

7.  Ca.\opus.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  pilot  or  admiral  of  the  fleet  of  Osiris  m 
his  expedition  to  India.  In  the  Egyptian  mythology  he  seems  to  be  the  god  of  the 
waters  ut  the  Nile. 

Nearly  all  the  representations  of  him  are  formed  by  the  head  of  a  person  or  animal  appearing 
at  the  lop  of  one  of  those  tiases  in  which  the  Egyptians  kept  the  waters  of  that  river;  the  body 
of  the  vase  is  frequently  covered  with  hieroglyphics.  Two  such  representations  are  given  in 
our  Plate  VIII. 


III. — Mythical  Beings,  whose  history  is  intimately  connected  with  thai  of  the 

gods. 

§  97.  (1)  Titans  and  Giants.  The  enterprises  of  the  Titans  are  celebrated  in 
the  ancieni  fables  of  the  Greeks.  They  have  already  been  mentioned  in  the 
account  of  Saturn  (§  14),  to  whom  they  were  brothers,  being  generally  con- 
sid<  red  as  sons  of  Uranus  or  CcrIus  and  Titaea.  The  oldest  was  called  Titan, 
ami  from  him,  or  their  mother,  they  derived  their  common  name.  The  preva- 
lent tradition  assigned  to  Uranus  live  suns  besides  Saturn,  viz.  Hyperion,  Coeus, 
Japetus,  Orius,  and  Oceanus j  and  likewise  five  daughters  besides  Rhea,  wife 
of  Saturn,  viz.  Themis,  Mnemosyne,  Thya,  Phcebe,  and  Tethys, called  Titanides. 
On  account  of  their  rebellion  against  Uranus,  in  which  however  Saturn  and 
Oceanus  took  no  part,  the  Titans  wen  hurled  by  their  father  down  to  Tartarus, 
whence  they  were  set  free  by  the  -aid  of  Saturn.  With  Saturn  also  they  after- 
wards contested  tin-  throne,  but  unsuccessfully.  The  Cyclops,  mentioned  in 
Bpeaking  of  Vulcan  (§  52),  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Titans. 

'flu1  number  oi  the  'I  itans  is  given  variously  ;  Apollodorus  mentions  13,  Hyginus  >■ 
'I'Ih'  number  oi  15  is  stated  by  some. The  name  of  one  of  them,  Japetus,  is  strik- 
ingly similar  to  Japhet,  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  whose  descendants  peopled  Europe- 
and  ii  is  remarkable  thai  in  the  ( rreek  traditions  Japetus  is  called  the  facher  of  man 
''•"/      8itm<    have   considered   the  Titans  as  the  descendants  oi  Goiner,  the  son  c^ 


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P.  II.  MYTHICAL     BEINGS.       GIANTS.       TRITONS.       SIRENS.  125 

Japhet1. — They  have  also  been  supposed  to  be  the  Cushitcs,  or  descendants  oJ  Cush2, 
and  the  builders  of  the  tower  of  Babel.— Others  think  them  merely  personifications 
of  the  elements3;  and  suppose  their  fabled  war  with  their  father  (Jcelus,  or  against 
Saturn,  an  allegorical  representation  of  a  war  of  the  elements. 

Hesiod's  Baffle  of  the  Titans  is  ofien  named  as  a  remarkable  specimen  of  sublimity. 
It  will  be  interesting  to  compare1  it  with  Homer's  Battle  of  the  Gods,  and  Milton's 
Baffle  of  the  Angels. 

'  Cf.  Pezrun,  Anlkjuil  des  Celles. »  Bryant,  Analys.  of  Ancient  Mythology. 3  cf.  Hermann,  Briefe  uber  das  Wesen  der 

Mythologie. *  Compare  Hum.  II   xx.  54  ss.     Hes.  Theog.  674  ss      Mitt.  Farad.  Lost,  vi. 

§  98.  The  Giants  were  a  distinct  class,  although  their  name  (ytya?,  from  yjj 
and  yhto)  designates  them  as  sons  of  Earth,  or  Gaia,  who  gave  them  birth,  after 
the  defeat  of  the  Titans  by  Jupiter,  and  out  of  vengeance  against  him.  The 
most  famous  of  them  were  Enceladus,  Hakynneus,  Typhon,  JEgeon,  Ephialtes, 
and  Otus.  According  to  the  common  description,  they  had  bodies  of  extra- 
ordinary size  and  strength,  some  of  them  with  a  hundred  hands,  and  with 
dragon's  feet,  or  serpents  instead  of  legs.  Their  most  celebrated  undertaking 
was  the  storming  of  Olympus1,  the  residence  of  Jupiter  and  the  other  gods 
In  order  to  scale  this  summit,  they  heaped  mountain  upon  mountain,  as  (Eta 
Pelion,  Ossa,  and  others.  But  Jupiter  smote  them  with  his  thunderbolts, 
precipitated  some  of  them  to  Tartarus,  and  buried  others  beneath  the  moun- 
tains. Typhon  or  Typhceus,  for  instance,  he  pressed  down  with  the  weight  of 
iEtna2,  under  which,  according  to  the  fable,  the  giant  constantly  strives  to  lift 
himself  up,  and  pours  from  his  mouth  torrents  of  flame. 

i  Ov.  Melam.  i.  151. 2  Ov.  Met.  v.  346 .— Claud  Gigantomach.— Pind  Pyth.  i.  31.— Mem  de  flnstitut,  Classe  d'Hist.  el  Lit. 

Anc.  vol.  vii.  98.  sur  la  nature  allegorique  des  centi  manes,  &c— Battier,  sur  Typhon,  in  the  Mem'  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  iii.  p.  116. 

1.  JEgeon  or  Briareus  was  another  giant,  eminent  in  the  contest,  with  fifty  heads 
and  a  hundred  hands.  He  hurled  against  Jupiter  a  hundred  huge  rocks  at  a  single 
throw;  but  Jupiter  bounu  him  also  under  y£tna,  with  a  hundred  chains. — This  story 
of  the  war  between  the  Giants  and  Jupiter  is  also  explained  by  some  as  an  allegori- 
cal representation  of  some  great  struggle  in  nature  which  took  place  in  early  times. 
This  contest  is  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Titans,  who,  although  often  con- 
founded with  the  Giants,  were  a  distinct  class. 

2.  Orion  is  by  some  also  placed  among  the  giants  as  a  son  of  Gnia  or  Terra ;  yet 
the  more  common  fable  ascribes  his  origin  to  the  joint  agency  of  Jupiter,  Mercury, 
and  Neptune;  according  to  which  some  derive  his  name  from  the  Greek  word  ofipov 
(urina).  He  was  ranked  among  the  attendants  of  Diana,  and  after  his  death  his  name 
was  given  to  a  constellation. 

See  Francceur,  as  cited  §  1 17  (  f ). — De  Fourmont,  Le  fab.  d'Orion,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xiv.  16.  attempting  to  show  a  con. 
nection  of  the  fable  with  the  story  of  Isaac  the  son  of  Abraham. 

3.  The  Pygmies  of  the  ancients  were  fabulous  beings,  of  very  diminutive  size,  supposed  by 
some  to  dwell  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  ;  by  others,  in  Thrace  and  Scythia  ;  and  by  others,  in  India. 

Cf.  Ov.  Met.  vi.  90.— Pirn.  Hist.  Nat.  vii.  2.—Heyne,  on  Horn.  II  iii.  6.—Heeren,  Ideen,  vol.  i.  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  171  —Malta- 
Brttti,  in  the  Aimalcs  des  Voyages,  vol.  i.  p.  355.— Banter,  Lea  Pygmees,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  v.  p.  101. — Calmet,  as  cited 
P.  I.  §  168  b.  vol.  iii.  p.  1 13. — 4.  IV.  Zwergius,  De  Pygm;eis  JEtn  opia;.     Kil.  1724.  4. 

§  99.  Tritons  and  Sirens.  Triton  has  already  been  mentioned  (§  29)  as  a 
son  of  Neptune  and  Amphitrite.  From  him,  as  most  famous,  the  other  various 
deities  of  the  sea  derived  the  name  of  Tritons.  They  were  represented,  like 
him,  as  half  man  and  half  fish,  with  the  whole  body  covered  with  scales. 
They  usually  formed  the  retinue  of  Neptune,  whose  approach  Triton  himself 
announced  by  blowing  his  horn,  which  was  a  large  conch  or  sea  shell. 

A  Triton  is  usually  represented  with  the  form  of  a  man  in  the  upper  part,  and  the  form  of  a 
fsh  in  the  lower.  Sometimes  the  head  of  the  fish  is  also  retained;  as  in  the  Sup.  Plate  19,  from 
a  sculpture  given  by  Montfaucon  ;  where  Triton  is  seen  bearing  perhaps  a  Nereid,  or  more  pro- 
bably Venus  Marina,  since  the  figure  at  the  tight  appears  to  be  a  Cupid.  In  Plate  XLIII.  Triton 
is  announcing  with  his  horn  the  approach  of  Neptune. — Cf.  Ov.  Met.  i.  333. —  Virg.  iEn.  x,  209. 

There  were  other  minor  divinities  of  the  sea  under  Neptune  ;  but  Triton  seems  to 
have  had  the  pre-eminence,  and  under  Neptune  a  sort  of  control  among  them.  Phor- 
cus,  Proteus,  and  Glaucus  have  been  already  mentioned  (§  29).  Nereus  was  ranked 
among  them  as  a  son  of  Oceanus,  and  the  father  of  the  Nereides.  Ino  and  her  son 
Palaemon  or  Melicertes,  are  also  said  to  have  been  admitted  by  Neptunt  as  gods  of 
his  retinue.  Palasmon  is  thought  to  be  the  same  with  Forlumnus,  whom  the  Romans 
worshiped  as  the  guardian  of  harbors. 

§  100.  The  Sirens  were  a  sort  of  sea-goddesses,  said  by  some  to  be  two  in 
number,  by  others,  three,  and  even  four.  Homer  mentions  but  two1,  and  de- 
scribes them  as  virgins,  dwelling  upon  an  island,  and  detaining  with  them  ev^ry 


[26  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

voyager,  who  was  allured  thither  by  their  captivating-  music.  They  wou.d 
h  ivi  decoyed  even  Ulysses,  on  his  return  to  Ithaca,  but  were  not  permitted. — 
By  others  they  were  described  as  daughters  of  the  river-god  Achelous,  *-. n«i 
companions  of  Proserpine,  after  whose  seizure  they  were  changed  into  birds2, 
that  they  might  fly  in  search  of  her.  In  an  unhappy  contest  with  the  Muses 
in  singing,  they  Inst  their  wings  as  a  punishment  of  their  emulation.  Other" 
make  them  sea-nymphs,  with  a  form  similar  to  that  of  the  Tritons,  with  the 
races  of  women  and  the  bodies  of  flying  fish.  The  artists  generally  represent 
them  as  virgins,  either  not  at  all  disfigured,  or  appearing  partly  as  birds. 

i  //  ,n  (M  *ii.  30   166. »  Oil.  Met  v.  552. 

Their  tabled  residence  was  placed  by  some  on  an  island  near  cape  Pelorus  in  Sicily; 
by  others,  on  the  islands  or  rocks  called  Sirennusa?,  not  far  from  the  promontory  of 
Surrentum  on  the  coast  of  Italy. — Various  explanations  of  the  fable  of  the  Sirens  have 
been  given.  It  is  commonly  considered  as  signifying  the  dangers  of  indulgence  in 
pleasure. 

§  101.  (3)  Nymphs.  The  Nymphs  of  ancient  fiction  were  viewed  as  holding 
a  sort  of  intermediate  place  between  men  and  gods,  as  to  the  duration  of  life; 
not  being  absolutely  immortal,  yet  living  a  vast  length  of  time.  Oceanus  was 
considered  as  their  common  father,  although  the  descent  of  different  nymphs  is 
given  differently.  Their  usual  residence  was  in  grottoes  or  water-caves,  from 
a  hich  circumstance  they  received  their  name,  Nv/u<bou.  Their  particular  offices 
were  different,  and  they  were  distinguished  by  various  names  according  to  the 
several  objects  of  their  patronage,  or  the  regions  in  which  they  chiefly  resided. 

1  ii.  Thus  there  were  the  Oreades,  or  nymphs  of  the  mountains  ;  Naiades,  Nercidrs 
(cf.  l}  '29),  and  Potamides,  nymphs  of  the  fountains,  seas,  and  rivers  ;  Dryades  and 
Hamadryades,  nymphs  of  the  woods  ;  Napace,  nymphs  of  the  vales,  &,c.  The  Dryads 
weiv  distinguished  from  the  Hamadryads  (Spa  Apvs)  in  this,  that  the  latter  were  sup- 
posed to  be  attached  to  some  particular  tree,  along  with  which  they  came  into  being, 
lived  and  died  ;  while  the  former  had  the  care  of  the  woods  and  trees  in  general. 

2.  Places  consecrated  to  these  imaginary  beings  were  called  ISivpipaTa.  Such  was 
the  celebrated  spot  in  the  vicinity  of  Apollonia,  famous  for  its  oracle  and  the  fire  which 
was  seen  to  issue  constantly  from  the  ground  (Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  xxiv.  7).  Such  was 
the  place  and  building  at  Rome  which  was  called  Nymphaum,  adorned  with  statues 
of  the  nymphs,  and  abounding,  it  is  said,  with  fountains  and  waterfalls.  Festivals 
were  held  in  honor  of  the  nymphs,  whose  number  has  been  stated  as  above  3000. 

See  Fonlenu,  Lr  Cube  Jes  divinites  d«  eaux,  in  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xii.  27.— Cf.  Land  Quart.  Rev.  xvii-  192. 

They  were  generally  represented  as  young  and  beautiful  virgins,  partially  covered  with  a  veil 
or  thin  cloth,  bearing  in  l tie i r  hands  vases  of  water,  or  shells,  leaves,  or  grass,  or  having  some- 
thing as  a  symbol  of  I  heir  appropriate  offices.  The  several  gods  are  represented,  more  or  less 
frequently,  as  attended  l>y  nymphs  of  some  class  or  oilier ;  especially  Neptune,  Diana,  and  Bac- 
chus. Under  the  term  of  nymphs,  were  sometimes  included  the  imaginary  spirits  that  guided 
thf  heavenly  spin-res  and  constellations,  and  dispensed  the  influences  of  the  stars  ;  the  nymphs 
being  distributed  by  sonic1  mythologists  into  three  classes,  those  of  the  sky,  the  lu/id,  and  the  sea. 

In  Plate  XI. Ill  Nymphs  are  seen  accompanying  Neptune  and  Amphitrite  — In  the  Sup.  Plate 
19,  we  have  a  Nereid  upon  a  sea-monster  which  seems  to  consist  of  the  lower  part  of  a  fish  united 
with  tin  heads  of  two  horses,  which  she  guides  by  reins  ;  one  horse  has  two  fins  or  wings  instead 
of  the  two  fore  feet  ;  from  a  gem  of  Maffei.  In  some  representations,  the  Nereid  appears  a  woman 
with  the  lower  part  of  the  body  in  the  form  of  a  fish,  thus  exhibiting  the  mermaid. 

§  102.  (-1)  Muses.  The  ancients  were  not  content  with  having  in  their  fic- 
tions a  god  of  science  and  a  goddess  of  wisdom  in  general ;  but  assigned  to 
particular  branches  of  knowledge  and  art  their  appropriate  tutelary  spirits  ol 
guardian  divinities,  whom  they  called  Muses,  Moroai,  and  considered  as  the 
daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne.  They  were  nine  in  number,  according 
to  the  common  account,  with  Greek  names,  as  follows  :  KXftw  (Illustrious), 
Ka/vio.-tr  (Fair-voice),  Mstoofiivq  (Singing),  ©aXsia  (Gay),  'Eparw  (Loving), 
'Y.vTf)>7ir  (Well-pleasing),  Tfp^i^opt?  (Dance-loving),  IloJivjwvia  (Songful),  and 
'Ovpavia  (Celestial). 

The  Romans  termed  them  Camama.  They  were  frequently  called  by  common  names,  derived 
roni  places  Bacred  to  them,  or  from  other  circumstances,  as  Pierid.es,  from  Pieria,  Aunidet,,  HWt- 
toniadee,  farnassides,  Hippocrenides,  Castalides,  &c. 

'■:  103m.  fn  order  to  represent  the  Muses  as  excelling  in  their  several  arts,  espp- 
1 1  dly  in  music  and  song,  the  poets  imagined  various  contests  held  by  them;  as,  for 
example,  with  the  Sirens,  and  the  daughters  of  Pierus1,  in  which  the  Muses  always 
gainer  (he  prize.  They  were  described  as  remaining  virgins,  and  as  being  under  the 
.n-tr'i<".'on  and  protection  of  Apollo.     Their  usual  residence  was  Mt.  Helicon,  where 


P.  II.  MYTHICAL     BEINGS.       GRACES.       HORJE.        FATES.  YVJ 

was  tne  fountain  Hippocrene,  and  Mt.  Parnassus,  where  was  the  fountain  Custalia  ; 
the  former  in  H^eolia;  the  latter  near  Delphi-  in  I'hocis.  Mt.  Pindus  and  Mt.  1'ienis 
in  Thessaly  were  also  sacred  to  the  Muses.  Particular  temples  were  also  consecraud 
to  them  among  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans.  Festivals  in  their  honor  were  instituted 
in  several  parts  of  Greece3,  especially  among  the  Thespians.  The  Macedonians 
observed  a  f  stival  for  Jupiter  and  the  Muses,  which  was  continued  nine  days. 

«  On   Met.  v.  300. 2  See  View  of  Delphi  and  Parnassus  forming  the  Frontispiece  to  this  Manual. s  See  Hcyne,  de  Musr 

religione,  ejusq.  orig.  et  causis  in  Comment.  Soc  reg.  Gottiug.  vol.  viii. 

The  Muses  are  usually  represented  as  virgins  with  ornamented  dresses,  and  crowned  with 
palms  or  laurels  "According  to  the  best  authorities,  Ci.lo,  History,  holds  in  her  hand  a  half- 
opened  scroll  ;  Melpomene,  Tragedy,  is  veiled,  and  leans  upon  a  pillar,  holding  in  her  left  hand 
a  tragic  niisk  ;  Thalia,  Comedy,  holds  in  one  hand  a  comic  mask,  in  the  other  a  staff  resembling 
a  lituus  or  augur's  wand  ;  Euterpe,  Music,  holds  two  flutes  or  pipes  ;  Terpsichore,  the  Dance, 
is  represented  in  a  dancing  attitude,  and  plays  upon  a  seven-stringed  lyre  ;  Erato,  Jlmatory 
Poetry,  holds  a  nine-sl ringed  instrument ;  Calliope,  Epic  Poetry,  has  a  roil  of  parchment  in  her 
hand,  and  sometimes  a  straight  trumpet  or  tuba  ;  Urania,  Astronomy,  holds  in  her  left  hand  a 
globe;  in  her  right  a  rod,  with  which  she  appears  to  point  out  some  object  to  the  beholder: 
Polyhymnia,  Eloquence  and  Imitation,  places  the  fore-finger  of  the  right  hand  upon  her  mouth, 
or  else  bears  a  scroll  in  her  hand."  (Jlnthon's  Lemp  ) — Generally  accordant  with  this  descrip- 
tion, yet  in  some  respects  different,  are  the  figures  in  our  Plate  XXXIX.  ;  where  the  Muses  are 
represented  as  seen  in  the  statues  belonging  to  the  collection  of  Christina  queen  of  Sweden,  and 
described  by  Matfei.  —  A  valuable  monument,  to  guide  the  critic  and  artist  in  distinguishing  the 
Muses,  is  a  bas-relief  on  a  sarcophagus  in  the  Capitoline  gallery  at  Rome,  in  which  the  nine  are 
reprnsented. 

"  The  Muses  are  often  painted  with  their  hands  joined  dancing  in  a  ring  ;  in  the  middle  of 
them  sits  Apollo,  their  commander  and  prince.  The  pencil  of  nature  described  them  in  that 
manner  upon  the  agate  which  Pyrrhus,  who  made  war  upon  the  Romans,  wore  in  a  ring;  for  in 
it  was  a  representation  of  the  nine  muses,  and  Apollo  holding  a  harp  ;  and  these  figures  were 
not  delineated  by  art  (Piui.  L.  xxxvii.  c.  1),  but  by  the  spontaneous  handy-work  of  nature." 
{Tooke's  Panlh.) 

For  various  represen'ations  of  the  Muses,  see  Montfaucan,  Ant.  Exp.  vol.  i.  plates  56-62.— Museum  Pio-Clcmentinum,  vol.  i. 
nlites  17-28.  vol.  iv.  plates  14,  15. 

§  104.  (5)  The  Graces  and  the  Hours.  To  the  retinue  of  Venus  belonged 
the  Graces,  Xapirf?,  Gratise,  servants  and  companions  of  the  goddess,  diffusing 
charms  and  gladness.  They  were  said  to  be  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Eury- 
nome,  or  according  to  others  of  Bacchus  and  Venus  herself,  and  were  three  in 
number,  'AyXoua  (Splendor),  ®d%na  (Pleasure),  and  'Rvtypovvvr;  (Joy).  They 
were  honored  especially  in  Greece,  and  had  temples  in  the  principal  cities. 
Altars  were  often  erected  to  them  in  the  temples  of  other  gods,  especially  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  and  the  Muses. 

1  u.  They  are  frequently  represented  on  ancient  monuments  as  beautiful  young  virgins,  com- 
monly in  a  group,  holding  each  other  by  the  hand,  and  without  drapery 

2.  Thus  they  appear  in  the  Sup.  Plate  8,  a  representation  wImcIi  very  nearly  resembles  what 
is  seen  on  two  beautiful  antique  engraved  gems,  given  by  Ogle,  Ant.  Exp.  Plates  47,  48.  In  the 
Sup.  Plate  7,  the  Graces  are  employed  in  adorning  Venus.  An  antique  painting  found,  with 
other  pieces,  at  Rome,  in  a  vault  near  the  Colisxutu,  in  10(58,  exhibits  them  dancing,  with  slight 
drapery. 

Cf  Pind.  Olymp.  xiv.— Manm,  Abh.  (Iber  die  Horen  und  Grazien,  in  his  Mythol.  Versuchen.—Mamcu,  sur  les  Graces,  in  th« 
Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  lnscr.  iii.  S. 

§  105.  The  Horse,  'fipcu,  were  the  goddesses  of  Time,  presiding  especially 
over  the  seasons  and  the  hours  of  the  day,  and  were  considered  as  the  daughters 
and  servants  of  Jupiter.  They  came  at  length  to  be  viewed  as  tutelary  patrons 
of  beauty,  order,  and  regularity,  in  reference  to  which  Themis  was  said  to  be 
their  mother.     They  were  named  Evvo/xia,  &ixr],  Eipjjpj?. 

The  Graces,  Hours,  and  Muses,  are  all  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  had 
originally  a  reference  to  the  stars  and  seasons,  and  to  have  afterwards  lost  their  astro 
nomieal  attributes,  when  moral  ideas  and  qualities  became  more  prominent  in  the 
Greek  system  of  fictions. 

The  Hours  are  usually  represented  as  dancing,  with  short  vestments,  and  garlands  of  palm- 
leaf,  and  all  of  the  same  age.  In  some  monuments  of  later  periods,  four  Hours  appear,  corre- 
sponding to  the  four  seasons. — In  the  Sup.  Plate  10,  the  Hours  are  represented  by  four  virgina 
attending  Aurora. 

In  representing  the  seasons,  the  Romans  used  the  masculine  gender;  thus  in  our  Plate  IX. 
which  exhibits  them  as  sculptured  on  the  Arch  of  Severus,  we  see  four  lads  or  young  men,  each 
with  wings,  and  appropriate  symbols  of  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  and  Winter.  The  Roman* 
also  personified  the  Months,  usually  representing  them  by  male  figures. 

Cf.  Winckclmann,  Hist,  de  l'Art,  1.  iv.  ch  2.  §  83  —Montfaucon,  Ant  Exp.  Suppl.  vol.  i.  p.  22  ss.  Here  he  gives  also,  Plata 
6-16,  from  Lambecius,  engravings  of  the  represents' ions  of  the  months  as  beautifully  depicted  in  a  manuscript  belonging  to  the  Impe- 
rial Library  at  Vienna  ;  February  alone  is  represented  by  a  female. 

§  106.  (fi)  The  Fates.  The  very  common  poetic  representation  of  human 
life  under  the  figurative  idea  of  spinning  a  thread,  gave  rise  to  the  notion  o(  tb 


128  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

Fates,  called  Motpove  by  the  Grpeks  ;  by  the  Romans,  Pares.  They  were  three 
rs,  daughters  of  Night,  whom  Jupiter  permitted  to  decide  the  fortune  and 
especially  the  duration  of  mortal  life.  One  of  them  Clutfw  (K;uo^w),  attached 
the  thread;  the  second,  Lachesis  (Aa#«<ns),  spun  it;  and  the  third,  Jltropos 
(  Arportoj),  cut  it  off,  when  the  end  of  life  arrived.  They  were  viewed  as  in- 
exorable, and  ranked  among  the  inferior  divinities  of  the  lower  world.  Their 
worship  was  not  very  general. 

The  Pares  urn'  generally  represented  us  three  old  women,  with  chaplets  made  of  wool  and 
interwoven  with  the  flowers  of  the  Narcissus,  wearing  long  robes,  and  employed  in  their  works  : 
Clot  ho  with  a  distaff;  Lachesis  having  near  her  sometimes  several  spindles  :  and  Atropos  hold- 
illg  a  pair  of  scissors.  Such  is  their  appearance  in  I  tie  8np.  Plate  14,  which  is  uot  copied  from 
any  ancient  monument,  but  designed  after  the  description  of  the  poets. 

See  Cnlull.  Epllhal.  Pel  et  Thet.  v.  305.— Mania's  Abhandl.  v.  Parzen.  in  his  Mythol.  Fersuchen.—Banier,  Sur  les  Parques,  in 
Hit  Km,  .had.  Imcr.  vol.  iv.  648. 

§  107.  (?)  The  Furies  and  Harpies.  Among  the  divinities  of  the  lower 
world  wen-  three  daughters  of  Acheron  and  Night,  or  of  Pluto  and  Proserpine, 
whose  office  it  was  to  torment  the  guilty  in  Tartarus,  and  often  to  inflict  ven- 
geance  upon  the  living.  The  Greeks  called  them  EptWuEj,  Furies;  and  also 
by  a  sort  of  euphemism,  or  from  design  to  propitiate  them,  EfytEiao*c$,  signify- 
ing kindly  disposed}  the  Romans  styled  them  Furise.  Their  names  were 
Tisiphone  (from  tCcif  and  rpoVoj),  whose  particular  work  was  to  originate  fatal 
epidemics  and  contagion;  J/ecto,  (from  aXyxros),  to  whom  was  ascribed  the 
devastations  and  cruelties  of  war;  and  Megaera  (from  fieyuipu),  the  author  of 
insanity  and  murders.  Temples  were  consecrated  to  them  among  both  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and  among  the  latter  a  festival  also,  if  we  may  con- 
sider the  Furinalia  as  appropriated  to  them  and  not  to  a  separate  goddess  Fu- 
rina,  as  some  suppose. 

1  u.  They  were  represented  with  vipers  twining  among  their  hair,  usually  with  frightful  coun- 
tenances.  in  <l .i  r  k  and  Id ly  robes,  and  holding  the  torch  of  discord  or  venaeance. 

■2.  See  Hie  Sun.  Plate  14,  where  they  are  seen  in  drapery,  with  the  serpent  locks  and  scorpion 
whips  with  which  the  artists  represented  litem.  On  two  vases  in  the  Hamilton  collection  they 
hat  e  serpents  in  their  hair.  In  the  Sup.  Plate  13,  they  are  introduced  as  lashing  a  criminal  with 
their  whips. 

I  I  Firg  Georg.  iii.  551.  -En.  vii.  341,  415.  xii.  846.— On.  Met.  iv.  474.— Cf.  C  A.  Botliger,  Furienmasken  im  Trauerspiel  und 
jufd.  Bildweikeud.  all.  Griecheu;  erne  archseol.  L'nlersuchung.  Weim.  1801.  8.— Banier,  sur  les  Furies,  in  Ihe  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr 
rot.  v.  p.  34. 

§  108  a.  The  fable  of  the  Harpies,  "Aprtviai,  seems  to  have  had  reference 
orijrinally  to  the  rapidity  and  violence  of  the  whirlwind,  which  suddenly  seizes 
and  hears  off  whatever  it  strikes.  Their  names  were  Jello  (from  aiVka,  storm), 
Celseno  (from  xs%a.wb$,  dark),  and  Ocypeta  (from  <Lxvrti?ri$,  flying  rapidly),  all 
indicative  of  the  source  of  the  fiction. 

They  appear  to  have  been  considered,  sometimes,  at  least,  as  the  goddesses  of  storms,  and  so 
«  •  re  called  i  >veX\a(  (Horn.  Od.  x.x.  66).  They  were  said  to  he  daughters  of  Neptune  and  Terra, 
and  to  dweli  in  islands  of  the  sea,  on  the  border*  of  the  loner  world,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
I  urn's,  to  whom  they  sometimes  bore  offtbe  victims  they  seized. 

They  are  represented  as  having  the  faces  of  virgins,  and  the  bodies  of  vultures,  with  feet  and 
hands  armed  with  claws,  and  sometimes  as  with  the  tails  of  serpents.     See  the  Sup.  Plate  14. 

!I0.-See  Vat,  Mytholog.  Briefe.   Stultg.  1827.  3  vols.  12.— Le  Cterc  (in  the  BiUicthiqut  Univtrsdlt,  vol.  i  p.  148) 
'  l"  Harpiei  to  tie  merely  loaut!  ;  a  conjecture  which  Gibbvn  seems  to  approve  (Rom.  Emp.  vol.  ii.  p.  71.  ed.  N.  Y.  1822). 

5  I08b.(8)  The  Venti  or  Winds.  It  has  been  already  remarked  (§78)  that  the 
lour  principal  winds  were  at  an  early  period  converted  into  mythical  personages. 
Among  both  Greeks  and  Romans  they  gained  the  rank  of  deiiies.  'Ihe  Venti,  'Avi 
not,  were  eight ;  ESpos,  Eurus,  .South-east ;  AirnAibims,  Subsolanus,  East ;  Katxiac,  Cmcias, 
Aquilo,  North-east ;  Boplas,  Bonus,  North  ;  ttipov,  Corus,  North-west ;  Zapipog,  Zephy 
tut,  Occident,  West;  N6ros,  Notus,  Auster,  South;  Aty,  Libs,  Africus,  South-west. 

Little  is  handed  down  to  ns  respecting  the  worship  paid  to  the  winds.  An  altar  dedicated  to 
them  wai  found  near  Netiuno  (cf.  $  78.  3).  Pausanias  speaks  of  one  erected  at  the  foot  of  a 
1 twain  near  As. .pus.  where  annual  sacrifices  were  offered  to  them  at  night.  The  most  re- 
markable mom ml  pertaining  to  these  gods  is  the  Temple  or  Tower  of  the  eight  Winds  at 

Athens,  still  Pxisling;  said  to  have  been  erected  about  B.  C.  150;  a  view  of  it  is  yiven  in  Plate 
X  \l    fig  2;  see  ais..  P.  |.  £  no. 

""  ''•'"''  "'  " '-1'1  Billed  of  this  tower  is  represented  one  of  the  winds;  F.urtis,as  a  young  man 

Mm  ig  freely  and  vigorously;  Subsolavus,  a  young  man  holding  fruit  in  the  fold  of  b'is  mantle; 
A<l*uo,  a  venerable  mar.  with  a  heard,  holding  a  dish  of  olives;  Boreas,  with  boots  on  his  legs, 

rnuflling  Ins  face  In  a  i  lonk,  and  flj  ing  eagerlj  ;  Corus,  also  u  ith  I is  and  cloak,  and  holding  in 

ni-  band-  an  inv.n.,1  vase  of  water;  Zephyrus,a  youth  with  naked  breast,  and  carrying  flowers/ 
v»/uj.  an  old  man  with  gloomy  face  ;  Africus,  also  with  melancholy  looks  and  heavy  wings 


P.  II.     MYTHICAL    BEINGS.    DAEMONS.    MANES.    LARES.    PENATES.        129 

In  our  Sup.  Plate  20,  Zephyrus  is  seen  supported  in  Hie  air,  in  company  with  Flora  or  Clitoris, 
to  whom  he  is  said  to  have  been  married. 

See  Foralluii  Lex  Tot.  Lit.  as  edited  by  Bmtey,  vol.  ii.  p.  1 155.—  Lcake't  I  |iogi  iphj  of  Athens  —Montfaimm,  Ant.  E  «p. 
vol.  i.  p.  413. 

§  109.  (0)  The  Daemons  or  Ginii,  and  Mums.  In  the  earliest  mythologies 
we  find  traces  of  a  sort  of  protecting  deities,  or  spiritual  guardians  of  men, 
called  Auiftovfi,  or  Genii.  They  were  supposed  to  be  always  present  with  the 
persons  under  their  care,  and  to  direct  their  conduct,  and  control  in  great  mea- 
sure their  destiny,  having  received  this  power  as  a  gift  from  Jupiter.  Bad  de- 
mons, however,  as  well  as  good,  were  imagined  to  exist,  and  some  maintained, 
that  every  person  had  one  of  each  class  attendant  upon  him. 

From  the  notion  of  an  attending  genius  arose  the  proverbial  expressions  indulgert 
genio  and  defraudare genio,  signifying  simply  to  gratify  or  dvnij  one's  self. 

The  dipinons  ot  classical  mythology  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  fallen  spirits 
revealed  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  represented  as  possessing  men  in  the  time  ol 

Christ. 

See  Farmer,  Essay  on  Demoniacs. — Letters  to  Channin?  on  Fallen  Spirits,  by  Canoniau.  Boston,  1828. — Cf.  Bruwnkc,  Light! 
ind  Shadows  of  Christian  Life,  p.  379.    N.  York,  1S37.  12. 

§  110.  The  Manes  were  a  similar  class  of  beings.  Although  often  spoken 
of  as  the  spirits  or  souls  of  the  departed,  they  seem  more  commonly  to  have 
been  considered  as  guardians  of  the  deceased,  whose  office  was  to  watch  over 
their  graves,  and  hinder  any  disturbance  of  their  tranquillity.  They  were  sub- 
ordinate to  the  authority  of  Pluto,  on  which  account  he  is  styled  Summanus. 
Some  describe  a  goddess,  named  Mania,  as  their  mother. 

1  u.  The  Romans  designated  by  the  name  of  Lemur es.  or  Larva,  such  spirits  of  the 
dead  as  wandered  about  in  restlessness,  disturbing  the  peace  of  men,  issuing  from  the 
graves  as  apparitions  to  terrify  the  beholders. 

2.  In  Plate  XXXVI.  we  have  one  face  of  a  square  sepulchral  monument  found  at  Brixia,  or. 
which  two  Manes  are  represented,  each  with  wings  and  an  inverted  torch  ;  a  representation  not 
uncommon  on  such  structures. 

See  Manso's  Abh.  liber  d  Genius  der  Alten.  in  his  Myth.  Vm.—Sirnun,  Diss,  sur  les  Leniures,  Kim.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  i.—Oo. 
Fast.  v.  421.—  Slum,  Einleitung  in  Rom's  alle  Geschichte.     Bert.  1828.  12. 

§  111.  (10)  The  Lares  and  Penates.  The  system  of  tutelary  spirits  was 
carried  further  by  the  Romans  than  by  the  Greeks.  The  former  assigned  to 
each  dwelling  and  family  its  guardian  deities,  which  were  called  Lares  and 
Penates.  The  Lares  were  said  to  be  sons  of  Mercury  and  Lara,  or  Larunda, 
daughter  of  Alrnon.  They  received  a  variety  of  epithets  or  by-names,  accord- 
ing to  the  particular  object,  over  which  they  were  in  different  cases  supposed  to 
preside,  asy 'ami Hares,  compita/es,  viales,  patellarii,  publici,  privati. 

1  u.  They  were  especially  considered,  however,  as  presiding  over  houses,  and  had 
in  every  house  their  proper  sanctuary  (lararium)  and  altar.  They  seem  to  have  been 
viewed  as  the  spirits  of  the  departed  ancestors,  the  fathers  and  forefathers  ot  the 
family,  who  sought  the  welfare  of  their  descendants. 

2.  Public  festivals  were  held  in  their  honor,  called  Compitalia,  which  were  made  very  joyful 
occasions;  the  slaves  of  the  family  shared  liberty  and  equality  with  their  masters,  as  on  the 
Saturnalia. 

The  dog  was  sacred  to  the  Lares,  and  an  image  of  this  animal  was  placed  by  their  statues. 
These  statues  were  sometimes  clothed  in  the  skins,  and  even  formed  in  the  shape,  of  dogs. 

T.  Hempel,  Diss,  de  Laribus    2d  ed.    Ztviccav.  1816.  S.—MUller,  as  cited  5  112. 

§  112.  The  Penates  were  also  domestic  or  household  gods,  but  they  were  not 
properly  speaking  a  distinct  class  by  themselves,  because  the  master  of  the 
dwelling  was  allowed  to  select  any  deity  according  to  his  pleasure,  to  watch 
over  his  family  affairs,  or  preside  over  particular  parts  of  them.  Accordingly 
Jupiter  and  others  of  the  superior  gods  were  not  unfrequently  invoked  in  this 
capacity.  The  gods  who  presided  over  particular  fimilies,  were  sometimes 
styled  parvi  Penates.  While  those  that  presided  over  cities  or  provinces  were 
styled  patrii  or  publici  Penates.  Adulation  sometimes  elevated  to  the  rank  of 
Penates  even  living  persons;  especially  emperors. 

The  Lares  and  the  Penates  are  often  confounded,  but  were  not  the  same.  "The  Penatet* 
were  originally  uods,  the  powers  of  nature  personified;  the  mysterious  action  of  which_ pro- 
duces anil  upholds  whatever  is  necessarv  to  life,  to  the  common  good,  to  the  prosperity  ot  fa  mi 
lies;  whatever,  in  fine,  the  human  species  cannot  bestow  on  itself.  The  Lares  were  originally 
themselves  human  beings,  who,  becoming  pure  spirits  after  death,  loved  still  to  hover  round  the 
dwelling  they  orce  inhabited;  to  watch  over  its  safety,  and  to  guard  it  as  the  faithful  dog  does 

12 


130  GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

,hH  (,  ;  his  master.    They  keep  off  danger  from  without,  while  the  Penates,  residing 

in  the  interior  ofthe  dwelling,  pour  blessn  gs  upon  it-  inmates  "    [Jlnth.  Leinp.) 

A  i ber  of  small  bronze  statues,  representing  Roman  Penates,  were  found  the  last  century 

;u  Exeter,  in  England. 

C|    Vtre    &n  ii.  717    iii.  148.     Heyne,  Excurs.  ix.  ad  Virg.  Ma.  ii.— T.  Hemp,  Laribus,  as  cited  §  111. — MiUtar 

dedesl:  Penalibua.     Hafn..<  .  18       -         I    r  a  notice,  with  plates,  of  the  statues  found  at  Exeter,  see  the jlrebmo- 

.  vol.  vi.  publ.shi 

§113.   (11)  Sleep,  Dreams,  and   Bealh.     Among  the  imaginary  beings  sup- 
in  exert  an  influence  over  the  condition  of  mortals,  "<iitvoc.,  "Ovstpoj,  and 
©awiTOs,  gained  a  personification,  being  called  brothers,  sons  of  Nox  or  night, 
•itid  ranked  among  the  deities  of  the  lower  world. 

1  a.  The  residi  i  c<  ol  Sleep,  "X-nvoc,  Sonmus,  was  said  to  be-in  Cimmeria,  on  account 
of  the  perpetual  darkness  which  tradition  ascril  ed  to  that  region;  and  ihe  poppy,  on 

ml  ol  its  soporific  qualitii  s,  was  his  common  symbol.  He  is  represented  as  hold- 
ing in  his  hand  a  light  inverted  and  aboui    o  be  extii  guished. 

The  lasl  symbol  was  also  employed  in  representing  bavaroc,  or  Death,  who  was 
ofun  placed  beside  Ins  brother  Sleep  on  sepulchral  monuments,  and  appeared  in  a 
similar  bodily  form,  and  not  a  mere  naked  skeleton,  as  in  modi  m  art.  \\  hen  death 
was  the  resull  ol  violence,  or  circumstances  ol  a  disgusling  character,  the  Greeks  e.\- 
pr<  ssed  n  by  the  word  wp,  and  they  fancied  a  sor  oi  '  eings  called  mpe;,  who  caused 
death  and  sucked  the  blood.  The  Romans  made  a  similar  distinction  between  mors 
and  /'  ilium. 

2.  In  the  representation  of  Somnvs,  given  in  our  Plate  XXXVI.,  he  is  a  young  man  lying  on  the 
ground  asleep,  uii  h  one  arm  on  the  neck  of  a  lion,  and  holding  the  capsule  of  a  poppy.  Thana- 
I  ■  or  Death,  stands  by  him  with  a  scythe  ;ui<l  wings,  in  a  robe  bespangled  u  ith  stars,  as  he  is 
seen  in  sonic  paintings. 

The  Romans  imagined  death  as  a  goddess.  Mors.  The  poets  described  her  as  roving  about 
with  open  mouth,  furious  and  ravenous,  with  black  robes  and  dark  wings  she  is  not  often 
represented  on  existing  monuments  of  art;  in  one  supposed  to  represent  her,  a  small 
figun-  in  brass,  sin-  appears  as  a  skeleton,  siniiiL'  on  the  ground  with  one  band  on  an  urn. 

CI.  On  Met.  xi.  592,  634,  6*0.— Leasing'*  1  ntersuchu  e,  wii  lie  Alten  d.  Tod  cebildet.  Beri.  IT6d.  A.—Hmler's  Abb.  id  Ins 
Zrrsircuitn  Blattera.  Th.  2.  273.— Spence,  Polj  mi  lis,  c  led  P.  IV.  §  151. 

3.  The  god  of  dreams,  was  "Oveipo;  {Horn.  11.  ii.  56),  more  commonly  called  Mopfevs, 
from  the  various  images  or  forms    to        pn  s<  nted  in  dreamii  g.     Morpheus  is  some- 
considered  as  the  god  ol  sleep,  1  ut  was  more  properly  his  minister;  Phobelor 

sometimes  considered  as  the  god  of  dreams,  was  another  minister  of  Som- 
iius,  and  Phantasus    in  ra  u>)  another. 

Of   Theory  of  Dreamt,  &c,  illustrated  bj  Ihi  mosti   markable  Ireams  recorded  in  History.     Lond.  ISC8    12. 

§111.  (1-2)  The  Satyrs  and  Fauns.  The  idea  of  gods  of  the  forests  and 
woods,  with  a  form  partly  of  men  and  partly  of  beasts,  took  its  rise  in  the  ear- 
liest aoi  s  cither  from  the  custom  of  wearing  skins  of  animals  for  clothing,  o? 
in  a  design  to  represent  symbolically  the  condition  of  man  in  the  semi-barbarous 
or  half-savage  -tan-.  The  Satyrs  oi'  the  Greeks  and  the  Fauns  ofthe  Romans, 
in  their  repn  sentation,  differed  from  the  ordinary  human  form  only  in  having  a 
buck's  tail,  with  ereel  pointed  ears.  There  were  others  called  Fonts,  which 
had  also  the  goat's  feet,  and  more  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  brute. 

i  it.  The  Fauns  were  r<  pi  older  than  the  Satyrs,  who,  when  they  became 

old,  were  called  Sileni.  5Tel  the  Romans  represented  the  Satyrs  more  like  beas's, 
and  as  having  ihe  goat's  f<  et.  The  Satyrs,  Fauns,  Panes,  and  Sileni,  all  belonged  to 
tin   rctinui  01  Bacchus  (§  60). 

2  m.  The  name  oi  Fauni  was  id  Italian  origin,  derived  from  a  national  sod  Faanus, 
who  was  son  oi   Picus  (king  ot  iln    Latins)  and  ihe  nymph   ('aliens  {Ov.  Met.  xiv. 

'I  whose  watt   Fauna  was  also  honoi  id  as  a  goddess. 

y-'  H  I  mi. ■  li.-n  Faun  Sat  Silen.  und  Panen,  in  his  Samml.  Ant.  Auftatze.  Found  also  in  It "oic«. 
'Mnanu,  HistoiraUe  I'An  (i  iled  P.  W.  j  )-')  vol.  i.  p.  680. Ueber  Faun  Sat.  Pan.  und  Silenen.  Berl.  1790-91.  8.— Vw,  Myth. 

V  II").    I.:    The   Gorgons.     Three  imaginary  sisters,   daughters   of  Fhorcys  and 

' from  their  frightful  aspect.     Then-  brads  were  said  to  be 

1 1  vipers  instead  oi  hair,  with  teeth  as  long  as  the  tusks  oi  a  boar,  and  so 

ic  a  look  as  to  turn  ever)  I  eholder  into  stone.     'I  bey  are  described  as  having  the 

and  breasts  ol  women,  while  the  resl  ol  the  body  was  in  the  form  of  a 

bi  rpenl      Accord o  some  tht  j  had  bul  one  eye  ai  d  on<    tooth,  common  to  'hem 

hub  'In  v  were  obliged  10  use  in  turn.  'I  heir  names  were  Slhetio,  Euryale,  and 
Medusa.  Medusa  is  said  to  have  been  slain  by  Perseus,  who  cm  off  her  bead,  while 
ihey  were  in  ihe  acl  oi  exchanging  the  eye. 

They  are  sometimi  ranked,  with  the  Furies,  amoi  e  the  infernal  denies.  But  their 
'estdence  is  variously  assigned ;  some  placing  them  in  a  distant  part  of  the  western 


P.  II.  MYTHICAL     BEINGS.       AMAZONS,    ETC.  131 

ocean,  others  in  Lybia  (cf.  P.  I.  $  179),  and  others  in  Scythia.  Some  have  ex- 
plained the  table  as  referring  to  a  warlike  race  of  women,  like  the  Amazons  Others 
suppose  it  to  have  had  some  reference  to  the  moon  as  a  dark  body,  which  is  said  also 
to  have  been  called  Yopywtoj,  from  the  lace  believed  to  be  seen  in  it. 

Massieu,  sur  les  Hesperides,  ami  sur  les  Gorgones,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  laser,  vol.  iii.  p.  28,  51. 

§  116.  (14)  The  Amazons.  The  Amazons  were  no  doubt  mythical  beings,  al- 
though said  to  be  a  race  of  warlike  women,  who  lived  near  the  river  'I  herinodon  in 
Tappadocia.  A  nation  of  them  was  also  located  in  Africa.  They  are  suid  to  have 
burnt  off  their  right  breast,  that  they  might  use  the  bow  and  javelin  with  more  skill 
and  force  ;  and  hence  their  name,  'A/ta^dves,  from  a  and  na^dg.  They  are  mentioned  in 
the  Iliad  (iii.  189.  vi.  186)  and  called  avna  sipai. 

Various  explanations  of  the  fable  are  given.  Some  consider  it  as  having  a  connec- 
tion originally  with  the  worship  of  the  moon.  Several  staiues  of  Amazons  were 
placed  in  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  (Plin.  N.  Hist,  xxxiv.  8) ,  and  may  have 
represented  some  of  her  imaginary  attendants,  or  some  of  her  own  attributes. 

A  figure  resembling  an  Amazon,  but  having  tour  arms,  is  seen  in  the  caverns  of  Elephants. — In  our  Sup.  Plate  22,  an  Amazon  ii 

represented  with  her  bow  and  quiver  of  arrows. Traditions  respecting  a  race  of  Amazons  are  said  to  be  still  current  in  the 

region  of  Caucasus.     Cf.  Edmb.  Rev.  No  1  vi.  p.  324. —On  the  Amazons,  see  Creuzer's  Symbolik. 

§  117.  This  seems  to  be  the  place  for  noticing  more  particularly  several  Monsters, 
which  are  exhibited  in  the  tales  of  ancient  mythology. 

(a)  The  Minotaur  was  said  to  be  half  man  and  half  bull.  The  story  is.  that  Minos, 
king  of  Crete,  refused  to  sacrifice  to  Neptune  a  beautiful  white  bull,  which  was  de- 
manded by  the  god.  The  angry  god  showed  his  displeasure  by  causing  Pasiphae,  the 
wife  of  Minos,  to  defile  herself  with  this  bull,  through  the  aid  of  Daedalus,  and  give 
birth  to  the  monster.  Minos  confined  ihe  IVlinotaur  in  the  famous  labyrinth.  Here 
the  monster  devoured  the  seven  young  men  and  the  seven  maidens  annually  required 
from  the  Athenians  by  Minos. 

Theseus,  hv  the  aid  of  the  king's  daughter,  Ariadne,  slew  the  Minotaur  ami  escaped  the  laby- 
rinth (cf.  $  125). 

(h)  The  Chimaera  was  said  to  be  composed  of  a  dragon,  goat,  and  lion  united:  the 
middle  of  the  body  was  that  of  a  goat,  ihe  hinder  paris  those  of  a  dragon,  the  fore 
parts  those  of  a  lion;  and  it  had  the  heads  of  all  three,  and  was  continually  vomiting 
forth  flames.  This  monster  lived  in  Lycia,  in  the  reign  of  Jobates,  king  of  that 
country.  This  king,  wishing  to  punish  Bellerophon  in  order  to  gratity  his  son-in-law 
Praetus,  sends  him  against  the  Chimaera  ;  but  Bellerophon,  by  the  aid  of  Minerva, 
and  the  winged  horse  Pegasus,  instead  of  perishing  himself,  destroyed  the  monster. 

This  fable  is  by  some  supposed  to  refer  to  a  volcanic  mountain  on  the  Lycian  coast. — See  Clarke's  Travels,  pt.  ii.  sect.  ii.  ch.  8. 
(vol.  iii.  p.  211.  ed.  N.  York,  1815).— Plin.  N.  Hist.  v.  27  —  Banter,  and  Freret,  on  Bellerophon,  in  the  Mem.  Acad,  laser,  vii. 
37,  69. 

(r)  The  Centauri  were  said  to  be  half  men  and  half  horses.  Some  make  them  the 
offspring  of  Ixion  and  the  cloud  ;  others  refer  their  origin  to  the  bestiality  of  Centau- 
rus,  the  son  of  Apollo.  They  were  said  to  dwell  in  Thessaly.  The  principal  inci- 
dents related  of  them  are  their  rude  attempts  upon  the  women  at  ihe  marriage  of 
Firithous  and  Hippodamia,  and  the  consequent  battle  with  the  Lapithae,  who  drove 
them  into  Arcadia.  Here  they  were  afterwards  chiefly  destroyed  by  Hercules.  (Ov. 
Met.  xii.  530.) — Some  have  imagined  this  fable  to  allude  to  the  draining  of  the  low 
parts  of  Thessaly,  as  the  horse  is  in  general  symbolical  of  water. 

Knight's  Inquiry,  &c.  in  the  Class.  Journal.— Cf.  Mitford,  ch.  1.  sect.  3.— Banter,  La  Fable  des  Cent,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr. 
ii.  18. 

(d)  Gen/071  was  a  monster  said  to  be  the  offspring  of  Chrysaor  and  Callirhoe,  and 
to  have  three  bodies  and  three  heads.  His  residence  was  in  the  island  of  Gades, 
where  his  numerous  flocks  were  kept  by  the  herdsman  Eurythion,  and  guarded  by 
a  two-headed  dog  called  Orthos. 

The  destruction  of  this  monster  formed  one  of  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules  (J  123). 

(p)  The  Hydra  was  a  monstrous  serpent  in  the  lake  Lerna,  with  numerous  heads 
nine  according  to  the  common  account.  When  one  of  these  heads  was  cut  off,  an 
other  or  two  others  immediately  grew  in  its  place,  unless  the  blood  of  the  wound  was 
stopped  by  fire. 

The  destruction  of  the  Hydra  was  another  labor  assigned  to  Hercules,  which  he  accomplished 
by  the  aid  of  lolaits,  who  applied  lighted  brands  or  a  heated  iron  as  each  head  was  removed. 
The  ajrows  of  Hercules,  being  dipped  in  the  Hydra's  blood,  caused  incurable  wounds. 

(f )  Pegasus  was  not  so  much  a  monster  as  a  prodigy,  being  a  winged  horse  saia  to 
have  sprung  from  the  blood,  which  fell  on  the  ground  when  Perseus  cut  off  the  head 
of  Medusa.  He  fixed  his  residence  on  mount  Helicon,  where  he  opened  the  fountain 
called  Hijipocrene  (tWoc  and  Kpw'n).  He  was  a  favorite  of  the  muses,  and  is  called  "  the 
muses'  horse."  The  horse,  having  come  into  the  possession  of  Bellerophon,  enabled 
him  to  overcome  the  Chimaera.     Afterwards  Pegasus,  under  an  impulse  "from  Jupiter, 


132  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

.hrew  off  Bellerophon  to  wander  on  the  earth,  and  himself  ascended  j,o  a  place  among 
the  stars. 

An  enslaving  is  given  by  Wiuckelmann  of  a  beautiful  bas-relief  in  while  marble,  representing  Bellerophon  and  Pegasus;  (ho 
,r;s,.,.,  |  palace  of  Spate  at  Rome,  is  of  the  natural  size.— See  Winchdmann,  Hist.  <le  1'Arl,  vol.  ii.  p.  652   iii.  2M. 

I'ranograuhie  ou  Traite  Elemeutaire  d'Astronouiie.     Par.  1818.  8.  containing  the  ancient  Fables  respecting  111* 
Constellations. 

i  '<  rbi  rus  was  the  fabled  dog  of  Pluto  ($  34),  stationed  as  centinel  at  the  entrance 
ol  Hades.  He  is  generally  described  as  having  three  heads,  sometimes  as  having  fifty. 
Snakes  covered  his  body  instead  of  hair.  None  from  the  world  of  the  living  could  pass 
him  bul  by  appeasing  him  with  a  certain  cake,  composed  of  medicated  and  soporific 
ingredients.      (  Virg.  Mn.  vi.  420.) 

To  sei/.e  and  bring  up  this  monster  was  assigned  to  Hercules  as  one  of  his  labors. 

(h)  Scylla  and  Charybdis  are  the  names,  the  former  of  a  rock  on  the  Italian  shore,  in 
tin  strail  between  Sicily  and  the  main  land,  and  the  latter  of  a  whirlpool  or  strong  eddy 
over  againsl  il  on  the  Sicilian  sale.  The  ancients  connected  a  fabulous  story  with  each 
name.  —Scylla  was  originally  a  beautilul  woman,  but  was  changed  by  Circe  into  a 
monster,  the  pari.-  below  her  waist  becoming  a  number  of  dogs  incessantly  barking, 
while  she  had  twelve  feet  and  hands,  and  six  heads  with  three  rows  of  teeth.  Terrified 
at  this  metamorphosis,  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea,  and  was  changed  into  the  rocks 
which  bear  her  name. — Charybdis  was  a  greedy  woman,  who  stole  the  oxen  of  Her- 
i  ill.  s,  and  tor  that  offence  was  turned  inio  the  gulf  or  whirlpool  above  mentioned. 

.  .in.  iii.  420  ss.— Owd,  Metam.  siv.  66.— Propert.  iii.  11.— Hyginus,  fab.  199. 

(/)  The  Sphinx  was  the  offspring  of  Orthos  and  Chima?ra,  or  of  Typhon  and  Echidna  ; 
a  monster  having  the  head  and  breasts  of  a  woman,  the  body  of  a  dog,  the  tail  of  a 
si  rpent,  the  wings  of  a  bird,  the  paws  of  a  lion,  with  a  human  voice.  This  monster 
infested  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes,  proposing  enigmas  and  devouring  the  inhabitants 
who  could  nol  explain  them.  At  length  one  of  the  enigmas,  in  which  she  demanded 
what  animal  it  was  which  walked  on  lour  legs  in  the  morning,  two  at  noon,  and  three 
lit,  was  -nlvcd  by  CEdipus:  he  said  that  the  animal  was  man,  who  in  the  morning 
of  life  creeps  upon  his  hands  and  feet,  in  middle  age  walks  erect,  and  in  the  evening 
td  his  days  uses  a  staff.  On  hearing  this  solution,  the  Sph.nx  instantly  destroyed 
herself. 

In  Plate  VIII.  are  given  two  images  of  the  Sphinx.     One  is  without  wings ;  having  a  peculiar 

Egyptian  head-dress;   from  a  sculptured  monument  given  by  Boissard.    The  other  is  from  an 

engraved  gem,  given  by  Maffei ;  having  the  calatlius  on  her  head,  and  the  sistrunt  in  her  paw. 

Representations  ol  tlir  S|  hmx  are  very  common  amon    Eg]  ptian  monuments.    A  very  celebrate]  colossal  s'atue  of  a  Sphinx  yet 

neai  the  pyramids.     II  is  cut  in  the  solid  tock,  and  ;s  1 2^  feet  in  length. — Clarke's  Travels,  pt.  >i.  sect.  2.  ch.  4. — Denon'i 

il.  i.  p.  55.     Lond.  ISO-!).— Land.  Quart.  Rev.  xix.  ISj3,  403  ss. 

(k)  The  Griffon  {Tpit}/)  was  an  imaginary  animal,  said  to  be  produced  from  a  lion  arid  an 
eagle,  and  supposed  to  watch  over  mines  of  gold  and  whatever  was  hidden.  Its  imat»e  is  some- 
time- Found  on  ancient  medals;  the  upper  part  resembling  an  eagle,  the  lower  part  a  lion. 

Cf  firfiV  Ecl.viii.  27 .—Herodotus,  iii.  1 16.— Amy,  Hisi.  Nat.  x.  49.— ,/S.  F.  Grafcn  von  VcWium,  Von  den  Greifen  der  Alten. 
Helmst.  1799.  8. 

(/)  In  the  Greek  mythology  Typhon  is  ranked  among  the  Giants;  by  some  considered  to  be  the 
same  as  Typhosus  (cf.  J  98);  by  others  distinguished  from  him;  said  to  have  been  produced  from 
tie-  earth  by  Juno's  striking  it;  described  as  having  a  hundred  heads  like  those  of  a  dragon  — 
In  Egyptian  mythology  the  monster  called  Typhon  holds  an  important  place,  being  considered  as 
the  cause  of  all  evil,  "the  Egyptian  devil."  (Fvsbrnke.)  He  is  described  and  represented  in  va- 
rious way-  ;  sometimes  as  with  a  hundred  dragon  heads;  sometimes  as  a  wolf;  sometimes  as  a 
crocodile,  and  as  uniting  the  tail  of  a  crocodile  with  the  head  and  fore-legs  of  the  hippopotamus, 
ae  -eeii  in  <>nr  I*la'«  VIII. 


IV. — Mythical  History  of  the  Heroes. 


§  lift.  In  Grecian  story  three  periods  are  distinguished  even  by  the  ancients  : 
die  unknown, aUrpAv,  of  which  no  historical  monuments  remained  to  make  known 
tin  -ii!,  ,,f  society  ;  the  fabulous,  j.iv'ztxov,  of  which  the  accounts  left  are  mingled 
with  manifold  fictions;  and  the  historical,  ioro^nxov,  of  which  a  genuine  and 
trustworthy  history  is  recorded.  The  first  extends  to  the  deluge  of  Deucalion, 
i'ic  second  in  the  introduction  of  the  Olympiad  into  chronology,  and  the  third 
enrotigh  the  subsequenl  times.  To  the  second  of  these  periods  belonged  the 
Heroes,  as  they  are  called,  and  it  is  on  that  account  often  styled  the  heroic  age. 
These  personages  are  su ppos.  <l  t.,  have  possessed  extraordinary  powers  of  body 
-Hid  mind,  and  distinguished  merit  is  ascribed  to  them  as  having  founded  cities 


r     II  HEROES.        PERSEUS.  133 

or  countries,  improved  their  manners  and  morals,  or  otherwise  exalted  or  de* 
fended  them. 

§  119.  Grateful  sensibility  to  the  merits  of  ancestors  and  progenitors  was  a 
most  common  cause  of  the  sort  of  deification  with  which  these  heroes  were 
publicly  honored  after  death  ;  and  the  disposition  towards  this  grateful  remem- 
brance was  quickened  and  sustained  by  oral  traditions  respecting  then  deeds, 
which  were  much  adorned  and  exaggerated  by  the  poets.  Hence  it  came,  that 
most  of  the  heroes  were  at  last  viewed  as  sons  of  gods,  and  often  of  .lupiter 
himself.  The  veneration  for  the  heroes  was  however  less  sacred  and  less  uni- 
versal than  the  worship  of  the  gods.  To  the  latter,  important  festivals  were 
established,  regular  priests  ordained,  appropriate  temples  erec'ed,  and  public, 
solemn  sacrifices  offered.  The  heroes,  on  the  other  hand,  received  only  an 
annual  commemoration  at  their  tombs,  or  in  the  vicinity,  when  offerings  and 
libations  were  presented  to  them.  Sometimes,  however,  the  respect  paid  them 
exceeded  these  limits,  and  they  were  exalted  to  the  rank  and  honors  of  the 
gods.  The  introduction  of  solemnities  in  memory  of  heroes  is  ascribed  to 
Cadmus. 

Cf.  Vxrg.  JEn.  iii.  301.—  Saltier,  in  the  Hist,  de  VAcad  dcs  liver,  vol.  iv.  p.  299. 

§  120.  The  heroes  of  the  Greeks  were  of  different  ranks.  Some  were  viewed 
as  a  sort  of  household  deities,  such  as  after  their  mortal  existence  watched  over 
their  families  and  friends  and  were  honored  and  worshiped  only  by  them. 
Others,  whose  services  while  they  lived  were  of  a  more  extended  character, 
were  worshiped  by  whole  states  and  tribes,  as  demi-gods,  and  sometimes  had 
their  appropriate  festivals  and  mysteries,  and  even  temples  and  priests.  To 
such  was  ascribed  a  more  general  superintendence  of  human  affairs.  It  is  the 
latter  class  that  we  are  here  to  notice  particularly,  as  they  were  the  most  illus- 
trious, and  their  worship  was  not  limited  to  the  Greeks,  but  was  adopted  also 
among  the  Romans.  Of  these  only  the  principal  can  be  mentioned,  in  doing 
which  the  order  of  time  will  be  followed. 

§  121.  The  Giants  and  Titans  (§  97)  might  correctly  be  ranked  among  the 
Heroes,  and  regarded  as  the  most  ancient.  To  the  same  class,  too,  belong 
Inaehus,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Argos  ;  his  son  Pkoroneiis,  to  whom  various 
merits  were  ascribed  ;  and  Ogyges,  a  king  of  Bceotia,  memorable  from  the  flood 
which  occurred  in  his  reign.  This  rank  also  was  enjoyed,  especially  among 
their  respective  people  and  tribes,  by  Ceerops,  founder  of  the  Attic  state;  T)cu- 
ca!ion,a  Thessalian  prince,  who  with  his  wife  Pyrrha  escaped  the  general  flooc' 
that  happened  in  his  times;  Jimphictyon,  author  of  the  celebrated  council  o 
confederation  of  the  early  Grecian  states ;  Cadmus,  who  came  from  Phoenicia 
to  Greece,  and  contributed  so  much  to  enlighten  and  improve  the  people  (cf.  P 
IV.  §34;  Danaus,  to  whom  the  kingdom  of  Argos  was  indebted  for  its  advance- 
ment; Bellerophon,  who  was  said  to  have  destroyed  the  monster  Chimaera,  and 
to  have  performed  other  exploits;  Felops,  king  in  Elis,  from  whom  Pelopon- 
nesus took  its  name,  as  his  descendants  occupied  that  peninsula ;  and  the  two 
princes  of  Crete  by  the  name  of  Minos,  one  celebrated  as  a  lawgiver,  the  other 
as  a  warrior. 

Some  writers  argue  agiinst  the  existence  of  two  individuals  by  the  name  of  Minns. — See  Hock's  Kreta.    Hotting.  tS23.  3  vols.  8. 

§  122.  Perseus  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  early  heroes.  He 
was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae,  educated  by  Polydectns  on  the  island  Se- 
riphus.  His  chief  exploit  was  the  destruction  of  the  gorgon  Medusa,  whose 
head  he  struck  off  with  a  sword  given  to  him  by  Vulcan.  From  the  blood 
that  fell,  sprang  the  winged  horse  Pegasus,  on  which  Perseus  afterwards  passed 
over  many  lands. 

1  u.  Of  his  subsequent  achievements,  the  most  remarkable  were  his  changing  king 
Atlas  into  a  high  rock  or  mountain,  by  means  of  Medusa's  head,  and  his  deliverance 
of  Andromeda,  when  bound  and  exposed  to  lie  devoured  by  the  sea-monster.  In  con- 
nection with  the  latter  adventure  he  also  changed  into  stone  Phineus,  who  contended 
.vith  him  lor  the  possession  of  Andromeda.  He  inflicted  the  same  afterwards  upon 
Polydectes  lor  ill  treatment  towards  Danae.  To  Perseus  is  ascribed  the  invention  of 
the  discus  or  quoit,  with  which  he  inadvertently  occasioned  the  death  of  his  grandfather 
Aerisias.     Finally  he  founded  the  kingdom  of  Mycenae.     After  his  assassination  bv 


f 34  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

Megapenthes.    ne  was  placed  among  t'ne  constellations,  and   several  temples  were 
erected  to  hil  i    besides  a  monument  between  Argos  and  Mycenae.     (Cf.  Ov.  Met.  n, 
,0 

2  The  fables  respecting  Perseus  are  bv  some  considered  as  a  modification  of  the  story  of  the 
Persian  Mithras  (cf.  J  35),  and  a  piece  of  ancient  sculpture  on  one  of  the  gates  of  the  citadel 
of  Mycenas  has  been  thought  to  confirm  the  analogy.— Creuzer,  bytnbolik.—Ge<7,  Itinerary  of 
Qreei  e 

3  Mas,  whom  on  account  of  his  refusing  hospitality  to  Perseus,  the  latter  is  said 
to  have  changed  into  a  mountain,  is  described  as  the  son  of  Japetus  and  the  king  of 
Mauretania.  He  owned  numerous  flocks  of  sheep  and  beautiful  gardens  abounding 
with   cinous  and  oranges.     His  seven  daughters,  renowned  for  beauty  and  wisdom, 

I  ^tlantides  from  their  father,  and  Hesperides  from  their  mother  Hesperis. 
minis  called  the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides  were  said  to  be  guarded  by  a  dread- 
ful dragon  that  never  slept.  The  name  of  Atlas  was  given  to  the  chain  of  mountains 
in  that  part  ol  Africa,  and  to  the  ocean  on  the  west.  Whether  from  reference  to  the 
height  ol  those  mountains  or  to  the  astronomical  researches  of  the  king,  Atlas  is  said 
to  have  .supported  the  heavens  ;  and  accordingly  artists  have  represented  him  as  bear- 
ing an  immense  sphere  on  his  shoulders. 

Thus  he  is  seen  in  the  Sup.  Plale  22.  On  some  monuments,  Hercules  is  represented  in  a  similar  «;  because,  as  is  said,  he  eased 
Atlas  of  his  burden.— Cf.  Ogle,  Ant   Expl.  plate  35. 

§  123.  Of  all  the  Grecian  heroes,  no  one  obtained  such  celebrity  as  Her- 
cui.es,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmena.  Wonderful  strength  was  ascribed  to  him 
eve,,  in  his  infantile  years.  Eurystheus  king  of  Mycenae  imposed  upon  him 
many  difficult  enterprises,  which  he  carried  through  with  success;  particularly 
those,  which  are  called  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules.  These  were  :  to  kill  the 
Nemaean  lion  ;  to  destroy  the  LernaRan  hydra  ;  to  catch  alive  the  Stag  with 
golden  horns;  to  catch  the  Erymanthean  boar;  to  cleanse  the  stables  of  Au- 
■jias  ;  to  exterminate  the  birds  of  lake  Stymphalis ;  to  bring  alive  the  wild  bull 
of  Crete;  to  seize  the  horses  of  Diomedes  ;  to  obtain  the  girdle  of  Hippolyta, 
queen  of  the  Amazons;  to  destroy  the  monster  Geryon ;  to  plunder  the  garden 
of  Hesperides,  guarded  by  a  sleepless  dragon;  and  to  bring  from  the  infernal 
world  the  three-headed  dog  Cerberus. 

Tbese  various  exploits  were  often  made  the  theme  of  description  and  allusion  in  the  poets. 
The  first  is  detailed  in  the  25th  Idyl  of  Theocritus.  The  twelve  labors  are  described  in  12  verses 
in  the  "ii  Chiliad  of  Tieties  (cf.  P.  V.  $  81).— The  story  of  Hercules  strangling  the  serpents  while 
an  infant  is  given  in  the  24th  Idyl  of  Theocritus. 

$  124  u.  Many  other  exploits  were  ascribed  to  him,  by  which  he  gave  proof  of  his  ex- 
traordinary strength,  and  exhibited  himself  as  an  avenger  and  deliverer  of  the  oppressed. 
Such  were.  Iiis  slaying  the  robber  Gacus,  so  much  dreaded  in  Italy  ;  the  deliverance  of 
Prometheus,  bound  to  a  rock;  the  killing  of  Busiris  and  Antaeus ;  the  contest  with 
Achelous  :  and  the  rescue  of  Alceste  from  the  infernal  world.  Less  honorable  was  his 
love  of  <  'mphale  queen  of  Lydia,  by  which  he  sank  into  the  most  unworthy  effemi- 
nacy. His  last  achievement  was  the  destruction  of  the  centaur  Nessus.  Nessus  dying 
gave  his  poisoned  tunic  to  Dejanira;  Hercules  afterwards  receiving  it  from  her,  and 
putting  it  on,  became  so  diseased  that  he  cast  himself  in  despair  upon  a  funeral  pile  on 
mount  (Eta. 

The  worship  of  Hercules  soon  became  universal,  and  temples  were  erected  to  his 
honor,  numerous  and  magnificent.  He  received  a  great  many  surnames  and  epithets 
from  his  exploits  and  from  the  places  of  his  worship.  Hercules  and  his  labors  afforded 
the  artists  of  ancient  times  abundant  materials  to  exercise  their  ingenuity  in  devices,  and 
they  very  often  employed  them. 

Two  of  the  moat  ceifk-itzd  unique  statues  represent  Hercules  ;  the  Torso,  or  Herculese  Belvidere,  and  the  Hercules  Farnese  ;  cf. 
P  IV.  $  IS6.  6,  7.  The  latter  represents  him  leaning  upon  his  club,  as  it  were  after  his  labors.  A  view  of  it  is  given  in  Plate  XLIV. 
fig.  6.  copied  from  Winckelmann.  An  engraving  of  the  same  is  given  in  the  Sup.  Plate  22.  The  other  representation  in  this  Plata 
■hows  the  infant  Hercules  strangling  the  serpent ;  from  an  antique  sculpture. 

For  other  principal  representations  of  Hercules,  «ee  Montfauam,  Ant.  Expl.T.  i.  pi.  123.  141,  and  Ogle's  Ant.  Expl.  No.  31-10.— 

Laur.  Degen,  Hercules  Ethnicorum.  ex.  var  antiq.  reliquiis  Hi.ieatus.    Col.  March.  1705.  fol.— Heynii  Not.  ad  Apollodor. 

p.  325  — /.  Gurlild  Fragment,  d.  archaeol.  Abhandl.  nb.  Hercules.   Magd.  1800.  A— Ph.  Buitmann,  tlber  d.  Mvthos  des  Herakles. 

K.rl    1810.  i  -  Dupuii,  Orig.  de  tous  les  cult.  vol.  ii.— Respecting  the  ancient  writers  on  the  Mythol.  of  Hercules,  see  MtUlir's  Hist. 

■ud  Antiq.  o(  Ui  r.  Hare.    Oxf.  l^-so.  vol.  i.  p  523. 

Among  '1.  I  irious  solutions  of  the  story  of  Hercules,  there  is  one  which  very  ingeniously  applies  the  account  of  his  twelve  labors 
t    Ihebaasagi  ol  the  sun  through  the  twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac.    A  view  of  this  is  given  in  Anthem's  Lempriere. 

§  12.r>.  Theseus,  a  son  of  .cfJgeus  and  jr^thra,  ov  according  to  others  a  son  of 
Nteptune,  was  excited  by  the  renown  of  Hercules,  to  engage  in  enterprises  th~ 
most  hazardous,  and  he  successfully  accomplished  them.  Among  these  was 
the  extermination  of  a  multitude  i  f  robbers  and  assassins  that  infested  Greece, 
ind  especially  the  destruction  of  the  Minotaur  a  terrible  monster  of  Crete,  tc 


P.  II.  HEROES.       JASON.       CASTOR    AND    POLLUX.  13,r) 

which  the  Athenians  had  previously  been  compelled  to  send  seven  male  youth 
and  as  many  young  virgins  annually,  to  be  devoured  by  him.  By  the  help  of 
Ariadne,  a  daughter  of  Minos,  Theseus  was  enabled  to  traee  the  winding  of  the 
labyrinth,  in  which  the  monsti  r  had  his  abode,  and  put  him  to  death.  Ariadne 
accompanied  him  on  his  return  to  Athens,  but  he  ungratefully  deserted  heron 
the  island  of  Naxos. 

v>  1267t.  he  other  principal  exploits  of  Theseus  uric  his  descent  to  the  lower  world 
with  hi^  friend  Pirithous,  his  victory  over  the  A  mazons  (§  1 16),  whose  queen  Hippolyta 
became  his  wife,  an  I  the  assistance  he  cave  wlvas  us,  king  of  Argos,  against  the  T he- 
ban  priiic  Creon.  Great  praise  was  awarded  to  him  for  improving  the  legislation  and 
the  whole  morals  of  Athens  and  Attica;  and  yet  he  was  for  some  time  an  exile.  'The 
manner  oi  Iris  death  is  variously  related,  but  it  seems  by  all  accounts  to  have  been 
caused  by  violence. 

The  honor  paid  to  bun  was  accompanied  with  unusual  solemnities  ;  a  superb  temple 
was  consecrated  to  him  at  Alliens,  and  a  festival  was  established  called  Bfiveia,  held  on 
the  eighth  <lay  ol  every  month,  with  games,  and  a  regular  sacrifice  termed  OyMStov, 
Provision  was  made  at  the  public  expense  to  enable  the  poor  to  share  in  the  lestivilies 
of  this  occasion. 

Cf.  Pint,  in  I'  i.  Thes.—Di  <d  Sic  L.  iv.  r.  61.— Ob.  Meiam.  vii.  404 ;  viii  152;  xii.  210.— Milfvrd's  Greece,  ch.  i.  seel.  3.— Foi 
>  view  of  the  lei  i|  le  uf  Theseus,  <re  Plate  XXI.  fi?  3. 

§  127.  Jason  and  the  Argonauts.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  enterprises  of 
the  heroic  ages,  one  which  forms  a  memorable  epoch  in  the  Grecian  history,  a 
sort  of  separation-point  between  the  fabulous  and  the  authentic,  was  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition.  This  was  i  voyage  from  Greece  to  Colchis  in  order  to  obtain 
the  golden  fleece,  conducted  by  Jason,  the  son  of  TEson,  king  of  Thessaly. 
The  undertaking  was  imposed  upon  him  by  his  uncle  Pelias.  Fie  invited  the 
most  illustrious  heroes  i  f  Greece  to  unite  in  the  expedition,  and  among  those 
who  joined  him  were  Hercules^  Cantor 'And  I^iIIuj-.  Peleus,  Pirithous,  and  The- 
seus. The  vessel  built  for  the  purpose  was  named  Artro,  which  after  various 
adverse  events  arrived  at  .Ei,  the  capital  of  Colchis.  j^Eetes  was  then  king  of 
Colchis,  and  promised  to  Jason  the  golden  fleece  only  on  certain  most  difficult 
conditions. 

§  128.  although  Jason  fulfilled  these  conditions,  yet  ./Eetes  was  unwilling 
to  permit  him  to  take  tin  desired  booty,  and  sought  to  slay  Jason  and  bis  com- 
panions. This  purpose  was  etrayed  by  IVledi  a,  the  king's  daughter,  by  whose 
assistance  and  magical  art  Jason  slew  the  dragon  ihat  guarded  the  fleece,  and 
seized  the  treasure,  lie  immediately  fled,  5  :companied  by  Medea,  but  was  pur- 
sued'by  her  father.  Medea  put  to  death  her  brother  Absyrtus,  cut  bis  corpse 
into  pieces  and  strewed  them  in  the  way,  in  order  to  stop  her  father's  pursuit. 
Jason  was  afterwards  faithless  ti  h  r,  an  I  married  Creusa,  or,  as  others  name 
her,  Glance,  a  daughter  of  Creon,  king  of  Corinth.  Medea  took  vengeance  by 
causing  the  death  of  Creusa  and  ilso  of  th<  children  she  had  herself  born  to 
Jason.  After  death  Jason  received  the  worship  bestowed  on  heroes,  and  had  a 
temple  at  Abdera. 

See  the  poems  on  the  Argon.  Exped.  Iiy  Orp/ntii,  I  lonius R  d  u  •:  '  r.j/r,  u.  Flaccu).  (Cf.  P.  V.  §§  4\  73,  J76.I— Banicr, 
on  the  Argon    Exped   in  Mem.  de  fj   id.  a  iv  I     xii.  !23;  xiv.  41. — Heynii  Not.  ad  Apollodor.  p   177. — C.  P. 

Levtsque,  sur  le  Retou>  rles  Argona-jts,  in  the  M  el'i    Hilut,  CI  asse  d.  Sciences  Mur.  el  Put.  vol   iv. 

Various  explanations  have  lieen  put  upon  the  story  of  the  Argonauts.  One  writer  thinks  the 
golden  fleece  was  l he  raw  silk  ol  the  East.  Ifui'er.  Pantheon  Chinois.  —  Another  thinks  the  pnrase 
arose  from  the  habit  of  collecting  sold,  washed  down  from  the  mountains,  l>\  putting  sheepskins 
in  the  channel  of  the  Btreatns.  Miiford,  ch.  i.  sect.  3. — Bryant  (Anal.  Anc.  Myth.)  considers  the 
whole  story  as  a  tradition  of  the  I" 

§  129.  Castor  and  Pollux,  who  were  among  the  Argonauts,  were  twin  sons 
of  Jupiter  and  Led  a,  and  brothers  to  Helena.  On  account  of  their  descent, 
they  were  called  Dioscuri  (Atoffseovpot),  although,  according  to  some,  Castor 
was  the  son  of  Tyndarus,  the  husband  of  Leda.  Castor  distinguished  himself 
in  the  management  of  horses,  and  Pollux  in  boxing  and  wrestling.  The  last 
exploit  of  the  Dioscuri  was  their  contest  with  Lynceus  and  his  brother  Idas. 
Castor  was  slain  by  Lynceus,  and  Lynceus  by  Pollux:  and  as  Idas  was  about 
to  avenge  the  death  of  his  brother,  Jupiter  smote  him  with  lightning. — Pollux 
obtained  from  Jupiter  the  honors  of  deification  and  immortality  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother  Castor.  Both  were  placed  among  the  constellations  and  re- 
presented by  the  Gemini   or  twins  in  the  zodiac.     Both   the  Greeks  and  th«» 


136  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

Romans  consecrated  temples  to  them,  and  they  were  especially  invoked  ano 
wor&hipi  d  by  mariners. 

1    Th<  y  were  said  to  be  placed  among  the  marine  gods,  from  having  cleared  the 

spontand  lb<  is  from  pirates.     'J'hey  were  mvoked|  as  A*6rp™ot, 

md  white  lambs  were  sacrificed  to  them.— I  he  Romans  Honored  them 

sed  to  be  received  from  them  in  pressing  dangers,  as  in  the 

ike  Regillus.     They  constantly  swore  by  their  names  j  the 

oath  ■    women  was  Mcaslor,  or  by  the  temple  oi  Castor;  that  ot  the  men 

was  . /'■    /"<'.  or  by  the  temple  of  Pollux. 

Pollux  are  found  particularly  on  Roman  monuments.     A  fine  representation,  drawn  from  a  larga 
(Ottgivl  -. -n  in  our  Sup.  Plate  21. 

•J.  The  festival  called  Dioscuria  (Sioaimvpia)  was  in  honor  of  these  brothers,  celebrated 
illy  by  the  Spartans.     On  this  occasion  the  gitts  of  Bacchus  were  very  freely 
unidst  the  drinking  at  the  feasl   in  honor  ot  Castor  and  Pollux,  which 
B  ictra,  thai  he  madly  slew  his  devoted  friend  Clitus. — This  festival 
ink   to  have  had  the  same,  origin  as  the  famous  mysteries  ot  the  Cabin, 
whh  ,  rated  particularly  at  Samothrace,  and  were  thought  to  have  great  effi- 

cacy m  protecting  from  shipwreck  and  storms. 

An  ancient  structure  now  exists  at  Salonica,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Cabirian  Temple :  see  Plate  V.— Cf.  G.  S.  Fa&er, 
ri.    Oxf.  IMS.  Zvols.  8.— Frerel,  Les  Cabires,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxvii.  p.  9 

$  130  u.   Heroes  of  the  Theban  War.     In  the  early  history  of  Greece,  the  war  of 
Thebes,    which  is  dated   upwards  of   1200  years    before  Christ,  is  much  celebrated. 
With  ml  relating  its  incidents  we  shall  here  only  name  some  of  the  principal  heroes  of 
tin   lime      Among  these  were  Etiocles  and  Polynices,  the  two  sons  ot  GEdipus,  king 
of  Thebes,  whose  own  private  story  was  so  tragical.     The  war  arose  from  the  dissen- 
sion of  these  brothers,  who  slew  each  other  in  a  single  combat,  and  were  afterwards 
honored  as  demigods.     Several  famous  chiefs,  as  Capa?ieus,   Tydeus,  Hippomedon, 
keuopaus,  united  with  Adrastus,  king  of   Amos  and  father-in-law  of  Polynices,  to 
pari  in  the  war.     The  events  connected  with  it   furnished  the  poets  with  matter 
merous  tragedies. — The  second  enterprise  against  Thebes,  ten  years  later,  was 
fortunate  in  its  issue,  but  less  celebrated.     It  was  undertaken  by  the  sons  and 
ndants  of  those  slain  in  the  first  war,  and  was  therefore  termed  the  war  of  the 
l->r  ■■  at.     The  most  illustrious  of  these  were  Alcmaeon,  Thersander,  Polydorus,  and 

.lies. 

The  Theban  war  was  one  of  the  favorite  themes  of  ancient  poets.  Antimaehus  of  Colophon, 
a  Greek  poet,  and  contemporary  with  Choerilus,  wrote  a  poem  in  twenty-four  books  on  the  sub- 
jecl  ;  the  fragments  have  been  collected.  Cf.  P.  V.  $  1!).— The  poem  of  the  Latin  poet  Statins  is 
-nil  extant.    Cf  1'.  \ 

Jlpollod.  i.  i.—Dwd.  iv.—Gilliu,  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  i.—Kcightley's  Mythology. 

i  131.  Whilst  the  Thebans  and  the  Argives  were  involved  in  contention  and  calamity,  Tanta- 
lus, and  In-  di  scendanls  the  Tanlalides,  were  equally  afflicted  by  various  misfortunes,  occasioned 
bj  the  i  iipiety  of  this  prince,  who  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Jupiter,  and  reigned  in  Lj  ilia.  Being 
of  immorlal  descent,  he  was  honored  with  a  visit  from  the  gods  during  an  excursion  they  made 
upon  earth      In  enter  to  prove  the  divinity  and  power  of  Ins  guests,  he  served  up  among  other 

mi  i-  Ihe  limbs  of  Ins  son  Pelops,  whom  lie  had  cruelly  rdered.     The  gods  perceived   his 

perfidious  barbarity,  and  refused  to  touch  Ihe  dish;  hut  Ceres,  whom  the  recent  loss  of  her 
daughter  had  rendered  inattentive  and  melancholy,  ate  one  of  the  shoulders.  In  compassion  to 
the  fate  nf  the  yoiing  prince,  Jupiter  restored  him  to  life;   and  instead  of  the  shoulder  which 

had  devoured,  substituted  one  of  ivory,  which  possessed  the  property  of  healing  by  its 

:h  ill  kinds  nf  diseases. 

\-    i  punishment   for  his  cruelty,  Tantalus  was  condemned  in  hell  (}  34)  with  an  insatiable 

I ft  and  thirst   in  ihe  midst  of  abundance. — He  had  a  daughter  Niobe,  who  fell  a  sacrifice  to 

her  intolerable  vanity.  She  w;is  married  to  Amphion,  a  prince  of  Thebes  in  Boeolia  ;  ami  having 
a  greal  number  nf  children,  she  had  the  temerity  to  treat  Latona,  who  had  only  two,  with  over- 
bearing  arrogance.     Provoked  al  tins  insolence,  Latona  applied  to  Apollo  and  Diana,  who  {!)  38) 

desiroyed   all    her   I ated   offspring  excepl   Chloris  (cf.  }  38).     Niobe,  after  the  death  of  her 

Children,  returned  to  Lydia,  and  ended  her  days  near  Mt.  Sipylns  ;  according  to  the  fables,  she 
w  i-  »n  shocked  at  li  r  misfortune,  that  she  was  changed  into  a  rock.  "  On  Mt  Sipylus,  acenrd- 
'"-  '"  P  msanias,  was  to  be  seen  a  rock  winch  from  a  distance  resembled  a  woman  in  deep  me- 

■  r  it  hand  it  had  not  the si  remote  resemblance  to  one." 

tips  quitted  Phrj  uria  ami  ri  paired  to  Elis,  where  he  became  enamored  of  Hippodamia,  the 
daughter  of  king  (Enomaus  ;  bin  this  monarch,  having  been  informed  that  he  should  perish  by  the 
hand  nf  his  snn-in  law,  determined  to  marry  his  daughter  to  him  only  who  could  outrun  him  in 
""'  cli  iriot  race  ;  and  thos,.  u  ho  entered  Ihe  list  were  to  f  rfeil  their  lives  if  conquered.     Un- 

r|  al  tins  , diiion,  Pelops  boldly  undertook  the  combat,  and  to  secure  his  success,  he 

prev  •  ial)  bribed  Mj  rules,  the  charin r  of  CBnnmaus,  who  disposed  the  axle-tree  of  the  cha- 

""'  In  such  a  inaiiiier  as  to  break  it  on  the  course  j  and  the  unfortunate  kins,  being  thrown  to 
the  ground,  killed  himself.  CKnomaus  thus  lefl  his  kingdom  and  his  daughter  to  Pelops,  who 
acquired  great  celebrity,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  peninsula  in  the  southern  part  of  Greece. 
I  el  >ps.  alt.-t  death,  received  divine  honors.     He  had  an  altar  in  the  grove  Alt  is  at  Oh  mpia,  and 

"'"'  c"  revered,  even  above  other  hemes  (Find  Olymp.  i.  146,    Pausan.  v,  13).     Ilisdesceml- 

tni-  were  called  Pelopida.  His  two  sons.  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  were  celebrated  for  their  iniitua. 
hatred  and  crimes.  Km  his  two  grandson*,  Agamemnon  a*d  Menelatis,  the  Atrida,  acquired  a 
■pore  honorable  renown. 


3-  *i.  HEROES     OF    THE    TROJAN    WAR.  13? 

$  132  u.  Heroes  of  the  Trojan  War.  Of  all  the  wars  of  Grecian  story,  none  is 
more  famous  than  that  of  Troy,  which  was  the  first  military  campaign  of  the  Greeks 
out  of  the  limits  of  their  own  country.  The  immediate  occasion  ot  it  was  the  seizure 
of  Helen,  wife  of  Menelaus,  king  of  Lacedoemon,  by  Pans,  son  of  Priam,  king  of 
Troy.  The  siege  continued,  according  to  the  common  account,  including  the  prepara- 
tion and  marches,  ten  years,  with  various  successes  and  disasters,  uniil  at  last  t he  Greeks 
became  masters  of  the  city  by  stratagem.  The  chiefs  who  were  engaged  in  this  enter- 
prize  acquired  the  highest  renown  in  Greece,  and  the  poetry  of  Homer  has  secured 
their  everlasting  remembrance.  The  chief  commander  was  Agamemnon,  and  the  more 
illustrious  of  ihe  heroes  with  him  were  Achilles,  Ulysses,  Diomedes,  Menelaus,  Ajux 
son  of  Telamon,  and  Ajux  son  of  Oileus,  Idomeneus,  and  Nestor.  On  the  side  of  ihe 
Trojans,  Hector,  JEneas,  and  Antenor  were  among  the  most  celebrated. 

The  war  of  Troy  was  not  more  memorable  in  itself  than  for  its  consequences.  It 
gave  a  new  spring  to  Grecian  culture  (cf.  P  IV.  §  40).  The  arts  of  war  were  greatly 
improved.  Numerous  and  important  civil  revolutions  took  place  in  most  ot  the  states. 
But  all  this  pertains  to  authentic  history  rather  than  to  mythic  tales. 

See  Mitfnrd,  ch.  i.  sect.  4.— Gillia,  ch.  i.  iii.— Class.  Joint,  v.  14.  IS.  vi.  25.  ix  605,  628.  xviii.  I4IV— Chandler,  History  o, 
Tfoy.  See  references  given  in  P.  V.  §  50.  l.—Btyaytl  (in  a  Dissertation  on  the  war  of  Troy,  Lond.  1799.  4)  has  maintained  that 
he  whole  tale  is  a  mere  fable,  and  that  there  never  was  any  such  war. 

§  133.  Although  the  personages  specially  called  Heroes  in  Grecian  story  belonged  to 
the  period  termed  the  heroic  age  (cf.  §  118) ;  yet  under  our  fourth  division  of  the  subject 
of  Mythology  (cf.  §  10)  will  properly  fall  the  names  of  a  multitude  of  personages  of 
later  periods,  including  RomaTis  as  well  as  Greeks,  who  after  their  death  were  deified 
in.  the  country  where  they  lived,  or  had  become  renowned  (cf.  §  88.  2,  and  89.  3)  for 
memorable  attainments  or  achievements.  Merely  to  have  been  a  king  or  ruler  was 
sufficient  to  secure  deification  among  a  people  fond  of  the  pageantry  of  superstition. 
This  servile  and  impious  adulation  was  particularly  practiced  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks 
towards  the  successors  of  Alexander.  Mere  governors  of  provinces  were  sometimes  thus 
honored.  After  the  Roman  imperial  power  was  established,  it  became  a  regular  cus- 
tom (cf.  §  94)  to  deify  the  emperors. 

The  Roman  senate  made  it  their  business  by  solemn  decree  to  place  every  deceased  en.peror 
in  the  number  of  t he  gods,  and  the  ceremonies  of  his  Apotheosis  were  united  with  those  of  his 
funeral.  But  as  the  actions  of  each  one  were  now  faithfully  recorded  by  history,  it  was  impos- 
sible to  connect  with  the  deified  name  such  fabulous  and  mysterious  tales  as  to  give  the  divini- 
ties, thus  established  by  law,  much  hold  upon  the  popular  feelings.  The  list  of  imperial  deiuW 
gods,  therefore,  is  of  comparatively  little  importance  in  a  view  of  the  ancient  mythology. 

This  deification  of  the  emperors,  it  is  very  likely,  gave  rise  to  the  beatification  of  saints,  practiced  by  the  Ron:an  Catholics. 
See  Middleton's  Letter  from  Rome,  showing  the  conformity  between  Popery  and  Paganism.    Lrnd.  1729.  4.    6th  ed.  ]V5   \, 
Also  in  his  Miscellaneous  IVorhs.   Lond.  1755.  5  vols.  ?.  — Cf.  Gibbon.  Decl.  and  Fall,  &c.  ch.  iii. 
SeipeOi^  the  ceremonies  attending  the  Apotheosi5,  or  Ccntsecratio,  see  F.  III.  §  &i3.      , 


PLATE    XV  a. 


Gods  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  classed  in  the  preceding  Sketch. 


1.  Superior  Gods. 

Jupiter  Juno 

Neptune  Minerva 

Apollo  Diana 

M  ii-  Vi-iiiis 

Mercury  Vesta 

Vulcan  Ceres 

Janus  Rhea 

S.iiurii 

Pluto 

Bacchus 


2.  Inferior  Gods 


Ccelus 

Sol 

£olus 

Plums 

yEsculapius 

Pan 

Luna 

Aurora 

Nox 

Iris 

Latona 

Themis 

Nemesis 

Fortuna 

Fama 


3.  Mythical  Beings. 
i     Gods  [  Titans        Manes 


.  ks 


Sev 
prculi: 
the      i 
(cf.  $  SS) ; 

Enyo 

Ergane 

Colyllo.&c. 

Several      Gods 


Hie      Romans 

(cf.  §  89) ; 

Priapus 

Terminus 

Vertumuus 

PO Nil 

Flora 
Feronia 
Pales,  &c. 


Giants 
Pygmies 

Tritons 
Sirens 


Lares 
Penates 
Satyrs 
Fauns 


Nymphs     Gordons 


Muses 

Graces 

Hours 

Seasons 

Fates 

Furies 

Harpies 

Winds 

Genii 

Somnus 

Mors 


Amazons 
Centaurs 
Minotaur 

Chiinaera 

Geryon 

Hydra 

Pegasus 

Scylla 

Charybdis 

Sphinx 

Typhon 


4.  Deified 
Inachus 
Phnroneus 
Ogyges 
Cecrops 
Deucalion 
Ainplnctyon 
Cadmus 
Danaus 
Pelops 
Minos 
Perseus 


Heroes. 
Hercules 
Theseus 
Jason 
Castor 
Pollux 

and 
Heroes 
of  the 
Theban 
and  the 
Trojan 
wars,  &c 


The  Gods  as  classed  by  the  Greeks. 


Superior  Gods,  called 
MeyaXoi  0eoi. 


Jupiter 

Nepl  niie 

Apollo 

Mercury 

Mars 

Vulcan 


Juno 

Ceres 

Diana 

Minerva 

Vesta 

Venus 


Inferior  Gods,  called  simply  Qeo\,  and 
sometimes  ^aipuvei.  • 

Saturn  Aurora       The  Mythical  Be- 

Bacchus  Themis 

.'Eolus  Luna 

JEsculapius  Nox 
Helius  or  Iris 
Sol  Hehe 

Pluto  Tyche 

Pan  Latona 

Plutus  Nemesis 

Fa  ma 


above;    Titans, 
Giants,  &c 

The  Gods  peculiar 
to  the  Greeks 
(cf.  §88),eicept 
such  as  fall  into 
the  class  of  De- 
migods. 


Demigods,  called  'H/iiSeoi. 

Here    fall    Ina     The   Theban    Heroes 
chus,  Perseus,        are — 
and  all  named     Ca  paneUS 
above,    under    Tv(ie„s 
Heroes.  „•  , 

Poly  It  ices 

Here  also  some.    Thersullder,  &C. 


Bacchus,  £.0- 
lus,  and  other 
gods  are  put. 


The    Trojan     Heroes 

Agamemnon 
Achilles 
Ulysses 
Diomedes 
Ajax,  &c. 


The  Gods  as  classed  by  the  Romans. 


Dii  Majorum  Gentium. 


1.  Consentes. 

Jupiter 

Neptune 

Apollo 

Mercury 

Mars 
Vulcan 

Juno 

<  'i  res 

Diana 

Minerva 

Venus 

Vesta 


2.  Selecti. 
Saturn 
Pluto 
Sol 
Janus 
Bacchus 
Genius 
Rhea 
Luna 


Dii  Minorum  Gentium. 


1.  Semones, 
Guardians  ovit 
particular  ob- 
jects; as 

Pan 
Plutus 
jEolus,  &c. 


also 


Vertumnus 

Terminus, 

and  most  nf  the 
Gods  peculiar 
to  the  Romans 
(cf.  §  89). 


He 


the 


Mythical     Be 


2.  Miscellanei, 

Personifications  of 
various  objects;  as 

Virtus 

Fides 

Honor 

Spes 

Pietas 

Bellona 

Febris 

Mephitis 

Victoria,  &x. 


3.  Pereprini, 
Gods  from  other 
nations ;  as 

Mithras 

Osiris 

Isis 

Apis  &.  Mnevis 

Sera  pis 

A  1 1  ti  his 

Harpocrates 

Canopus,  &c. 


4.  hulipetes, 
or  Adscnplitii ; 

Hercules 
Castor 
Pollux 
Apneas 
Romulus  or 
Quirinus,  &c. 

Also  deified  Empe- 
rors, &c. 


Gods  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  classed  according  to  supposed  Residence. 


Celestial. 
Jupiter        Venus 


A lo 

Mercury 

M;trs 

Vulcan 
Cupid 


Vesta 

Aurora 
Iris 
Hebe 
Psyche 


rlymennui  Hnra 
Juno  Seasons 

Minerva      traces 
Hi. ma         Musea 

The  Musrssnmrtimt-*  rank- 
ed wiib  the  Terreetrial. 


Terrestrial. 
Terra 

Cybele 
Ceres" 


Saturn' 

Janus' 

Bacchusi 

Terminus 


Pomona 

Pales 

Feronia 

Pan 

Silenus 

Satyrs 

Fauns 


Vertumnus  I.ares 
Priapus        Nymphs 
Flora  Penates, &c 


!  Ranked  sometimes 

Celestial. 


vltb  the 


Marine. 
Oceanus       Tethys 


Neptune 
Aolus 
Proteus 
Phorcys 


Amphitrite 

Matuta 
Ino  or 
Leucothoe 


Portumntis  Sirens 
Nereus         Nereids 


Triton 
Glaucus 
Paliemon 
Tritons 


Scylla 
Charybdis 


L-. 


Infernal. 
Pluto  Proser- 

Charon         pine 
Minos         Nemesis 
Rhada-       Mors 
manthus  Manes 
jEacus         N.Tiiia' 
Cerberus    Parcas 
Nox  Furies 


•  Goddess  of  Funerals. 


138 


PART    III. 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES 


PLATE     XVI. 


GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Introduction. 

§  1.  Gr^ccii  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  fron.  Graicus,  a 
son  of  Thessalus,  his  descendants  being  called  Graici,  Tpaizot.  The  Graici, 
however,  were  only  a  single  tribe  of  the  inhabitants,  some  of  whom  planted 
themselves  in  Italy.  The  country  originally  seems  to  have  had  no  common 
name,  comprehending  properly  all  its  tribes.  Gra-cia  was  a  name  used  hy  the 
Romans,  not  by  the  inhabitants  themselves.  It  was  called  by  them  Hellas, 
from  Hellen,  a  son  of  Deucalion,  and  also  Achaia,  Pelasgia,  Ionia  ;  and  the 
people  were  called  by  the  ancient  writers  Acha?ans,  Argivi,  Danai,  Hellenes, 
Pelasgians,  and  Ionians.  These  names  of  the  country  and  the  occupants, 
however,  were  not  employed  always  in  a  uniform  sense,  but  seem  to  have  re- 
ferred in  their  general  application  chiefly  to  the  more  important  colonies  or  com- 
munities, which  originally  occupied  and  peopled  the  land. 

§  2t.  Greece,  in  the  most  comprehensive  sense  of  the  term,  was  bounded  on 
three  sides  by  the  Mediterranean  sea,  parts  of  which  were  distinguished  by  the 
names  of  ./Egrean,  Cretan,  Ionian,  and  Adriatic;  and  on  the  north  extended  to 
the  chain  of  mountains  called  Urbelus  (cf.  P.  I.  §77)  separating  it  from  Meesia. 
Taken  in  this  extent,  it  is  naturally  divided  into  four  parts  ;  Macedonia;  Thes- 
salia  and  Epirus;  Hellas;  and  Peloponnesus  (cf.  P.  I.  §76).  Taken  in  a  more 
limited  sense,  excluding  Macedonia,  it  was  sometimes  divided  into  two  parts  ; 
Graecia  Propria  (including  Thessalia  and  Epirus,  and  Hellas);  and  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. In  the  most  limited  sense,  however,  it  included  merely  Hellas, 
which  is  perhaps  usually  meant  by  the  restrictive  phrase  Graecia  Propria.  The 
name  of  Greeks  was  also  applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  Grecian  colonies  in 
Asia,  in  Italy,  and  in  Africa. 

§  3.  It  may  be  well  to  mention  the  principal  cities  which  were  distinguished 
for  their  power  and  cultivation.  These  were  Athens,  in  Attica;  Sparta  or  La- 
cedaemon,  in  Laconia  ;  Argos,  Mycenae,  and  Corinth,  in  the  territory  of  Argolis; 
Thebes,  in  Boeotia  ;  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia.  The  more  eminent  foreign  or 
colonial  cities  of  the  Greeks  were  the  following;  Miletus  and  Ephesus  In 
Ionia;  Mitylene,  Chios,  Samos,  and  Rhodus,  in  the  islands  near  Asia  Minor; 
Byzantium  on  the  Thracian  coast;  Corcyra  on  the  island  of  that  name;  Ta- 
rentum,  Sybaris,  and  Locri  in  Southern  Italy;  Syracuse,  Agrigentum,  Gela, 
and  Leontium  in  Sicily  ;  Syrene  in  Africa.  In  later  times  Alexandria  in  Egypt, 
Antioch  in  Syria,  and  Seleucis  in  Chaldea  on  the  Tigris,  were  considered  as 
Grecian  cities. 

§  4.  The  form  of  government  in  Greece  underwent,  in  the  course  of  its  his- 
tory, three  remarkable  changes.  In  the  earliest  heroic  ages,  the  several  tribes 
or  communities  obeyed  petty  princes  or  chiefs  of  their  own  choice.  Subse- 
quently monarchies  properly  so  called  were  established  in  Sicyon,  Artjos,  Attica, 
Thebes,  Arcadia,  Thessaly,  Corinth,  Lacedaemon,  Elis,  iEtolia,  ^Egialea,  or 
Achaia.  But  the  Greeks  were  in  the  most  flourishing  condition  during  the 
time  of  the  two  republics  of  Athens  and  Sparta. — The  Achaean  and  Etolian 
league,  the  kingdom  of  Epirus,  and  the  political  constitution  of  the  Greeks  in 
Asia  Minor,  are  also  very  valuable  portions  of  the  Grecian  history. 

§  5.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Greece,  who  probably  came  from  Thrace  and 
who  were  followed  next  by  the  Pelasgi  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  33,  34)  and  the  Hellenes, 
lived  in  a  very  rude  state,  without  any  commercial  relations  or  even  common 
laws.     They  practiced   upon  each  other  constant  robbery  and   violence,  and 

141 


142  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

\\.  re  exposed  to  frequent  attacks  from  the  occupants  of  the  neighboring- islands. 
Colonies  from  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Asia  Minor,  gave  the  first  impulse  to  thei; 
culture,  which  was  aided  by  the  commencement  of  the  navigation.  The  famous 
Areronautic  expedition  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  exploits  in  the  naviga- 
tion of  this  early  period,  occurring  about  eighty  years  before  the  Trojan  war. 
it  f'l'i}  years  before  the  same,  the  first  formal  state  constitution  was  adopted, 
in  Crete,  under  the  direction  of  Minos;  not  with  the  perfection,  however, 
which  was  secured  at  Athens,  through  the  influence  of  Cecrops,  and  after  him 
Theseus.  The  people  of  Attica  were  the  first  to  adopt  a  more  peaceful,  quiet, 
and  frugal  mode  of  life;  and  this  example  influenced  the  inhabitants  of  othei 
regions  to  renounce  their  irregular  habits  and  predatory  excursions. 

§  6.  Hereby  was  occasioned  a  more  free  intercourse  between  the  different 
people  of  Grei  ce,  and  a  greater  union  in  regard  to  objects  of  common  interest, 
particularly  in  reference  to  murders  and  depredations.  A  proof  of  this  was 
-_rivcii  by  the  fact  of  so  many  slates  joining  to  avenge  the  injuries  of  Menelaus 
omitted  against  him  by  Paris  in  the  seduction  of  Helen)  and  carrying  on 
together  the  war  against  Troy.  This  war  became  a  means  of  the  further 
advancement  of  Grecian  culture  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  40),  although  it  was  also  the 
occasion  of  many  troubles  and  revolutions  among  the  states  at  home,  and  thus 
led  to  the  migration  of  many  Greeks  to  neighboring  islands  and  to  Asia.  Fi- 
nally they  became  weary  of  wars  and  tumult,  began  to  love  peace,  law,  and 
social  ease,  and  united  in  adopting  public  solemnities  and  religious  rites,  and 
maintaining  social  and  civil  order. 

§  ?.  Hitherto  the  form  of  government  had  been  chiefly  of  a  military  charac- 
ter; the  chieftain  who  commanded  in  war  was  the  civil  head  of  his  people;  but 
now  a  more  monarchical  form  was  assumed.  Soon  however  the  kings  abused 
their  power,  and  by  their  tyranny  forced  their  subjects  to  throw  off  the  yoke. 
Love  of  liberty  then  became  the  ruling  passion  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  very 
name  of  king  was  odious.  It  was  this  spirit  which  gave  rise  to  a  state  of 
things  in  which  the  Greeks  sustained  an  eminence  surpassing  all  other  nations. 
Through  the  mutual  assistance  rendered  each  other  in  acquiring  independence, 
the  jealousies  and  discords  which  had  previously  reigned  were  in  great  measure 
allayed.  Amphictyon,  third  king  of  Athens,  had  united  several  of  the  states  in 
a  sort  of  confederacy  (cf.  §  105),  and  this  compact  afterwards  became  much 
more  close  and  strong.  An  excess  of  population  in  this  period  of  tranquillity 
and  prosperity  was  prevented  by  sending  out  various  colonies  to  Italy,  Asia, 
and  Africa. 

§  8.  Among  the  free  states,  Sparta  or  Lacedasmon  enjoyed  first  the  advantages 
of  a  rigid  and  at  the  same  time  salutary  system  of  laws,  which  however  in 
some  particulars  evinced  the  imperfect  culture  of  the  age.  Lycurgus,  B.  C. 
aboul  820,  the  author  of  this  code,  had  previously  made  himself  acquainted  with 
the  manners  and  institutions  of  the  Cretans  and  Egyptians.  Without  intro- 
ducing any  violent  changes,  or  even  abolishing  in  form  the  existing  twofold 
n  gal  office,  he  placed  the  relations  of  rulers,  magistrates,  and  people,  in  a  new 
and  improved  attitude.  His  morals  and  precepts,  which  were  in  part  very 
sown  ,  tended,  as  did  his  whole  political  system,  to  form  a  brave,  constant,  and 
warlike  people,  and  thus  cause  them  to  be  feared  and  respected.  His  design 
wam  accomplished,  and  Sparta  acquired  in  these  respects  a  high  pre-eminence 
over  the  other  states. 

Se--  J.  K.  F.  Mann,  Sparia,  ein  Versuch  zur  Erkllruns  d-  Geschich'e  unit  Verfassung  dieses  Slaats.    Leipz.  1800-1805.  3  Th.  8. 
■  D  P.  V.  i  ".7(d). 

§  !».  Next  to  Sparta,  Athens  became  distinguished.  Being  advanced  in 
culture  by  the  legislation  of  Solon,  B.  C.  about  594,  and  subsequently  acquir- 
ing glory  and  power  from  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  at  Marathon,  she  became 
re  and  more  jealous  of  the  superiority  of  Sparta.  This  jealousy  led  to  mu- 
tual animosities  and  finally  to  the  well  known  Peloponnesian  war,  which  was 
carried  on  for  pight-and-twenty  years  (from  431  to  404  B.  C.)  between  Athens 
and  Sparta,  and  m  which  almost  all  the  other  states  of  Greece  took  part  on  one 
side  oi  the  <  ther.  Sparta  finally  was  triumphant,  but  her  glory  did  not  endure 
>ng  after  this.     Athens  rose  far  higher  in  political  and  literary  character,  and 


P.  III.  INTRODUCTION.  143 

became  the  residence  of  refined  manners,  useful  knowleage,  and  cultivated  taste 
in  the  arts. 

H'm.  Young's  Political  History  of  Athens Trans,  into  German.  Leips.  1777.  S.— Athenian  Letters,  or  the  epistolary  corres- 
pondence of  an  agent  of  the  king  of  Persia,  residing  at  Alliens  during  the  Peloponnesian  w^r.  Loud.  I7S9.  2  vols.  8  — Trans  into 
Germ,  by  F  Jacob,  Leip7   ISOO.- liulvxr,  Rise  and  Fall  of  Athens.— Cf  P.  V.  §  7.  7  (J,. 

§  10.  The  progress  and  decline  of  culture  in  Greece  we  are  to  notice  more 
particularly  in  the  Archaeology  of  Literature  (P.  IV.  §  33ss.  GTss.),  and  here 
it  is  only  necessary  to  allude  to  the  causes,  which  conspired  to  render  Greece 
so  eminent  in  this  respect.  Some  of  the  causes  were,  besides  the  highly  pro- 
pitious climate  of  the  land,  its  numerous  population,  whose  very  necessities  as 
well  as  mutual  emulation  excited  and  fostered  a  spirit  of  activity  and  invention; 
its  enjoyment  of  an  encouraging  and  ennobling  liberty  ;  its  commercial  inter- 
course, and  the  general  prosperity  which  resulted.  These,  with  other  favorable 
circumstances,  raised  the.  Greeks  to  a  nation  which  is  even  to  the  present  day 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  history,  and  whose  works  in  literature  and  art 
are  still  valued  as  our  best  models. 

§  11.  Hence  our  diligent  attention  is  properly  bestowed  on  the  antiquities  of 
the  Greeks,  by  which  we  become  acquainted  with  their  religious,  civil,  military, 
and  domestic  institutions  and  customs.  The  general  utility  of  such  knowledge, 
especially  as  an  aid  in  the  investigation  of  history,  language,  criticism,  mytho- 
logy, and  art,  commends  the  study  of  antiquities  to  every  one,  who  engages  at 
all  in  classical  pursuits.  It  adds  to  the  interest  and  value  of  Greek  antiquities, 
that,  among  all  the  various  objects  of  knowledge,  the  language,  literature,  re- 
ligion, history,  and  whole  genius  of  the  Greeks,  hold  so  high  a  place  in  point 
of  relative  importance.  Some  acquaintance  with  what  is  denominated  their 
Antiquities  is  essential  to  enable  us  to  enter  much  into  these  subjects,  to  com- 
prehend well  their  spirit  and  character,  or  to  contemplate  the  various  monu- 
ments of  their  literature  and  art  in  a  definite  and  correct  view. 

On  the  utility  of  the  study  of  classical  antiquities,  we  introduce  the  following  re- 
marks, abridged,  from  Roll  in  (as  cited  F.  II.  %  5u.)— "To  a  certain  extent,  this  study 
is  indispensable  lor  all  who  make  pretensions  to  education.  Without  it,  there  are 
a  multitude  of  expressions,  allusions,  and  comparisons  which  they  cannot  understand; 
without  it,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  advance  a  step  even  in  reading  history,  without 
being  arrested  by  difficulties  which  a  tolerable  knowledge  of  antiquity  would  readily 
solve.  Like  all  other  studies,  when  carried  too  far,  it  threatens  with  its  dangers. 
There  is  sometimes  connected  with  it,  a  sort  of  learning,  abstruse  and  badly  con- 
ducted, which  is  occupied  only  on  questions  equally  vain  and  perplexing,  which  on 
every  subject  searches  for  that  which  is  least  known  and  most  difficult  to  be  compre- 
hended. Seneca  (de  Brev.  Vit.  c.  14)  more  than  once  complains  that  this  vitiate.d 
taste,  which  originated  with  the  Greeks,  had  passed  over  to  the  Romans.  Juvenal 
also  (L.  iii.  Sat.  7)  ridicules  the  corrupt  taste  of  his  contemporaries,  who  required  that 
a  preceptor  should  be  able  to  reply  without  preparation  to  a  thousand  absurd  and  ridi- 
culous questions.  It  is  to  know  very  little  of  the  worth  of  time,  and  grossly  to  mis- 
apply one's  talents  and  exertions,  to  occupy  them  in  the  study  of  things  obscure  and 
difficult  and  at  the  same  time,  as  Cicero  says  (Off.  L.  i.  n.  19),  unnecessary  and  some 
times  even  vain  and  frivolous.  Good  sense  will  lead  the  student  carefully  to  shun  this 
danger.  He  will  remember  the  sentiment  of  Quintilian  (L.  i.  c.  8),  that  it  is  a  foolish 
and  pitiable  vanity,  which  prides  itself  in  knowing  upon  every  subject  all  that  interior 
writers  have  said  ;  that  such  an  occupaiion  consumes  unprofitably  the  time  and  strength 
which  ought  to  be  reserved  for  better  things;  and  that  of  all  the  eminent  qualifications 
of  a  good  teacher,  that  of  knowing  how  to  be  ignorant  of  certain  things  is  by  no  means 
the  least. 

After  these  precautions,  we  cannot  too  highly  recommend  the  study  of  antiquities 
either  to  students  or  teachers.  High  attainments  in  this  very  comprehensive  branch 
of  learning  ought  to  be  the  aim  of  every  youth,  who  proposes  to  pursue  important 
studies  himself,  or  to  direct  those  of  others.  The  extent  or  difficulty  of  the  work 
should  dishearten  no  one.  By  devoting  every  day  a  fixed  portion  of  time  to  the  read 
ing  of  ancient  authors,  intellectual  riches  will  be  amassed,  little  by  little,  which  win 
afterwards  be  a  source  of  astonishment  even  to  the  possessors  themselves.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  make  the  commencement,  to  employ  time  profitably,  and  to  note  down 
observations  in  order  and  with  accuracy. 

Most  of  the  topics  connected  with  antiquities  might  be  embraced  under  seven  or  eighi 
heads:  religion;  political  government ;  war;  navigation;  monuments  and  public  edi- 
fices; games,  combats,  shows  ;  arts  and  sciences  ;  the  customs  of  common  life,  stick 
as  pertain  to  repasts,  dress,  &c.     Under  each  of  these  divisions  are  included  many 


144 


GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 


subdivisions.  For  example,  under  the' head  of  religion  are  comprised  the  gcds,  priests, 
temples,  vases,  furniture,  instruments  employed  in  different  religious  ceremonies  sacri- 
lii .  -.  i.  asts,  vows  and  oblations,  oracli  s  and  omens ;  and  so  of  the  other  heads.  ' 

See  K.  II.  UilhauMtr,  leber  Philologie,  Allertbumswissenschaft,  uud  Alterthumsstudium.  Far  Studirende.  I.ps.  1837.  8.  pp-  88. 
i  ou  (he  Study  of  Antiquities.    Oxf.  1782.  8.—  Planner,  as  cited  §  196.  3  u.— See  also  P.  IV.  §  29 ;  and  works  there 

ii-. 

§  12.  The  sources  of  Greek  antiquities  are  in  part  the  classical  writers,  and 
especially  the  historians,  more  particularly  such  of  them  as  give  details  of  the 
whole  constitution  of  Grecian  society,  the  manners,  customs,  and  modes  of 
thinking  and  feeling.  Among  the  classical  writers,  the  poets  also  must  be 
-nlered  as  sources  of  information  on  this  subject,  especially  the  epic  poets, 
whose  narrations,  notwithstanding  their  fictitious  ornaments,  have  some  truth 
for  a  basis,  and  whose  representations  give  much  insight  into  the  character  and 
views  of  the  people  of  the  times.  But  another  important  source  is  found  in 
tin-  remaining  monuments  of  art;  inscriptions,  coins,  statues,  bas-reliefs,  gems, 
and  vessels  of  various  kinds.  These,  being  sensible  objects,  give  us  a  more 
distinct  and  complete  conception  of  many  points  than  could  possibly  be  gained 
from  mere  verbal  descriptions,  and  are,  moreover,  of  great  value  as  illustrations 
of  beauty  and  taste. 

§  13  u.  Various  modern  writers  have  collected  from  these  sources  scattered  items  of 
information,  and  arranged  them  methodically  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  gain 
a  knowledge  of  antiquities,  and  apply  it  to  the  study  of  Greek  literature.  Other  writci* 
have  investigated  particular  topics  in  a  more  full  and  extended  manner. 


1.  For  an  account  of  works  of  both  kinds,  see 

/.  A.  Falncu  Bibliographia  antiquaria.  vStud.  et  op.  P.  $chaj[s- 
Hansen.)  Hamb.  1760.  4.  cap.  ii. 

Xttscfi's  Beschreibung  des,  &c.  which  is  cited  below  (Th.  i 
p.  35.) 

Krebt,  Handbuch  derphilnlol.  BJcherkunde  (Bd.  ii  p.  211). 

Cf.  Sulzer't  All;.  Throne,  Alien. 

Meuzel's  Bibliolheca  Historiea,  vol.  3d,  as  cited  P.  V.  \  240- 
enumerates  the  writers  ou  Antiquities. 

2.  The  most  important  collection  of  particular  treatises  on 
Greek  Antiquities  is  Jar.  Gronovii  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum 
Gra-carum.  Lug.  Pat  1697-1702  13  vols.  fol.  Ven.  1732.  An 
account  of  the  contents  is  given  in  the  work  of  Fatlricma,  just 
cited.— A  mass  of  valuable  matter  relating  to  various  branches  of 
Greek  Antiquities,  with  illustrations  taken  from  ancient  monu- 
ments, is  found  in  Montfaucon's  Antiq.  Expliq.  cited  P.  II. 
\  12.  2(d).  An  abridgment  of  this  in  German,  by  J.  F.  Ruth, 
was  published  N  Irnli.  1907.  fol.  with  150  plates.—  We  mat  men- 
tion here  also  Caylus,  Recueil  des  Antiquiles  Par  1767.  7  vols.  4. 
containing  Egyptian  and  other  antiquities,  with  engravings.— 
Alvi,  F.  A.  Damd,  Antiquiles  Elrusqurs,  Grecques.  et  Romains. 
Par.  1787.  5  vols.  4. 

3.  Among  the  best  Manuals  and  Compen  Is  on  the  subject 
are  the  following  : 

Everh.  Feilhii  Antiquitatum  Homericarum  Libri  iv.  (ed.  El. 
Stttbrr)  Argent.  1743.  & 
Fr.  Rus,  Attick  Antiquities.    9th  ed.     Lond.  1685.  4. 
Jo.  Phil  Pfitffi  ■,  Libri  iv.  Antiq.  Graecarum.    Lpz.  1708.  4. 
Lamb.  /(,,.,  Antiq  Graecarum,  prascipue  Atticarum,  Descrip- 
'win  ami  Zamita).    Lpz.  I7S7.  8. 
(Eng.  trans,  by  Stockdale)   Lond.  1772    B. 

.Sie.  Haeercamp,  Antiq.  Gra:carum,  pracipue  Atticarum,  De- 
•xriptio  brevis.     Lug.  Bat.  1740.  8. 

P.F.A.NUtch,B  »<hri-ihiingdeshlu«lichen,gottesdienstlichen, 

jeriachen  und  wiasenschaftlicben  Zu- 

'■'   (tottgeietzt von ffipfiur) Erf.  1791-1800. 

-     «iH,  ..  lib  rol.  by  KUvke,    Erf.  1806.    Cf.  Clan. 

.  10. 

/".  F  A.  Ifilteh  (tame),  Entwurf  der  Griech.  AlterthQmer. 

Al'r 78 

und  Archlologie  der  Griechen  und 
dto  in  hit  Encycl.  der  Class  Alterthunisk).     Magdeb. 

ino, ». 

a  Graca,    or   the    Antiquities   of 
•.twice,  tic    Loo  I 


J.  Potter,  Archseologia  Grceca,  or  the  Antiquities  of  Greece 
Oaf.  1639.  2  vols.  8 —Same  work.ed  U.Dunbar.  Edinb.  1820. 
— with  additions  and  corrections  by  Anthon.  N.  York,  tS25.  8. 
—with  no'es,  maps,  ic.  by  J.  Boyd.  Gh<g  1837.  12.  valuable- 
Same  work  in  German,  with  additions  by  /.  /  Ramlach.  Halle. 
1777-78.  3  vols.  8. 

A  compendium  of  Grecian  Antiquities  by  C.  D.  Clevclana 
Best.  IR3I.  12. 

Abriss  der  Griech.  und  Rom.  AlterthJmer,  von  Chr.  Fried 
Haacke.    Stendal,  1821.  12.  (very  brief). 

4.  The  following  are  not  designed  for  manuals,  but  contain 
highly  interesting  pictures  of  Grecian  antiquity. 

J.  Jac  Barthelemy,  Voyage  de  jeune  Anacharsis  en  Grece.  ed 
Stereot.  Par.  IS20.  7  vols.  12  —Engl  transl.  by  W.  Beaumont 
Lond.  1806.  Cf.  P.  V.  \  I53.-In  Germ,  with  notes  by  /.  E. 
Biester.     Berl.  1792.  7  vols.  8. 

J.  D.  Harlmann's  Versuch  einer  Kulturgeschicbte  del 
vornehmsten  Volkerschaften  Griechenlands.  Lenigo,  1796  and 
1800.  2  Bde.  8. 

J.  D.  Lockharl,  Inquiry  into  the  Civil,  Moral,  and  Religious 
Institutions  cf  Athens,  &c.  with  the  T  jpography,  and  Chorogra 
phy  of  Attica  and  Athens.  Translates!  from  the  German  of  K.  O. 
Wilier.     Lond.  1842.  8. 

The  Athenian  Letters,  cited  5  9. 

6.  The  following  works  also  may  be  consulted  with  advan- 
tage on  different  points : 

tVactismulh,  Hellentsche  Alterlhumskunde.  Halle,  1826. 
Trans,  into  Engl.  (Historical  Antiquities  of  Greece)  0*f.  1837. 
4  vols.  8. 

II:'.'.'!  Essays  on  the  Institutions  of  the  Greeks. 

Gillu-y  Discourse  on  the  Manners  of  the  Greeks. 

Jr.  Becker,  Charicles;  Bilder  altgriechischer  Sitten.  Lpz.  1*40. 
2  vols.  8.  with  plates.  A  work  illustrating  the  private  life  of  th« 
ancient  Greeks. 

('  Hermann,  Antiquitatum  Laconicarum  libelli  iv.  Matb. 
1841    4. 

J.  Mallcot,  Recherches  sur  les  Mceurs,  les  Usages,  religieux, 
i  ivile,  .  i  mililaires,  des  Anciena  Peuples.     Par   1809.  3  vols.  4. 

//.  Hase,  The  Public  and  Private  Life  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 
Transl.  from  firman.     Lond.  1836.  8. 

HttrtnU  Politics  of  Anc.  Greece.  Transl.  by  G.  Bancroft 
Bosl.  1824. 

('.  0.  MUllcr's  History  and  Antiquitii-s  of  the  Doric  Race  In 
1  i  //.  Tufm-I  and  G.  C.  Lewis.     Oxf.  1830.  2  vols.  8. 

Win.  Bruce,  State  of  Society  •«  the  age  of  Homer. 


P.  III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLY    AGES.  J  45 

.}.  Bi'Ckh.  S'aatshsushaltung  der  Athener     (Translated   into  |      Encyclopedic  Methodiqtie,  as  cited  P.  II.  5  12.  <l  (c). 


English)  Public  Economy  of  Athens.     Lond.  1823   2  vols.  8. 

Lardner't  Cabinet  Encyclop.  No.  xlvii.  and  Ixtc.  (On  Arts, 
Manufactures,  &c.  of  Greeks  and  Romans.) 

Rougier,  L'Agricullure  Ancienne  des  Grecs.     Par.  1830    8. 

D.  G.  Watt,  Jewish,  Oriental,  and  Classical  Antiquities  ;  con- 
*aining  illustration!  of  the  Scriptures  and  Classical  Records,  from 
Oriental  sources.  Camb.  1823.  8.  (cf.  Home,  Int.  to  Stud.  S. 
Script,  ii.  p.  727). 

Rolling  Anc.  Hist.  bk.  x  Best  edition,  New  fork,  1835. 
2  vols,  large  8. 

C.  F.  Weber,  Repertorium  der  classiscben  Alterthumswissen- 
schaft.     Lpz.  1832.  8. 


P.  Da.tt,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.  Lond. 
1700.  1. 

A.  Pauly,  Real-Encyclop;ldie  der  classischen  Alterthumswis- 
senschaften      Stuttg.  1838.  commenced. 

Fostroke,  Encyclopaedia  of  Antiquities,  Classical  and  Medije- 
val.  Lond.  1838.  3  vols.  4.  with  plates.— Also  Lond.  1840. 
1  vol.  large  8. 

IV.  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.  Lond. 
1842.  large  8.  very  valuable. 

6.  Additional  references  on  particular  topics  will  be  given, 
as  the  topics  occur  in  the  following  sections. 


§  14.  The  subject  of  antiquities  cannot  be  treated  in  so  strict  accordance  with 
chronological  order  as  the  events  of  history,  because  the  sources  of  information 
are  not  sufficiently  minute.  But  still  in  describing  the  antiquities  of  a  people, 
one  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  influence  which  political  revolutions,  the  pro- 
gress and  decline  of  refinement,  and  other  circumstances,  have  exerted  at  suc- 
cessive times  upon  the  constitution,  manners,  and  whole  national  character  and 
social  state.  Most  writers  have  not  been  sufficiently  mindful  of  this,  and  have 
also  confined  themselves  chiefly  to  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Grecian  states, 
viz.  Athens,  and  so  have  described  Jltlic,  rather  than  Grecian  antiquities.  In 
order  to  avoid  this  double  fault  in  the  present  sketch,  the  antiquities  of  the  ear- 
lier and  less  cultivated  times  will  be  distinguished  from  those  of  a  later  and 
more  enlightened  period  ;  and  in  speaking  of  the  latter,  although  Athens  was 
then  the  most  important  and  most  eminent,  we  shall  also  notice  the  constitution 
-ad  peculiarities  of  the  other  principal  states. 


I. — Of  the  earlier  and  less  cultivated  Ages. 

§  15.  It  has  been  already  suggested  (§  5,  §10),  that  Greece  advanced  with 
very  rapid  step  from  a  state  of  extreme  rudeness  in  manners  and  morals  to  the 
highest  degree  of  refinement.  The  history  of  this  progress  may  be  divided 
into  three  distinct  periods.  The  first  extends  from  the  original  state  of  barba- 
rism to  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war ;  this  was  the  period  of  the  peopling  of 
Greece:  the  second  extends  from  the  capture  of  Troy  to  the  time  of  Solon,  the 
period  of  the  rise  and  formation  of  the  Grecian  constitutions  and  customs  :  the 
third  extends  from  the  age  of  Solon,  to  the  time  when  tne  Greeks  lost  their 
liberty  by  subjection  to  the  Macedonians  (cf.  P.  V.  §  9),  the  period  of  theii 
greatest  perfection  and  glory. 

Under  the  present  head  it  is  proposed  to  notice  what  pertains  more  particu- 
larly to  the  first  and  second  of  the  above-mentioned  periods ;  and  the  subject 
will  be  considered  in  four  general  branches,  viz.  religious,  civil,  military,  and 
domestic  affairs. 

I.   RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS. 

§  16.  During  the  rude  and  unsettled  state  of  society  among  the  Greeks,  their 
religion  had  no  fixed  or  steady  form:  yet  a  great  part  of  the  popular  belief 
originated  in  these  times,  which  on  this  account  have  been  called  the  mythical 
ages  or  fabulous  period.  The  formation  of  this  early  popular  faith  was  aided 
by  the  general  ignorance,  the  predominance  of  sensual  ideas,  and  the  natural 
tendencies  of  the  mind  in  an  uncu'tivated  state  of  society  (P.  II.  §  5  m).  With 
the  progress  of  social  and- moral  culture,  the  traditions  and  fables  grew  into  a 
sort  of  system,  which  was  retained  as  a  religion  of  the  people,  and  augmented 
and  modified  by  additions  from  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  mythology. 

According  to  common  accounts,  Greece  received  new  and  better  religious 
notions  from  Thrace,  by  Orpheus,   B.   C.  about  1250  (cf.  P.  V.  §  12,  §  48,> 

13 


J  40  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

They  were,  however,  chiefly  of  Egyptian  origin.  The.  worship  of  animals  the 
cs  never  adopted  ;  but  they  embraced  in  common  with  most  of  the  ancient 
nations,  the  worship  of  the  stars,  thai  early  form  of  idolatry.  They  also  prac- 
ticed the  custom  of  deifying  and  worshiping  men  (P.  II.  §  118),  who  were 
styled  heroes,  having  distinguished  themselves  by  making  new  discoveries, 
establishing  useful  laws,  or  performing  renowned  exploits. 


Oo  the  religious  aflUirs  of  Greece,  we  m»y  refer  to  /.  G.  Lakemachcr,  Antiquiutes  Graecorum  sacra;.  Helmst.  1744.  %.—€!« 
Hilling       I  .  Antiq.  Grac.  e  prcfanis  sacrarum.     Francof.  1758.  S.-Ma/wd,  HisI  Grsc.  ch.  ii.  sect.  1.— Fuucher,  su 

irecs,  m  ti  e  Han.  .Had.  Inscr.  vols,  jtxxiv.  uiv.  uxvi.  xxxviii.  and  mix.— Ant.  Van  Dale,  Diss,  de  Grigmt 
»<  Frogressu  Idolatria  et  Superslitionum.    Ainst.  Ib96.  4. 

<i  17  //.  Religious  study  and  instruction  among  the  early  Greeks  was  the  business  of 
their  wise  men,  lawgivers,  and  poets,  who  were  mostly  at  the  same  time  priests.  The 
matter  of  these  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  dogmas  and  narratives  of  Theogony  and 
Cosmogony,  which  were  of  a  mixed  character,  fabulous  and  allegorical,  but  based  upon 
Hires  in  nature  and  man.  The  various  operations  of  the  powers  of 
nature  and  the  movements  of  human  passions,  were  the  principal  foundation  of  the 
mil  doctrines  of  the  mythology.  The  origin  of  things,  their  vicissitudes  and  trans 
formations,  their  nature,  tendency  and  effects,  were  the  subjects;  and  these  were,  by 
a  lively  fancy,  changed  into  supposed  or  imaginary  persons,  to  whom  words,  actions, 
and  appropriate  attributes  were  ascribed.  The  regular  combination  or  assemblage  of 
these  in  i  Tiler  was  called  the  Theogony,  or  account  of  the  origin  and  descent  of  the 
gods.  This  constituted  the  whole  theory  of  religion,  which  one  of  the  most  ancient  of 
the  Greek  poets,  Hesiod,  reduced  to  a  sort  of  regular  form  in  his  poem  styled  the  The- 
ogonv,  and  all  the  principal  elements  of  which  Homer  interwove  in  his  two  epic  poems, 
the  llliad  and  Odyssey.     (Cf.  P.  V.  $  50,  §51.) 

§  18  u.  In  the  first  ages  the  wise  men,  and  especially  the  poets,  made  great  exertions 
to  imbue  the  minds  of  the  people  with  reverence  for  the  gods  and  respect  for  their  wor- 
ship. On  public  solemnities,  and  in  great  assemblies  of  the  people,  they  were  ac- 
customed to  adapt  their  songs  to  this  object.  Even  when  the  subject  of  these  songs 
was  not  the  history  of  the  gods,  nor  any  point  of  direct  religious  instruction,  they  were 
opened  by  a  prayer  to  Jupiter,  Apollo,  or  some  inspiring  deity.  In  this  way  they  fixed 
and  strengthened  a  prevailing  faith  in  the  power  and  providence  of  the  gods,  and 
tinned  the  first  ideas  of  risrht,  virtue,  and  morality,  and  of  future  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. The  songs  of  these  poets  constituted  at  first  the  chief  means  and  subject  of 
the  instruction  of  the  young.  Hence  arose  on  the  one  hand  the  great  influence  of  their 
poetry  on  the  moral  culture  of  the  Greeks,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  great  admiration 
in  which  the  early  poets  were  generally  held. 

§  19  u.  For  an  account  of  the  principal  Grecian  deities,  their  names,  rank,  history, 
attributes,  and  mode  of  worship,  we  refer  to  the  portion  of  this  work  which  treats  of 
Mythology  (P.  II).  Here  we  only  remark,  that  ihe  number  of  the  Grecian  gods  con- 
stantly increased  with  the  progress  of  time,  yet  the  highest  and  most  distinguished  of 
them  were  introduced  and  honored  in  the  early  ages,  and  it  was  chiefly  in  the  class  of 
heroes  or  demigods  that  this  augmentation  took  place,  after  the  lapse  of  the  heroic 
ages,  and  by  means  of  oral  traditions.  The  more  extensive  the  services  of  these  heroes 
were  while  living,  the  more  general  was  the  reverence  for  them  after  death,  while 
those,  whose  beneficial  influence  had  been  confined  chiefly  to  a  particular  city  or  tribe, 
were  deified  chiefly  by  the  same,  and  received  a  less  general  homage  and  worship. 

§  20.  The  sacred  places,  which  were  specially  dedicated  to  the  gods  in  these 
early  aires,  were  in  part,  fields  and  grounds,  whose  produce  was  devoted  to 
uses  connected  with  religious  worship  ;  partly  groves  and  particular  trees,  the 
former  being  commonly  planted  in  a  circular  form;  and  partly,  at  length,  /em- 
which  were  viewed  as  the  seats  and  habitations  of  their  respective  gods. 
The  temples  were  usually  in  the  cities  near  the  market  or  place  of  public  busi- 
ness, although  they  were  sometimes  erected  in  the  country,  and  in  the  conse- 
rrated  groves.  The  ground,  on  which  they  stood,  was  usually  elevated  either 
by  nature  or  art.  and  their  entrance  or  front  was  commonly  towards  the  east. 
Some  of  them  were  dedicated  to  a  single  deity,  others  to  several.  It  was  not 
uncommon  to  place  the  name  of  the  god,  to  whom  the  temple  was  sacred,  in  a 
brief  inscription  over  the  entrance. 

§21.  Originally  the  interior  of  the  temple  was  entirely  vacant,  after  the 
Egyptian  manner,  even  without  the  image  or  statue  of  its"  god.  And  in  the 
earliest  times  the  image  of  a  god  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  15t>.  2)  was  nothing  but  a  mire 
Btone,  w  hich  served  to  represent  the  deity,  and  to  which  offerings  were  brought. 
This  was  the  primary  origin  of  altars.  By  degrees,  these  stones  came  to  be 
formed  into  a  human  shape,  after  which  it  was  more  common  to  place  statues 


P.  III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLY    AOES.  147 

(dyatyuxra)  of  the  gods  in  their  temples.  The  posture  was  sometimes  stand- 
ing, sometimes  sitting.  The  material,  at  first  employed,  was  of  no  great  value, 
[  eing  stone,  wood,  or  clay.  There  were,  however,  in  the  heroic  ages,  images 
of  the  gods  of  a  more  costly  suhstance,  such  as  ivory,  brass,  silver  or  gold, 
although  Homer  never  exactly  describes  the  material. 

§'22.  The  care  of  the  temples  and  holy  things  was  intrusted  to  the priesti 
and  priestesses.  The  number  of  these  varied  in  different  cases,  and  depended 
generally  upon  the  rank  of  the  deity,  on  whose  temple  and  worship  they 
attended.  The  marriage  state  was  not  forbidden  them,  although  it  became 
afterwards  customary  to  take  priestesses  mostly  from  persons  unmarried,  who 
either  were  obliged  to  perpetual  celibacy,  or  remained  priestesses  only  until 
marriage.  In  some  instances  the  priesthood  was  hereditary  ;  but  in  others  it 
was  adopted  in  free  choice,  or  by  lot.  The  residence  of  the  priests  was  usu 
ally  near  the  temple,  or  the  consecrated  grove,  often  within  the  limits  of  the 
latter.  They  derived  their  subsistence  from  what  was  offered  to  the  gods,  and 
were  often  in  easy  circumstances.  Generally  the  office  was  highly  honored  in 
the  early  ages  of  Greece,  and  was  held,  in  part  at  least,  by  the  noblest  and 
most  distinguished  personages,  sometimes  even  by  kings. 

§  23.  Some  of  the  principal  riles  and  solemn! lies  pertaining  to  the  religious 
worship  must  here  be  mentioned.  Among  these  were  lustrations  (xa^ap^oi, 
ayvLfjfxoi,),  which  consisted  in  the  ablution  of  the  body,  and  a  certain  purification 
of  the  clothes,  and  of  sacred  utensils.  For  this  purpose  salt  water  was  used, 
which  was  taken  from  the  sea,  or  prepared  by  a  solution  of  salt  in  common 
water.  Sulphur  and  fire  were  also  used  on  these  occasions.  These  purifica- 
tions were  considered  as  especially  necessary  for  those  who  were  defiled  by 
murder  and  blood,  and  even  for  the  places  w'here  such  crimes  had  happened. 
They  were  often  ordered  for  the  propitiation  of  offended  deities. 

§  24.  But  prayers  and  sacrifices  were  the  most  essential  parts  of  Grecian 
worship.  The  former  were  put  up,  especially,  when  some  important  enterprise 
or  undertaking  was  commenced  ;  the  object  of  the  prayer  being  to  secure  a 
happy  issue,  in  case  of  which  very  rich  gifts  were  promised  to  the  gods  by  the 
supplicant.  Both  prayers  and  vows  were  termed  sv^ou.  In  making  them,  the 
eyes  and  hands  were  raised  towards  the  heavens,  or  in  the  temples  directed 
towards  the  images.  The  posture  was  sometimes  standing,  sometimes  kneel- 
ing (yoiTaCf^at,  yovvrtfrtiv)  ;  the  latter  was  used  especially  in  case  of  earnest 
desire  or  peculiar  distress,  and  often  by  the  whole  assembly  in  common. 

1.  Supplicants  usually  had  garlands  on  their  heads  and  necks,  and  green  boughs  ol 
olive  or  laurel  (c  iXXai  or  K\afoi  licriipioi)  in  their  hands.  In  the  boughs  wool  was  placed 
without  tying,  and  they  \\sro  hence  called  sometimes  artfijiara.  With  these  boughs  the 
supplicants  touched  the  knees,  sometimes  the  cheek,  of  the  statue  of  the  god  addressed 
in  their  prayers. 

2  u.  With  the  prayers  were  usually  joined  the  libations,  or  drink  offerings,  mtov6dt, 
called  also  Xo/3di,  \oU.  These  consisted  generally  of  wine,  part  of  which  was  poured 
out  in  honor  of  the  gods,  and  part  of  it  drunk  by  the  worshiper.  The  wine  must  be 
pure  (flxparov),  and  offered  in  a   full   cup.     Sometimes  there  were    libations  of  water 

(iifjocrrrojra),  ot   honey  (fjii\i<nrovna),  oi    milk  (yaXuicro<x7ro;'<5a),  and  of  oil  (ekatdaTr0v6a). 

In  Plate  XX.  we  have  the  representation  of  a  priestess  in  the  act  of  pouring  out  the  lihation  ; 
in  tills  instance  the  liquid  is  poured  upon  the  flame  kindled  on  the  altar;  also  in  Plate  XXVII. 
fig.  O.  which  is  taken  from  Muses,  Antique  Vases. 

§  25.  The  sacrifices,  ^Wou,  originally  consisted  merely  of  incense,  ^voj,  oi 
some  sort  of  fragrant  fumigation,  by  cedar,  citron  wood,  or  the  like.  In  very 
early  times,  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  in  a  crude,  unprepared  state,  were  oifered; 
and  subsequently,  cakes,  oittm,  baked  of  coarse  barley,  or  meal  mixed  "vith 
salt.  It  was  not  until  a  somewhat  later  period,  that  the  slaughter  of  living 
victims  was  introduced.  These  victims  were  selected  with  great  care.  At 
first,  bullocks,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine,  were  chiefly  taken  for  the  purpose. 
Afterwards  certain  animals  became  specially  sacred  as  victims  appropriate  to 
particular  gods.  Sometimes  a  single  victim  was  sacrificed,  sometimes  several 
at  once,  which  were  often  of  the  same  kind  of  animal,  and  often  also  of  differ- 
ent kinds.     The  hecatomb  (ixaro/i^)  properly  consisted  of  a  hundred  bullock* 


A48  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

or  oxen ;  yet  neither  the  number  nor  kind  of  animals  was  veiy  }  recisely  re- 
garded. , 

The  origin  of  sacrifices  is  an  interesting  and  important  theme.     Some  flippant  and  superficial 

writer-  ascribe  them  wholly  i ere  superstition  and  priestcraft.     Others  attempt  in  a  more 

-  manner  to  explain  their  existence  by  human  origin.     Several  theories  have  been  pro- 
posed :  one  is,  that  they  were  at  first  gifts,  a  natural  expedient  for  procuring  the  favor  of  the 
'another,  thai  thej  were  federal  riler,  drawn  from  men's  eat  ins;  and 'drinking  together  in 
Mi  iendship,  and  hence  ilie  Bacrificial  banquet  (cf.  i?2~>;  a  third,  advanced  by  Warburton 
,.,,  hi9  Divine  Legation  of  Moses),  is  thai  they  were  symbvlical  anions,  expressive  of  gratitude 

;„  „ if,.,  jngs,  and  in  others,  of  the  acknowledgmenl  of  sin  and  contrition  through  the  deaih 

nf  an  ai il  repre ting  the  death  deserved  by  the  worshiper.     But  a  fourth  account,  which 

-  in,  in  to  a  divine  institution,  is  more  satisfactory.  The  Uihle  represents  the  Hebrew  sacri- 
Sces  as  t>  pical  of  Ihe  death  of  Christ  as  the  great  atoning  sacrifice  for  sinners.  (Cf  Ep.  to  heb. 
ix,  and  \  i  «>n  supposition  that  God,  when  be  promised  a  Redeemer  to  Adam,  instituted  somr 
memorial  and  type,  in  an  animal  sacrifice,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  by  tradition  the  practice  of  offering 
B  ,,  rlh  ,  .   should  !'     u  liver  sal,  -The  subject  is  well  discussed  by  /('.  Mau-ee,  Dissertations  on  the 

iral  Doctrine  of  A einent  and  Sacrifice.   N.  York,  1813.  8  — Cf.  A.  A.  Sykes,  Essay  on  the 

8  li  rifices.     I d.  17  18.  8. 

S  26.  The  allars (j3w/tto/),  on  which  the  sacrifices  were  presented,  were  erected 
not  only  in  the  temples,  but  often  in  open  places,  as  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
en  mountains,  in  groves,  and  the  like. 

ar  seems  to  have  preceded  the  temple  ;  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  gave  rise 
ii    .  mple,  as  suggested  in  the  following  passage. 

"Throughout  the  whole  of  the  Iliad  no  mention  occurs  of  a  temple  in  Greece,  except  in  the 

second  I k,  evidently  incidental,  and  the  interpolation  of  some  vainly  patriotic  Athenian  rhap- 

The  passage  indeed  might  be  condemned  on  the  grounds  of  philological  discussion,  but 
it  contradicts  both  the  history  of  art  and  of  religion  in  that  country.  In  Troy,  the  temple  of 
Minerva  appears  to  have  been  a  mere  shrine,  in  which  a  statue  was  inclosed,  and  probably,  in 
Tenedos,  i  temple  of  Apollo  is  merely  alluded  to.  During  the  nee  of  Homer,  then,  the  primeval 
altar,  common  t"  both  Europe  and  Asia,  was  the  only  sacred  edifice  known.  This  differed  little 
from  a  common  hearth  ;  the  sacrifice  being  in  fact  a  social  rite,  the  victim,  at  once  an  offering  to 
heaven,  and  the  food  of  man,  was  prepared  by  roasting;  the  first  improvement  on  their  simple 
construction  appears  to  have  been  the  addition  of  a  pavement,  an  obvious  means  of  cleanliness 
and  comfort.  Yet  even  this  appears  to  have  constituted  a  distinction  not  common,  since,  in  par- 
ticular instances,  the  pavement  is  mentioned  as  a  peculiar  ornament.  Subsequently,  in  order 
.o  mark  in  a  more  conspicuous  manner,  and  with  more  dignity,  the  sacred  spot,  while  the  rites 
should  he  equally  exposed  to  the  spectators,  an  open  colonnade  was  added,  inclosing  the  altar 
atid  pavement.  Thus  the  roofless  temple  might  be  said  to  be  finished  ;  but  whether  this  prime- 
val structure  existed  in  his  native  country  during  the  age  of  Homer  does  not  appear.  We 
remark  here  a  very  striking  resemblance  between  the  ancient  places  nf  devotion  in  Greece  and 
the  Druidical  temple  of  the  more  northern  regions.  In  fact,  the  astonishing  remains  at  Stone- 
benge  present  the  best  known,  and  perhaps  one  of  the  most  stupendous  examples  ever  erected 
nf  the  open  temple.  This  species  of  religious  erection  appears  to  have  been  co-extensive  with 
tile  spread  nf  the  human  race,  and  not,  as  generally  supposed,  limited  to  the  northern  portion 
of  the  globe." — Memes,  Hist,  of  Sculpture,  &.C.  p  225,  as  cited  P.  IV.  $  169. 

§  27.  Among  the  ceremonies  connected  with  offering  a  sacrifice,  was  the  pre- 
vious washing  of  the  hands  (§  G7.  2)  and  the  sprinkling,  by  the  priests,  of  those 
who  wire  present,  with  sacred  water  (^Ipvt^).  Then  was  placed  upon  the 
back  and  head  of  the  victim,  in  early  times,  unground  barley,  in  later  times,  a 
number  of  small  cakes  (rfoytara,  6v%6%vra),  often  meal  mixed  with  honey,  wine, 
ill  ;  a  little  hair  torn  from  the  forehead  of  the  victim  was  then  thrown  upon 
the  fire;  next  followed  the  prayer  and  libation  (§  24.  2);  then  the  priest,  or  the 

;.  smote  the  animal  on  the  head  with  an  ax  or  club,  and  cut  its  throat  with 
i  sacrificial  knife  (^fayi's).  The  blood  was  received  in  an  appropriate  vessel 
(tftayfiot).  The  victim  was  then  flayed  and  cut  in  pieces.  The  next  thing 
w  is  to  cover  the  haunches  or.  thighs  (/.irjpoi.)  with  caul  or  fat  {xvlaa^),  and  to 
take  small  pieces  from  other  parts  of  the  animal  and  place  upon  them  (w/u.o$t?Hi>). 
Upon  the  portions  thus  prepared,  wine  was  commonly  poured,  and  they  were 
then  placed  on  the  altar  and  burned.  The  rest  of  the  victim  was  usually 
roasted  on  spits,  and  eaten  at  the  sacrificial  banquet.  Banquets  of  this  kind 
were  made  especially  on  the  sacred  festivals. 

28.  Besides  the  sacrifices  properly  so  called,  it  was  common  to  bring  to 
the  Lr"'ls  other  gifts  and  offerings  (dwpu.,  rW^/iaro.).  Among  these,  were 
crowns  or  garlands  (o-tfidtavoj,  st'£<j>o$),  with  which  the  temples,  altars,  and  sta- 
'nes  were  often  adorned,  and  which  were  formed  of  the  leaf  sacred  to  the  par- 
ticular god  to  whom  they  were  offered:  e.  g.  of  ivy,  for  Bacchus;  of  oak,  for 
lupiter.  Curtains  and  vestments  (rtfpirtfrartjitara,  rtfpoi'/juara)  wrought  with 
•»cr.  embroidery  w<  re  brought  and  placed  upon  the  statues  or  hung  in  the  torn 


P.  HI.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLIER    AGES.  148 

pies.  Vessels  of  gold,  silver,  and  brass  were  also  offered,  and  tripods  (tpt'rtoo'f  $) 
especially  to  Apollo.  The  spoils  of  war  were  often  thus  consecrated,  dxpo&na, 
with  shields  and  arms.  Frequently  the  articles  dedicated  to  the  ijfds  were 
marked  by  inscriptions  stating  the  occasion  and  circumstances  of  their  dedica- 
tion. From  the  custom  here  described,  arose  the  great  riches  of  some  of  the 
Grecian  temples. 

The  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  particularly,  became  in  the  course  of  years  pos- 
sessed of  immense  wealth. 

See  Atitjbrd't  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  xxxvii.  sect.  I  ;  ch.  xxxviii.  seel.  I  ;  ch.  xxxix.  sect.  5.— Bancroft's  Heeren,  p.  201,  as  cited  P.  V. 
§  7.  i.—De  f-'aloM,  Les  richesses  du  ten. pie  de  Delphes,  in  the  Man.  Acad.  Inset,  iii.  78 

§  29.  In  addition  to  the  worship  rendered  the  gods,  there  was  a  worship  of 
the  heroes  as  demigods  (§  16),  which  however  was  neither  so  general  nor 
attended  with  so  much  ceremony.  These  had  no  festivals,  properly  speaking, 
but  an  annual  funeral  solemnity  (evdyia/xa),  and  were  viewed  as  tutelary  guar- 
dians of  their  country,  tribe,  or  family.  On  these  solemnities,  the  drink  offer- 
ings (xoui)  were  in  common  practice;  not  only  wine  was  used  for  the  purpose, 
but  often  milk,  and  even  blood.  Sometimes  victims  were  slain,  and  various 
offerings  presented,  and  from  these  a  trophy  (tpondiov)  or  a  funeral  pile,  was 
constructed.  In  some  cases,  the  first  fruits  of  the  season  were  offered.  The 
usual  place  of  such  solemnities  was  the  tomb  of  the  hero,  in  whose  memory 
they  were  held,  near  which  it  was  customary  to  erect  an  altar ;  often  also  to 
make  a  pit  or  hole  (£o£po$,  "kaxxoc),  which  had  reference  to  their  dwelling  in 
the  under  world.     (Cf.  P.  II.  §  3-2.) 

§  30.  Funeral  solemnities  were  generally  a  part  of  the  religious  usages  of  the 
more  ancient  Greeks.  These  commenced  immediately  on  the  death  of  an  indi- 
vidual, in  the  formal  closing  of  his  eyes  {vvyxXflt lv  tovs  dty^a'k/xovc),  a  ceremony 
usually  performed  by  the  nearest  kinsman.  The  corpse  was  then  washed  and 
anointed,  clothed  in  a  white  linen  pall  and  placed  on  a  sort  of  bier  fasxtpov, 
pipitpov).  Around  this  the  kindred  and  friends  of  the  deceased  raised  the 
funeral  lament,  which  was  often  expressed  in  song  by  persons  employed  for 
the  occasion,  and  accompanied  by  mournful  notes  of  the  flute.  The  mourners 
also  testified  their  sorrow  by  plucking  oft"  their  hair,  and  casting  it  upon  the 
corpse.  These  ceremonies  were  continued,  not  always  the  same  length  of 
time,  sometimes  three,  sometimes  seven  days,  and  often  a  greater  number. 

§  31.  The  burning  of  the  corpse  was  a  custom  peculiar  to  the  Greeks,  as 
the  Egyptians  and  the  Persians  used  to  inter  their  dead.  In  the  earliest  times 
interring  was  practiced  by  the  Greeks,  although  Homer  speaks  only  of 
burning. 

1  u.  After  the  completion  of  the  bewailings  just  described,  the  corpse  was  borne  on 
a  bed  or  bier  io  the  appointed  place,  where  a  funeral  pile  (iriipa)  was  erected.  Near 
this,  funeral  sacrifices  were  slain.  Upon  the  pile  were  placed  various  objects,  which 
had  been  particularly  valued  by  the  deceased,  even  animals,  an'd  sometimes  human 
beings  previously  put  to  death.  During  the  burning,  the  attendants  uttered  their  wail- 
ings  and  funeral  chants.  The  flame  was  finally  extinguished  by  pouring  on  some 
liquid,  and  the  ashes  or  remaining  bones  were  collected  by  the  nearest  relative,  and 
deposited  in  an  urn.  which  was  buried  in  the  earth.  The  place  of  interment  was 
marked  by  stones  and  a  mound  (xfyM),  on  which  was  commonly  raised  a  pillar  (<rrnXij), 
or  other  monument,  with  an  inscription.  The  ceremonies  were  endetl  with  a  funeral 
repast  (>£n-po<5£i7rj'oe,  mpiiznrvoi,).  Sometimes  games  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  the 
deceased. 

2.  It  is  stated,  that  among  the  Thracvan*  wives  were  burned  on  the  funeral  piles  of 
their  husbands;  a  custom  which  is  still  prevalent  in  India,  although  the  influence  ol 
Christianity  is  breaking  it  up  in  the  portions  of  the  country  subject  to  England. 

§  32.  In  speaking  of  the  religious  customs  of  the  Greeks,  we  should  not2»:e 
their  regard  to  oracles  and  to  divinations.  The  most  ancient  of  the  oracles  was 
that  of  Dodona ;  that  of  Delphi  was  still  more  celebrated,  and  also  of  earlj 
origin.  The  practice  of  divination  and  the  interpreting  of  signs  was  a  business 
of  the  priests  in  particular.  It  was  done  partly  by  observing  accidental 
occurrences,  as  the  flight  of  birds,  or  the  breaking  of  thunder,  in  both  of  which 
the  right  side  indicated  good  fortune,  the  observer  having  his  face  directed  to  the 
north  ;   and  partly  by  consulting  the  entrails  of  victims.     Sneezing  was  re 


.50  GRKCIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

garded  as  a  favorable  prognostic.  We  may  mention  also  the  prophetic  inter- 
pretation  of  dreams,  ami  the  belief  of  the  multitude  in  magic,  and  in  bodily 
metamorphoses,  which  they  supposed  to  afford  various  means  of  aid  and  pro- 
tection. 

The  religious  festivals  were  numerous  and  attended  with  various  ceremonies. 

But  on  each  of  the   topics  mentioned  in  this  section,  we  shall  speak  more 

particularly  again.     (Cf.  §§  70-77.) 

II.  CIVIL    AFFA1KS. 

§  33.  It  has  been  already  remarked  (§  5),  that  the  first  inhabitants  of  Greece 
lived  in  a  dispersed  state,  without  civil  culture  or  any  social  compact.  The 
family  relations,  the  authority  of  the  parent  over  the  child,  of  the  husband  over 
the  wife,  exhibited  the  only  traces  of  government.  Phoroneus,  a  son  of  Inachus, 
is  mentioned  as  the  first  author  of  association  for  civil  purposes.  Gradually 
the  Greek  tribes  began  to  select  leaders,  who  were  called  kings  (daaaftj), 
however  limited  might  be  the  extent  of  their  dominion  or  authority.  The  choice 
most  generally  fell  upon  such  as  had  rendered  to  their  tribe  or  country  some 
distinguished  and  meritorious  service;  and  then  the  dignity  became  hereditary, 
a  thing  rather  rare,  however,  in  the  earlier  ages.  Sometimes  the  choice  was 
determined  by  consulting  an  oracle,  and  in  such  case  the  authority  was  viewed 
as  the  more  rightful,  and  as  sanctioned  by  the  gods. 

On  Hi,  sul   eclol  the  civil  affairs  of  the  early  Greeks,  we  may  refer  lo  F.  IV.  Tittmann's  Darstellung  Jer  griechisch.  Staatsverfas 
Bungen.     Leipz   ISJJ.  8 — Mitford,  ch.  ii.  sect.  2 ,  ch.  iv.  sect.  4. — See  §  92. 

§  34.  The  kingly  power,  in  the  first  ages,  was  far  from  being  despotic,  or 
unlimited  ;  the  leaders  and  princes  being  bound  by  certain  laws  and  usages. 
The  principal  duties  of  these  chiefs  were  to  command  in  war,  to  settle  disputes 
between  the  people,  and  to  take  care  of  the  worship  of  the  gods.  Valor,  love 
of  justice,  and  zeal  for  religion,  were  therefore  reckoned  among  their  most  im- 
portant excellences.  For  their  honor  and  support,  a  portion  of  the  lands  was 
assigned,  the  cultivation  of  which  they  superintended  themselves  Certain 
taxes  or  imposts  were  also  paid  to  them,  which  were  increased  in  time  of  war. 
The  si<_nis  of  their  office  were  the  scepter  and  diadem.  The  former  (ax^rtTpnv) 
was  usually  of  wood,  and  in  length  not  unlike  the  lance;  the  latter  {Biab-/]/.ia) 
was  a  sort  of  bandeau  or  head-band,  rather  than  a  proper  crown.  The  general 
costume  of  these  kings  was  distinguished  by  its  richness,  and  was  commonly  of 
a  purple  color. 

In  ancient  times,  one  of  the  tokens  of  office  and  rank  always  was  something  attached 
1,1  the  head;  a  wreath,  cap,  crown,  or  the  like.  A  metallic  crown  was  common. 
Davit]  is  said  to  have  bad  a  crown  of  gold  with  precious  stones,  of  the  weight  (meaning 
probablj  ol  the  value)  of  a  talent  (1  Sam.  xii.  30).  Athenaeus  mentions  a  crown,  made 
"i    10,000  pieces  oi  gold,  placed  on  the  throne  of  king  Ptolemy. 

In  our  Plate  XVI.  fig.  C,  we  have  a  curious  golden  crown,  which  is  said  to  have  been  found 
'"  - pari  of  Irel  tnd,  in  1692,abom  ten  feet  underground.  Near  it  in  tli"  Plate,  fig.  a,  is  an  an- 
cient Abyssinian  crown  ;  on  the  other  side,  fig.  t>,  is  the  covering  seen  on  the  head  of  a  conquered 
;>' ii""  or  general  upon  Egyptian  monuments.— In  Plate  XXIV.  fig. 6,  we  have  i\\e  fillet  and  imrn 
worn  by  governors  of  provinces  in  Abyssinia.  "A  laree  broad  fillet,"  says  Bruce,  "was  hound 
upon  their  forehead  and  tied  behind  tlieir  head.  In  the  middle  of  this  was  a  conical  piece  of  silver 
ahum  lour  inches  long.  It  is  called  kirn  or  horn,  and  is  worn  especially  in  parades  after  victo- 
Bruee,  Travels,  &c.  as  cited  P.  IV.  }  118.  1. 

§  35.  The  court  and  retinue  of  the  first  kings  was  very  simple  and  unimpos- 
ing.  In  war,  they  usually  had  by  their  side  a  friend,  who  served  as  a  kind  of 
armor-bearer.  Both  in  war  and  peace,  they  employed  heralds  (xr^vxei)  in  the 
publication  and  execution  of  their  orders.  The  heralds  also  imposed  silence, 
win  n  the  chills  wished  to  come  forward  and  speak  in  an  assembly.  The  same 
officers  assisted  in  religious  ceremonies,  and  were  present  in  the  forming  of 
treaties. — The  kings  also  selected  councillors,  of  the  most  distinguished,  ex- 
perienced, and  brave  of  the  people ;  an. I   in  cases  of  doubt  o:  difficulty,  held 

w,ln  them   i sultationa  and   formal  assemblies,  in  which  the  speaker  was 

accustomed  to  Btand  and  the  rest  to  sit,  Both  public  and  private  affairs  were 
Uscurbi  il  m  these  assemblies. 

$  36.  The  courts  of  justice  were  in  public  places;  and  the  whole   assembly 


P.   III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLIER    AGES.  151 

usually  presented  the  form  of  a  circle.  The  judges  sat  upon  seats  or  benches' 
of  stone ;  the  men  selected  for  the  office  were  such  as  were  much  respected  on 
account  of  age  and  experience.  They  bore  in  their  hand  a  scepter  or  staff. 
The  cause  was  stated  orally  by  the  contending  parties  themselves,  and  by  them 
the  witnesses  were  brought  forward.  The  kings  or  chiefs  presided  in  these 
judicial  assemblies,  sitting  on  an  elevated  seat  or  throne.  For  a  period,  equity 
and  precedent  or  usage  formed  the  basis  of  all  decisions ;  but  afterwards,  the 
courts  had  for  their  guide  particular  laws  and  statutes,  which  were  first  intro- 
duced by  Phoroneus,  and  more  extensively  by  Cecrops. 

§  37.  As  the  laws  in  the  more  ancient  times  were  few  and  simple,  so  were 
the  punishments.  But  few  crimes  were  made  capital.  Murder  was  commonly 
punished  by  banishment,  either  voluntarily  sought  by  the  murderer,  or  expressly 
decreed  by  public  sentence;  its  duration,  however,  was  but  a  year,  and  even 
this  could  sometimes  be  commuted  for  a  fine.  The  privileges  of  asylum  be- 
longed only  to  the  author  of  accidental,  unintentional  homicide.  Adultery  was 
punished  severely,  commonly  with  death.  Robbery  and  theft  were  very  fre- 
quent in  the  early  times  of  Greece,  and  originally  were  not  considered  as  cri- 
minal, while  the  right  of  the  stronger  was  admitted,  especially  if  shrewdness 
and  cunning  were  united  with  the  theft.  Nothing  therefore  was  aimed  at  but 
to  recover  what  had  been  taken,  or  to  inflict  vengeance  by  a  corresponding  in- 
jury. Afterwards,  however,  particular  punishments  were  imposed  for  these 
offences. 

§  38.  In  as  much  as  the  inhabitants  of  Crete  were  connected  with  the  Greeks 
by  their  having  a  common  language,  it  is  important  to  mention  the  Cretan  laws, 
which  were  introduced  by  Minos.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  most  ancient 
written  code,  and  were  afterwards  taken  by  Lycurgus  as  models.  Military 
valor  and  union  among  the  people  seems  to  have  been  their  great  aim;  every 
ordinance  of  Minos  was  directed  to  promote  strength  of  body,  and  to  cultivate 
social  attachment  between  the  members  of  the  state.  In  order  to  impart  greater 
dignity  and  authority  to  his  laws,  he  brought  them  forward  as  having  been  re- 
vealed to  him  by  Jupiter.  But  the  moral  culture  was  not  greatly  advanced  by 
institutions  having  their  primary  and  chief  reference  to  a  state  of  war. 

§  3!).  In  the  progress  of  time,  the  form  of  government  among  the  Greeks 
underwent  many  changes,  and  at  length  became  wholly  democratic.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  states  were  Athens  and  Sparta.  Of  these  in  particular  a  few 
important  circumstances  respecting  their  government  in  the  more  early  acres  are 
here  to  be  mentioned. 

Athens  was  originally  governed  by  kings.  The  power  of  these  kings  was 
more  unrestrained  in  war  than  in  peace.  After  the  death  of  Codrus  ( 10b'8  B.C.), 
it  became  a  free  state.  The  chief  authoiity  was  given  to  officers  styled 
Archons,  who  ruled  for  life.  Thirteen  archons  of  this  description  succeeded 
each  other,  all  descended  from  the  family  of  Codrus.  After  the  time  of  these 
(752  B.  C),  the  office  of  Archon  ceased  to  be  for  life,  and  was  limited  to  ten 
years,  and  was  held  by  a  single  person  at  a  time.  After  a  succession  of  seven 
Archons  of  this  kind,  the  office  was  made  annual  (681  B.  C),  and  nine  Archons 
were  appointed  to  rule  jointly,  not  all,  however,  of  the  same  rank. — The  civii 
government  experienced  changes  under  Draco,  and  others  still  greater  under 
the  distinguished  legislator  Solon,  and  in  after  times. 

§  40.  Sparta  was  also  originally  governed  by  kings.  Euristhenes  and  Pro- 
cles,  the  two  sons  of  Aristodemus  (one  of  the  Heraclida?  that  invaded  Pelo- 
ponnesus), reigned  jointly,  but  not  harmoniously.  Under  their  descendants  the 
kingly  office  lost  much  of  its  authority.  Lycurgus,  the  famous  Spartan  law- 
giver, changed  greatly  the  form  of  government;  it  did  not  become  democratical, 
neither  was  it,  properly  speaking,  aristocratical.  Two  kings  remained  at  the 
head,  and  a  senate  was  established  consisting  of  twenty-eight  men,  who  were 
above  sixty  years  of  age.  There  was  also  the  body  of  five  Ephori,  appointed 
annually.  The  people  themselves  likewise  had  some  share  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  state.  Notwithstanding  many  internal  divisions  and  disturbances, 
this  .state  enjoyed  a  long  period  of  comparative  rest  and  liberty.     This  it  ow-  \\ 


152  GRKCIAN    ANTItl'JITIES 

very  much  to  the  wise  regulations  of  Lycurgus,  the  salutary  influence  of  which 
was  aided  by  the  limited  territory  and  moderate  population  of  Lacedaemon. 

§  11.  One  of  the  most  effectual  means  of  advancing-  the  Greeks  was  their 
commerce  and  the  navigation  connected  with  it.     In  the  earliest  times,  com- 

merci nsisted  chiefly  in  barter  and  reciprocal  exchanges  of  native  products, 

the  use  of  gold  not  being  introduced.  Afterwards  pieces  of  metal  of  different 
value  s  W(  re  employed.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  94.)  Navigation  became  more  common 
after  the  Trojan  war,  and  jEgina  first  turned  it  to  the  advantage  of  commerce. 
Corinth  and  Rhodes  became  most  distinguished  in  this  respect.  The  commerce 
ol  Uhens  finally  became  something  considerable;  that  of  Lacedaemon  on  the 
other  band  always  remained  comparatively  unimportant. — On  the  whole,  it  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  extension  of  commerce  and  maritime  intercourse 
had  an  important  influence  upon  the  civil  and  moral  culture  of  the  Grecian 
states.     (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  10.) 

A.  A-  I  nnd  Chronological  Deduction  of  Ihe  Origin  of  Commerce,  from  the  earliest  accounts;  with  Appendix  bj 

Coomb,  rati.  8 

••  Commerce,  in  the  Homeric  age,  appears  to  have  been  principally  in  the  hands  of 
the  Phenicians.  The  carrying-trade  of  the  Mediterranean  was  early  theirs,  and  Sidon 
was  the  greal  seat  of  manufacture.     The  Greeks  were  not  without  traffic  carried  on 

by  sea  a rig  themselves;  but  the  profession  of  merchant  had  evidently  not  in  Homer's 

time  that  honorable  estimation  which  yet,  according  to  Plutarch,  it  acquired  at  an  early 
I  in  <  freece.  While  it  was  thought  not  unbecoming  a  prince  to  be  a  carpenter  to 
supply  his  own  wants  or  luxuries,  to  be  a  merchant  for  gain  was  held  but  as  a  mean 
meni  ;  a  pirate  was  a  more  respected  character. 

Navigation  had  been  much  practiced,  long  before  Homer,  in  small  open  vessels, 
nearly  such  as  are  still  common  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  the  poet  gives  no  hint  of 
any  late  advan  sement  of  the  art.  The  seas,  indeed,  which  nearly  surrounded  Greece, 
are  singularly  adverse  to  improvements  upon  that  vast  scale  which  oceans  require,  and 
which  modern  times  have  produced.     Broken  by  innumerable  headlands  and  islands, 

with  coasts  stly  mountainous,  and  in  some  parts  of  extraordinary  height,  the  Gre- 

cian  seas  an  beyond  others  subject  to  sudden  and  violent  storms.  These  united  cir- 
cumstances, which  have  made  the  Greeks  of  all  ages  excellent  boatmen,  have  contri- 
buted much  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  seamen.  The  skill  and  experience  of  tbe 
pilot,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  are  constantly  wanted  ;  the  science  of  the 
navigator  is  oi  little  avail;  even  the  compass  is  comparatively  useless  in  the  JEgean. 

Tin    Mediti  rr an  vessi  Is  now,  not  excepting  the  French,  which  are  mostly  navigated 

by  Mediterranean  sailors,  never  keep  the  sea  there  but  with  a  fair  wind.  The  English 
alone,  accustomed  in  all  their  surrounding  waters  to  a  bolder  navigation,  commonly 
venture  in  the  Archipelago  to  work  to  windward.  Sails  were  used  in  fair  winds  in 
Homer's  time;  but  the  art  of  sailing  was  extremely  imperfect.  The  mariner's  de- 
pendence was  his  oars,  which  no  vessel  was  without.  For  in  seas  so  land-locked,  yet 
so  tempestuous,  the  greatest  danger  was  to  the  stoutest  ship.  Light  vessels,  which 
with  their  oars  could  creep  along  the  coast,  watch  the  weaiher,  make  way  in  calms, 
and.  on  any  threatening  appearance,  find  shelter  in  shoal  water  or  upon  an  open  beach, 
were  what  Grecian  navigation  peculiarly  required.  The  Phenicians,  for  their  com- 
merce, used  deeper  ships,  accommodated  to  their  more  open  seas  and  longer  voyages." 
Mitford. 

III.  MILITARY    AFFAIRS. 

§  42.  Military  prowess  was  esteemed  by  the  early  Greeks  as  of  the  greatest 
merit,  and  was  therefore  an  object  of  universal  ambition.  The  first  inhabitants 
were  distinguished  for  their  warlike  inclinations  and  habits  of  life,  although 
iln  it  wars  were  conducted  without,  much  method  or  discipline.  They  were 
constantly  in  arms,  not  only  to  defend  themselves  and  their  property,  but  to 
attack  and  plunder  others.  Thus  they  perpetrated  violence,  murder,  and  de- 
vastation in  the  extreme.  It  needed  but  a  trifling  occasion  to  excite  a  general, 
long,  and  bloody  war;  the  siege  of  Troy  furnishes  a  striking  example.  In 
such  ca  IPS,  several  chiefs  and  people,  sometimes  of  very  distant  provinces, 
jnited  as  in  a  common  cause. 

tolT.R   Nait,    Einleituna  in  die  griechischen  KriegsalterthOmer.    Stutti;  I7S0.  ?.  a  valuabU 

h   pke,  iber  laa  Kriegsweiaen  der  Griechen  im  heroijehen  Zellalter,  *c.  Berl  IS07.  a 

tf.  Claw.  Jaurn.  ix.  II.    I  aur  lea  Grecs  et-sur  let  Romania.    La  Haye,  1758.  4.    It  contain!  I 

i   P.  V.  j  221),  and  plana  of  lome  ancient  baltlun,  S>\.    Cf.  §  275.— Gamier,  as  cited  §  \3i.—M,ifvr* 

•Jn'.  ch.  i:.  tect.  3,  4. 


P.  III.  MILITARY    AFFAIRS    OF    THE    EARLIER   AGES.  15S 

§  43.  The  Grecian  armies  consisted  partly  of  foot-soldiers  and  in  later  times 

of  horsemen,  partly  of  such  as  were  borne  in  chariots.     The  foot-soldiers  were 

distinguished  as  light  armed  (^i?ml)  and  heavy  armed  (ortVuVai).     The  Thessa- 

lians  were  early  and  especially  celebrated  for  their  cavalry  (trtrtsij).  Still  more 

ancient  was   the  use   of  war-chariots,  which  were  employed   by  the  heroes  of 

Homer.     Two  horses,  sometimes  three,  were  attached  to  these  chariots;  each 

contained  two  warriors,  one  of  whom   guided   the  horses  (jjM.0^05),  while  I  be 

other  pointed  out  the  direction  (jrapat^a?^),  discharged  arrows,  hurled  missiles 

from  a  sling,  or  fought  with  short  arms,  and  when  the  action  was  close  sprano 

from  the  chariot  (614^05).     Notwithstanding  the  inconvenience  of  these  vehicles 

in  battle,  they  were  in  use  for  a  long  time,  before  cavalry  came  to  be  generally 

substituted  in  their  place. 

In  the  Sup.  Plate  10  is  seen  a  war  chariot  with  three  horses  and  two  persons;  Btilona.  acting 
as  charioteer,  while  Mars  is  hurling  the  javelin. 

§  44.  The  weapons  of  the  Greek  warriors  were  of  two  kinds,  defensive  and 
offensive.  Among  the  former  (u%f ^tr;pia,  rtpofity/*ata)  was  the  helmet  (xvvir], 
xpuvo$,  rtepixftya'kaia,  aedpuj)  made  of  iiide  or  leather  and  adorned  with  a  crest 
of  hair  or  tufts  of  feathers  (<j>aa.o$,  Jid<}>os),  and  attached  to  the  neck  by  a  strap 
(o#fi>s)  i  tne  breastplate  (^tipo|),  commonly  made  of  brass,  sometimes  of 
leather  or  linen;  the  girdle  ((ui'ij),  mostly  of  brass  and  encircling  the  lower 
part  of  the  body  ;  the  greaves  (xi'^/iiofj),  of  brass  or  some  more  precious  metal ; 
and  the  shield  (arrets),  usually  round,  made,  of  bullock's  hide,  and  used  for  the 
protection  of  the  whole  body  (cf.  §  13!)). 

1  u.  The  shield  was  often  adorned  with  figures,  but  not  as  much  so  as  Hesiod  repre- 
sents the  shield  of  Hercules  to  have  been,  and  Homer  that  of  Achilles. 

2.  Homer's  description  ofthe  shield  of  Achilles  (II  xviii.  478)  is  cons  dered  as  one  of  the  finest 
passages  in  the  Iliad.  A  delineation  and  model  ofthe  shield  was  formed  by  the  celebrated  artist 
Flaxman,  and  several  casts  were  made  in  silver  gilt,  bronze,  and  plaster,  lie  brought  the  whole 
work  within  a  circle  of  three  feet  in  diameter.  It  contains  upwards  of  a  hundred  human  figures 
exhibited  in  relief. 

Cf.  Fdton'i  Iliad,  Notes— See  Qualr.  de  Qidncy,  Sur  la  description  du  bouclier  d'Achille,  Sc.  il  the  Mem.  II. si.  dc  France- 
Classe  A'Hisl.  it  Lit.  Anc  vol.  iv  p.  102,  with  a  colored  plate.— De  Cayhis,  Boucliers  d'Achille,  d'Hercule,  el  d'Ence,  &c.  it 
the  Mem.  Acad.  Inter,  jtxvii.  21.— Class.  Jaurn.  vi.  6;  viii.  409. 

§  45.  The  offensive  weapons  were,  the  spear  (5dpv),  commonly  made  of  the 
ash-tree  (ju*^),  and  of  different  lengths  and  forms  according  as  it  was  designed 
for  combat  more  or  less  close;  the  sword  ({[idioj),  the  belt  of  which  hung  from 
the  shoulders;  the  bow  (to%ov),  usually  of  wood,  with  a  string  (vcvpov)  of 
twisted  horse-hair  or  of  hide;  the  arrows  (fifty,  ourta),  of  light-wood,  pointed 
with  iron,  and  winged  (rtT/fposi;  to?)  with  feathers  ;  the  javelin  (axwv,  axovftov), 
of  various  lengths  and  forms;  and  the  sling  (o<ptvb6i>ri),  of  an  oval  shape,  with 
two  leathern  strings  attached  to  its  ends,  by  means  of  which  arrows,  stones, 
and  leaden  balls  (iAo%vfibvi<ai)  were  hurled  against  the  foe. 

The  spear  used  for  close  combat  was  called  iopv  opzKTdv;  that  tor  a  distance,  ^aXrov; 
.he  point,  termed  dixph  and  ckw/ri),  was  always  of  metal.  Aovpo&oKn  was  the  name  given  to 
ibe  box  or  case,  in  which  the  spears  were  deposited  when  not  in  use. — The  term  i;v>salso 
designates  the  spear  ;   the  epithet  brazen  (viArcoi/)  is  usually  applied  to  it.      Cf.  Horn.  II. 

iii.  3.Q0. The  arrows  were  kept  in  a  quiver  (fiapcrpa),  which,  with  the  bow,  was  usually 

carried  on  the  back  of  the  shoulders  (or  o/xoiaw).     The  quiver  had  a  lid  or  cover  (™m<»). 
Cf.  Horn.  II.  iv.  116-120. 

Various  articles  of  ancient  armor  are  seen  in  our  Plates  XVII.  and  XXTI.  The  how  and  quivti 
are  given  in  fig.  T,  and  L,  of  Plate  XVII.  In  this  Plate  also,  fig.  Y,  Y,  we  have  forms  of  the 
Grecian  javelin  ;  in  O,  O,  spear-heads;  in  the  fists,  a,  a,  the  longs-pear;  in  H,  a  form  ofthe  clubs 
(cf.  #  139)  which  in  various  forms  were  used  in  early  periods;  in  fig.  A,  A,  are  given  forms  of 
the  rlub  or  battle-mallet  used  by  the  Egyptians,  which  sometimes  had  leaden  heads  with  handles 
four  or  five  feet  Ions;  in  fig.  I,  I,  we  have  the  Grecian  battle  ax;  in  fig.  S,  and  in  the  several 
tigs,  marked  C,  and  those  marked  I),  are  forms  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  sword ;  in  E,  a  Dacian 
word  ;  in  those  marked  B,  Persian  swords. — In  Plate  XXII  fig.  a,  b,  c,  rf,  and  e,  are  varieties 
>f  helmets  found  in  Egyptian  remains:  /.  g,  h,  and  i,  are  Persian  and  Syrian  helmets;  the 
kings  are  sometimes  represented  with  crowns  of  a  similar  appearance:  n,  and  a,  are  given  as 
Phrygian  :  I,  m,  are  Grecian,  and  may  represent  also  the  Roman  :  ?>,  and  q,  are  Dacian  :  k.  is  a 
form  quite  similar  lo  the  latter,  said  to  he  used  also  by  the  Syrians.  In  fig  r,  and  on  tne  Gre- 
cian warriors,  fig.  I,  and  fig  7,  the  thorax  is  seen,  and  the  girdle:  s,  represents  a  figure  found 
(cf  Stone's  Life  of  Brant,  vol.  ii.  p.  55,  Appendix)  buried  in  a  sitting  posture,  near  the  celebrated 
Oigbton  Rock,  in  Massachusetts,  with  a  concave  breastplate  thirteen  inches  long,  supposed  to 
ue  of  cast  brass,  and  a  belt  ofthe  same  material  four  and  a  half  inches  wide,  having  a  reed-like 
i;>(>earance  '•  a  brazen  arrow-head,  (.  was  found  with  it.    In  fig.  «,  and  on  the  warrior,  tig  7,  w» 


]54  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

lee  \,  t  preavet ;  the  shield,  in  fig.  1.  3,  7 ;  the  spear  in  the  hands  of  the  Grecian  warriors,  in  fig 
I,  2;  and  of  the  Persian,  lii.'    3:  the  bow,  &c.  in  fig.  6,  which  represents  an  Egyptian  archer. 

§  Hi.  Most  of  the  weapons  of  the  ancient  Greeks  were  made  of  brass  oi 
copper,  which  seems  to  have  been  used  earlier  than  iron  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  10),  and 
was  often  used  after  the  introduction  of  iron.  For  defensive  armor,  iron  was 
afterwards  generally  preferred.  For  the  cuirass  or  breastplate,  the  greaves  and 
the  shield,  tin  or  lead  was  sometimes  used.  To  adorn  the  weapons  with  gold 
was  considered  as  too  extravagant  and  ostentatious.  Yet  they  endeavored  to 
give  tin  ir  armor  the  highest  degree  of  brightness,  not  only  for  the  .sake  of 
beauty,  but  to  inspire  fear  in  the  enemy.  On  the  shield  they  had  a  sort  of 
field-badge,  or  military  emblem,  usually  in  bas-relief,  the  image  of  some  god, 
or  animal,  especially  the  lion.  The  horses  also  were  ornamented  with  much 
care. 

Respecting  the  military  apparel  little  is  ascertained.  Lycurgus  directed  the  I.acedae- 
monians  to  cloihe  then  soldiers  in  scarlet. — The  Greek  soldiers  usually  carried  their 
own  provisions,  consisting  chiefly  of  salt  meat,  cheese,  olives,  onions,  &c.  For  this 
purposi  each  one  had  a  vessel  made  ol  wicker  with  a  long  neck,  called  yi\ioi>.  Bohin- 
8011,  p.  -;  19. 

§  47.  In  connection  with  the  affairs  of  war,  it  is  proper  to  notice  the  use  of 
ships  or  vessels,  which  the  Greeks  in  early  times  employed  partly  in  piracy, 
partly  in  transporting  armies,  and  partly  in  actual  combat.  In  later  times  the 
naval  battles  of  the  Greeks  were  frequent  and  celebrated.  Their  first  ships 
were  long  (fiaxpdi),  and  moved  by  oars.  The  number  of  rowers  was  various, 
often  very  considerable.  Originally  there  was  but  a  single  rank  on  each  side; 
afterwards,  as  the  ship  was  built  higher,  another  rank  of  rowers  was  added; 
vessels  of  the  latter  kind  were  called  oixp-ora,  those  of  the  former  /xovoxpora, 
also/tor^jfij,  xix^tt^.  At  a  later  period  they  were  built  with  three  tiers  or  ranks, 
tpwjpjij,  which  continued  to  be  the  most  common  form,  although  there  were 
vessels  with  lour,  rive,  and  six  tiers,  and  sometimes  even  more. 

It  was  early  customary  to  place  upon  ships  certain  images  and  signs,  from 
which  they  were  named.  The  ship  commonly  bore  the  image  or  statue  of  some 
god,  to  whose  protection  it  was  especially  intrusted.  In  the  capture  of  a  vessel, 
the  fir^t  object  of  a  victor  was  to  plunder  this  image,  and  place  it  as  a  trophy 
in  his  own  ship. 

§  18.  The  Greeks  early  practiced  in  war  the  forming  of  regular  camps. 
Their  compass  and  extent  were  such  as  not  only  to  include  the  whole  army, 
but  also  the  ships,  which  after  the  landing  of  the  troops  were  drawn  upon  the 
dry  land.  It  was  customary  to  surround  the  camp  with  a  wall  or  ramparts  with 
towers  and  breast-works.  Before  the  wall  was  a  fosse  or  ditch,  guarded  with 
pointed  stakes.  For  the  principal  officers  separate  tents  were  erected,  of 
wooden  frames,  covered  with  skins.  During  the  night,  sentinels  were  stationed 
on  guard,  ami  beacon-fires  were  kindled.  Spies  and  scouts  were  sent  out  from 
Doth  parties,  when  hostile  camps  were  placed  against  each  other. 

•'  Tents  like  those  now  in  use  seem  to  have  been  a  late  invention.  The  ancients,  on 
desultory  expeditions,  and  in  marching  through  a  country,  slept  with  no  shelter  but 
their  cloaks,  as  our  light  troops  often  carry  none  hut  a  blanket;  when  they  remained 
long  on  a  spot  they  hutted  Achilles'  tent  or  but  was  built  of  fir,  and  thatched  with 
reeds;  and  it  seems  to  have  had  several  apartments.  (//.  xxiv.  488.  ix.  659)." 
Mitford. 

§  49.  The  order  of  battle  was  either  to  place  the  war-chariots  in  front,  and 
the  infantry  it;  the  rear,  or  to  give  the  latter  the  front,  and  support  them  by  the 
chariots  from  behind.  The  whole  army  was  drawn  into  close  array,  although 
arranged  in  distinct  divisions.  On  the  commencement  of  battle  they  implored 
ih'-  aid  of  the  '.roils,  and  made  vows  of  grateful  returns.  Then  the  general* 
exhorted  the  soldiers  to  valor,  and  proceeded  to  set  an  example.  The  onset 
was  usually  accompanied  with  loud  shouting  and  clamor  to  inspirit  each  other 
Hid  intimidate  the  foe.  The  wounded  were  healed  with  care,  having  nursing 
and  medicine;  hut  the  slain  of  the  enemy  were  left  unburied,  or  their  corpses 
even  exposed  to  insult,  unless  their  burial  was  agreed  upon  in  some  express 
stipulation. 

§  50.  The  spoils  taken  in  battle  consisted  partly  of  arms,  which  the  caDtoi 


PT,  A  T  F.     X  V  11 . 


156  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

either  appropriated  to  his  own  use,  or  dedicated  to  the  gods,  and  partly  in  othei 
utensils  and  precious  articles,  which,  together  with  their  owners,  became  the 
property  of  the  victor.  My  means  of  a  ransom,  however,  the  spoils,  as  well  as 
the  prison<  rs,  could  be  redeemed.  After  battle,  the  remaining  booty  was  often 
divided  among  the  soldiers  by  lot;  the  general,  however,  always  received  his 
portion  first  and  without  lot.  Those  who  had  distinguished  themselves  by  valor, 
also  received  prizes  and  rewards,  by  the  promises  of  which  the  generals  often 
stimulated  their  troops  before  the  action. 

"We  find  thai,  so  early  as  Homer's  time,  the  Greeks  had  improved  considerably 
upon  thai  tumultuary  warfare  alone  known  to  many  barbarous  nations,  who  yet  have 
prided  themseives  in  the  practice  of  war  for  successive  centuries.  Several  terms  used 
by  ihe  poet,  together  with  Ins  description  of  marches,  indicate  that  orders  ot  batile 
\m  re  in  Ins  time  regularly  formed  in  ranks  and  riles.  Steadiness  in  the  soldier,  that 
foundation  of  all  those  powers  which  distinguish  an  army  from  a  mob,  and  which  to 
this  day  tonus  the  highest  praise  of  the  best  troops,  we  rind  in  great  perfection  in  the 
Iliad.  '  The  ( Grecian  phalanges,'  says  the  poet  (iv.  427),  '  marched  in  close  order,  the 
leaders  directing  each  his  own  band.  'The  rest  were  mule  :  insomuch  that  you  would  say, 
in  so  great  a  multitude  there  was  no  voice.  Such  was  the  silence  with  which  they 
ively  watched  for  the  word  ot  command  from  their  officers.' 

( Sonsid.  ring  the  deficiency  of  iron,  the  Grecian  troops  appear  to  have  been  very  well 
armed,  both  tor  offence  and  defence.  Their  defensive  armor  consisted  of  a  helmet,  a 
breastplate,  and  greaves,  all  of  brass;  and  a  shield,  commonly  of  bull's  hide,  but  often 
In  ned  with  brass.  The  breastpla'e  appears  to  have  met  the  belt,  which  was  a 
considerable  defence  to  the  belly  and  groin;  and  with  an  appendant  skirt  guarded  also 
the  thighs.  All  together  covered  the  forepart  of  the  soldier  from  the  throat  to  the  ancle  ; 
and  the  shield  was  a  superadded  protection  for  every  part.  The  bulk  of  the  Grecian 
troops  were  infantry,  thus  heavily  armed,  and  formed  in  close  order,  many  ranks  deep. 
\mv  body,  formed  in  ranks  and  files,  close,  and  deep,  without  regard  to  a  specific  num- 
ber of  either  ranks  or  tiles,  were  generally  termed  a  phalanx  (II.  iv.  332.  vi.  83).  But 
the  Locrians,  under  Oilean  Ajax.  were  all  light-armed  ;  bows  were  their  principal 
weapons,  and  they  never  engaged  in  close  fight  (dyxsnaxoi). 

Riding  on  horseback  was  yet  little  practiced,  though  it  appears  to  have  been  not  un- 
known (II.  xiii.  722).  Some  centuries,  however,  passed  before  it  was  generally  applied 
in  Greece  to  military  purposes;  the  mountainous  ruggedness  of  the  country  prevented 
xtensive  use-  of  cavalry,  except  among  the  Thessalians,  wdiose  territory  was  a 
large  plain.  [CI.  Sallier,  cited  Sv  138.]  But  in  the  Homeric  armies  no  chief  was  with- 
out his  chariot,  drawn  generally  by  two,  sometimes  by  three  horses;  and  these  chariots 
ol  war  make  a  principal  figure  in  Homer's  battles.  Nestor,  forming  the  army  for  action, 
composes  the  fust  line  of  chariots  only.  In  the  second  he  places  that  pari  of  the  in- 
fantry in  which  he  has  least  confidence  ;  and  then  forms  a  third  line,  or  reserve,  of  the 
most  approved  troops. 

The  combat  ol  the  chiefs,  so  repeatedly  described  by  Homer,  advancing  to  engage 
Bingly  in  front  of  their  line  of  battle,  is;  apt  to  strike  a  modern  reader  with  an  appear- 
and n!  absurdity  perhaps  much  beyond  the  reality.  Before  the  use  of  fire-arms  that 
practice  was  not  uncommon,  when  the  art  of  war  was  e.t  the  greatest  perfection.  Cajsar 
himsell  gives  (De  Bell.  (Jail,  v  43),  with  evident  satisfaction,  a  very  particular  account 
of  a  remarkable  advanced  combat,  in  which,  not  generals  indeed,  but  two  centurions 
of  bis  army  eiii.raL'ed.  The  Grecian  duels  of  the  heroic  age,  like  the  knights  of  the  times 
of  chivalry,  had  armor  probably  superior  to  that  of  the  common  soldiers;  and  this, 
with  the  additional  advantage  of  superior  skill,  acquired  by  assiduous  practice  amid 
unbounded  leisure,  would  make  this  skirmishing  much  less  dangerous  than  on  first 
consideration  ii  may  appear." — Milford,  ch.  ii.  sect.  3. 

"  Another  practice  common  in  Homer's  time  is  by  no  means  equally  defensible,  but 
on  the  contrary  marks  ureal  barbarism  ;  that  of  stopping  in  the  heat  of  action  to  strip 
the  slain.     Often  this  paltry  passion  for  possessing  the  spoil  of  the  enemy  superseded 

all  other,  even  the  most  important  and  si  deeply  interesting  objects  of  battle.     The 

limsell  II  v.  48,  vi.  67)  was  not  unaware  of  the  danger  and  inconvenience  of  the 
practice,  and  sei  ms  even  to  have  aimed  at  a  reformation  of  it.  We  find,  indeed,  in 
Homer's  warfare,  a  remarkable  mixture  of  barbarism  with  regularity.  Though  the 
irl  "I  forming  an  army  in  phalanx  was  known  and  commonly  practiced,  yet  the  busi- 
ness ol  a  gem  ral,  in  directing  its  operations,  was  lost  in  the  passion,  or  we  may  call  it 
'asmon,  ol  the  great  men  to  signalize  themselves  by  acts  of  personal  courage  and  skill 
m  arms.  Achilles  and  Hector,  the  first  heroes  of  the  Iliad  (xviii.  106.  252),  excel  only 
in  (he  character  ol  fighting  soldiers:  as  generals  and  directors  of  the  war  they  are 
inferior  to  many.  Indeed,  while  the  fate  of  the  battles  depended  so  much  on  the  skir- 
mishing  of  the  chiefs,  we  cannol  wonder  thai  the  prejudice  should  obtain  which  set  tlie 
»ble  arm.  iii  vulgar  estimation,  above  tin-  able  head.  '  But  the  poet  obviously  means  to 
»\uusc  the  absurdity  and  mischievous  consequences  of  that  irejudico,  v  here  we  make? 


P.  HI.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLIER    AGES.  157 

Hector  (II.  xxii.  99).  in  a  late  repentance,  acknowledge  the  superior  abilities  of  Polyda- 
mas.  Yet  Homer's  own  idea  of  the  duties  of  an  officer,  though  he  possessed  very 
extensive  and  very  accurate  knowledge  both  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  war  of  his 
own  age,  was  still  very  imperfect." — lb. 

§  51.  At  the  end  of  war  the  conquered  party  either  submitted 'wholly  to  the. 
dominion  and  laws  of  the  conqueror,  or  a  peace  was  made  upon  certain  con- 
ditions. This  was  effected  through  legates,  fully  commissioned  for  the  purpose. 
In  forming  a  treaty  of  peace,  various  ceremonies  were  observed,  partly  of  a 
religious  character.  A  victim  was  slain,  of  which  however  no  meal  was  made, 
hut  its  flesh  was  cast  aside;  libations  were  poured  out;  the  parties  joined 
hands  in  pledge  of  good  faith,  and  called  upon  the  gods  as  witnesses  of  their 
covenant,  and  as  avengers  of  its  violation,  especially  upon  Jupiter,  whose 
thunderbolts  were  an  object  of  terror  to  the  perjured.  The  restoration  of  plun- 
der was  generally  a  preliminary  requisition  ;  and  the  conquered  party  was  often 
compelled  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  as  a  fine  or  indemnification. — Sometimes  the 
whole  war  was  terminated  by  a  single  combat,  the  parties  agreeing  to  abide  by 
its  issue. 

IV.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS. 

§  52.  Since  social  life  was  but  gradually  introduced  in  Greece,  it  is  not  to  be 
expected,  that  the  earliest  ages  should  exhibit  much  refinement  in  what  pertains 
to  domestic  affairs.  During  the  heroic  ages  their  mode  of  living  was  nearly  as 
rude  as  their  morals.  Their  principal  meat  was  the  flesh  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
goats,  and  deer,  which  they  were  accustomed  to  roast.  The  flesh  of  birds  and 
fish  was  more  seldom  used.  The  most  common  food  was  milk,  fruit,  and  vege- 
tables. The  first  and  most  common  drink  was  water;  wine,  however,  was  in 
frequent  use ;  but,  generally,  mingled  with  water.  Large  drinking-vessels 
were  employed  at  their  repasts.  Ordinarily  they  had  two  meals  a  day,  at  mid- 
day and  evening,  and  in  the  earlier  times  it  was  the  Greek  custom  to  sit  at 
fable,  not  to  recline.  The  number  of  persons  at  one  table  was  seldom  greater 
than  ten. 

It  was  a  proverb,  ascribed  to  Theognis  (cf.  P.  V.  §  31),  that  the  persons  at  a  social 
repast  should  not  be  less  in  number  than  the  Graces,  nor  more  than  the  Muses. — The 
Roman  Varro  is  said  to  have  enjoined  this  rule,  respecting  the  proper  number  at  a 
repast   (Gell.  xiii.  11).     Adam. 

"Homer  mentions  three  different  sorts  of  seats:  (1)  6i<ppos,  which  contained  two 
persons,  commonly  placed  for  those  of  mean  rank;  (2)  Sp(Vo4-,  on  which  they  sat  up- 
right, having  under  their  feet  a  footstool  termed  Bpijvvs',  (3)  k-Aio^o;,  on  which  they  sat 
leaning  a  little  backwards."      Robinson. — Cf.  Horn.  Odys.  i.  130,  131. 

§  53.  Social  repasts  or  banquets  were  often  held,  being  occasioned  by  public 
solemnities,  festivals,  religious  celebrations,  marriages,  and  the  like.  Some- 
times they  were  made  at  the  common  expense  of  the  guests  (spavoj,  cf.  Odyss. 
i.  226) ;  such  entertainments,  however,  were  viewed  as  of  inferior  rank.  The 
feasts  upon  victims  offered  in  sacrifice  have  been  mentioned  (§  27). 

At  table  the  guests  sat  according  to  a  definite  order.  The  beginning  was 
made  by  washing  the  hands.  In  early  times  a  separate  board  was  placed  for 
each  guest,  and  his  portion  of  food  thus  divided  to  him.  Wine  was  brought 
by  youthful  attendants,  and  the  guests  often  drank  to  each  other,  and  recipro- 
cally exchanged  cups.  They  endeavored  to  heighten  the  joys  of  the  banquet 
by  conversation  and  wit,  and  also  by  songs  and  instrumental  music.  Cf.  P. 
IV.  §  68. 

§  54.  The  dress  of  the  early  Greeks  was  longer,  and  more  ample,  and  more 
completely  covered  the  body,  than  that  of  later  times.  Next  to  the  body  they 
wore,  a  long  robe  or  frock  (^trwi'),  which  was  kept  in  place  by  a  girdle,  and 
nver  this  a  cloak  (^Wva)  of  thicker  materials,  to  protect  against  the  cold. 
Instead  of  the  latter  they  sometimes  had  a  mantle  (<}>apos).  The  women  wore 
also  long  cloaks  or  over-garments,  called  rts'rtXot,  often  richly  embroidered  and 
ornamented.  They  likewise  covered  their  heads,  while  the  men  seem  not  to 
have  done  it  in  the  earlier  ages,  except  that  they  wore  helmets  in  war  Shoes 
or  socks  were  not  used  constantly,  hut  only  in  going  out.  In  war  the  men 
wore  a  sort  of  boot  or  greaves  (§  44). 


158  GRECIAN"    ANTIQUITIES. 

§  55.  Fnr  the  sake  of  cleanliness  and  of  bodily  strength,  the  early  Greeks 
practiced  frequent  bathing,  and  with  it  united  the  custom  of  anointing.  In 
bathing  they  made  much  use  of  the  sea-water,  on  account  of  its  purifying  and 
strengthening  properties.  They  also  had  warm  baths  in  their  bouses.  After 
taking  the  bath  they  anointed  the  body  with  oil;  costly  ointments,  expressly 
prepared  lor  the  purpose,  were  of  later  invention.  They  cultivated  in  every 
way  the  growth  of  the  hair,  long  hair  heino;  considered  as  essential  to  personal 
beauty  and  dignity.  The  color  most  esteemed  was  yellowish  or  light  brown. 
They  were  also  pleased  with  frizzled  or  curled  locks,  and  employed  artificial 
means  to  secure  such  forms  to  their  hair. 

§  56.  Of  the  real  architecture  and  arrangement  of  Greek  houses  in  the  earlier 
periods,  we  do  not  pet  an  accurate  view  from  the  descriptions  of  Homer,  which, 
aside  from  their  poetical  character,  relate  only  to  the  palaces  or  dwellings  of 
distinguished  personages.  (Cf.  P.  IV7.  §  23-2.)  Respecting  these  we  may 
remark,  thai  they  were  ordinarily  surrounded  by  some  kind  of  a  wall,  not  very 
high;  between  the  wall  and  the  house  itself  was  the  fore-court,  in  which  an 
altar  usually  stood.  Then  followed  a  colonnade,  a  vestibule,  and  the  main 
huildimj  or  house,  often  highly  ornamented  without  and  within;  although  the 
art  of  building  at  this  time  had  not  reached  by  far  the  perfection  which  Greek 
architecture  afterwards  attained.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  house  was  the  dining- 
hall,  the  sleeping-room,  and  the  women's  apartment.  The  roofs  were  flat,  as 
in  oriental  countries,  and  often  served  as  places  of  resort  both  by  day  and  by 
night. 

§  57.  The  Greeks  cheerfully  received  to  their  houses  the  stranger,  and  the 
needy;  and  the  rites  of  hospitality  were  held  sacred  among  them.  Jupiter 
himself  was  considered  as  the  god  and  rewarder  of  hospitality,  and  the  avenger 
of  all  violations  of  its  laws,  and  on  that  account  was  styled  Hfi'to?  (P.  II.  §  25). 
They  had  no  public  inns  (cf.  §  lt>8),  but  travelers  found  reception  with  those 
who  stood  related  to  them  by  ties  of  hospitality.  This  relation  existed  not 
only  between  particular  persons,  but  also  between  whole  cities  and  communi- 
ties. Kings  and  distinguished  persons  exercised  hospitality  towards  each 
other  by  a  sort  of  common  understanding.  The  external  tokens  of  a  welcome 
reception  of  guests  were  joining  hands  and  embracing  with  a  kiss.  Sometimes 
this  was  accompanied  with  offering  the  bath  and  unction.  On  separating,  it 
was  common  to  unite  in  a  friendly  repast,  and  renew  their  pledge  of  mutual 
friendship  over  the  wine.  Valued  gifts  were  sometimes  bestowed  on  the  de- 
parting guest. 

§  58.  In  speaking  of  the  occupations  of  the  Greeks,  agriculture  may  be  first 
mentioned.  This  was  their  most  common  pursuit  and  means  of  living.  The 
boundaries  of  the  fields  were  marked  by  stones,  which  served  to  guard  the 
cultivators  against  mutual  encroachments.  The  culture  of  the.  vine  and  of 
trees  was  also  an  object  of  attention.  The  raising  of  cattle  was  a  common 
employment,  and  a  principal  source  of  wealth.  These  employments  were  not 
considered  in  any  way  degrading  or  ignoble,  but  were  exercised  by  persons  of 
eminence  and  even  by  princes.  The  hunting  of  wild  beasts  should  also  be 
mentioned  lure,  as  practiced  in  order  to  secure  the  flocks  and  the  fields  from 
depredation.  In  the  chase  they  made  use  of  various  weapons,  as  the  bow  and 
arrow,  and  the  spear,  with  the  help  of  the  dog.  Fowling  and  fishing  were 
likewise  a  frequent  employment. 

The  ii'  ■  *    •  mployed  in  fowling,  bunting,  and  fishing  were  made  of  flax  (XiVa); 

the  meshes  -'j  ■'  ■  v"  >  beingof  various  sizes  according  to  the  use  intended.  In  hunting,  the 
nets  wen  supported  by  stakes  (<n-dXire$)  and  extended  in  a  curve  so  as  partly  to  surrounij 
a  space  into  which  the  animals  were  driven.  Several  kinds  of  fishing  nets  are  men- 
tioned, ol  which  the  most  common  were  the  a/i^i/JXT/o-rpov  (retiaculvm)  or  casting-net, 
and  tin  <'c"  n  [tragum)  seine  or  scan. 

•-..  Of  .,,:,„•,  |,.., i..  ,.„  Fifbing  aid  Hunting,  cf.  P.  V.  §  75.—  Amcilhim,  su-  la  p8che  des  Anciens,  in  ihe  Mem.  dtflrutitut, 
t   Ilea*  rf.  /  ■(  el  Stain  ArU,  iinl,  v.  p.  350. 

§  59.  The  employments  of  women  consisted  partly  in  the  care  of  the  house- 
hold, partly  in  spinning,  weaving,  and  needle-work,  not  only  for  their  own 
clothing,  but  for  that  of  the  men  also.  Grinding,  baking,  cooking  and  wash* 
og.   were   performed  by  the  women.     In  general,  the  female  sex  among  the 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLIER    AGES.  1 5S 

Greeks  was  in  a.  state  of  threat,  although  not  slavish  subjection  to  the  male. 
There  .vas  comparatively  little  intercourse  between -the  sexes.  The  women 
lived  chiefly  by  themselves  in  the  apartment  assigned  to  them,  the  rWaixw*  or 
rvvaxr-Lov,  which  was  in  the  interior  or  upper  part  of  the  house  ^§  56).  Seldom 
were  they  allowed  to  go  abroad.  In  later  times  this  close  discipline  and  con- 
finement remained  in  force,  and  women  shared  even  less  than  previously  in  the 
business  and  pleasures  of  men. 

On  the  ancient  method  of  grinding,  cf.  Manga,  Sur  les  meules  de  moulin  employees  par  les  Anciens,  in  the  Mem.  de  1' hut, tut, 
Classe  dV/lit.  et  Lit.  Jttic.  vol.  iii.  p.  441 

On  the  state  of  femalvs.  R  G.  Lenz,  Geschtchte  der  We iber  im  heroischen  Zeitalter.  Hanov.  1790.  8. — Rochefort,  Lea  maeun  lei 
liecles  heroiques,  Mem.  Acad.  laser  vol.  xxxvi.  p.  39G  — Cf.  §  181. 

§  60.  Amonj  the  most  common  amusements  of  the  Greeks  were  music  and 
dancing.  The  firmer  consisted  of  vocal  and  instrumental,  which  were  always 
united;  and  it  was  designed  for  instruction  as  well  as  gratification.  Hence 
music,,  although  in  a  more  extended  sense  of  the  term,  was  an  essential  object 
in  education.  (Cf.  §  170,  and  P.  IV.  §  63.)  The  lyre  was  the  stringed  in- 
strument the  most  in  use,  and  of  wind  instruments  the  flute  was  the  most 
common.  The  former  enjoyed  the  preference,  because  it  was  more  easily  ac- 
commodated to  song,  and  also  left  the  performer  at  liberty  to  use  his  voice. — 
The  subjects  of  son£  were  chiefly  mythical  or  historical.  .Music  was  most 
generally  used  at  banquets  and  religious  festivals,  which  were  also  the  most 
common  occasions  of  dancing.  With  dancing  it  was  customary  to  join  various 
spoits  and  exercises  of  the  body,  as  leaping,  running,  riding,  wrestling,  and 
the  like. 

§  61.  Marriage  and  nuptial  ceremonies  are  to  be  noticed  in  connection  vvith 
the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Greeks.  The  dowry  of  the  daughter  was  usually 
given  by  the  father.  It  consisted  of  female  ornaments,  a  portion  of  the  flocks 
and  herds,  and  the  like.  There  were  no  degrees  of  consanguinity  forbidden 
in  marriage,  except  that  between  parents  and  children;  yet  it  was  considered 
as  highly  censurable  for  brother  and  sister  to  unite.  Previously  to  marriage 
the  consent  of  the  parents  was  to  be  asked.  At  the  nuptials  or  wedding,  the 
bride  was  with  pomp  conducted  home  by  the  bridegroom,  who  had  previously, 
according  to  the  common  practice,  built  and  made  ready  a  new  house.  In  this 
procession  to  the  house,  nuptial  torches  were  borne  before  the  newly  married, 
and  bridal  hymns  were  sung  by  a  retinue  of  youths  and  virjjins.  Dancing 
usually  accompanied  the  music;  and  the  whole  was  followed  by  a  nuptial 
feast.  A  widow  seldom  contracted  a  second  marriage,  although  it  was  not  ex- 
pressly forbidden.  At  least,  it  did  not  take  place  until  five  years  or  more  after 
her  widowhood. 

§  62.  Parents  of  the  better  class  took  special  care  of  the  education  of  then 
children,  both  physical  and  moral.  The  mother  was  accustomed  to  nurse  her 
own  children,  and  considered  herself  freed  from  this  duty  by  no  rank  or  con 
dition.  The  aid  of  others  in  this  respect  was  sought  only  in  cases  of  absolute 
necessity.  In  subsequent  years  the  children  had  particular  teachers  and  over- 
seers, who  instructed  them  in  bodily  exercises,  in  useful  sciences,  and  in  the 
art  of  war.     Cf.  P.  IV.  §  64,  §  71. 

On  the  other  hand,  also,  children  considered  it  a  duty  to  love,  reverence,  and 
obey  their  parents.  They  rejoiced  in  a  father's  benediction,  and  considered  his 
curse  as  the  greatest  of  evils.  They  endeavored  to  repay  to  parents  in  old 
age  the  care  experienced  by  themselves  in  childhood,  a  thinj,  indeed,  expressly 
required  by  law.  They  looked  upon  it  as  their  highest  honor,  to  inflict  ven- 
geance on  such  as  had  injured  their  fathers. 

On  respect  pad  to  old  age  anion?  the  ancients,  cf  Class.  Jouni.  iii.  142,320;  iv.  319. On  the  manners  and  morals  ol  me 

earlier  ages,  cf.  Rithefort.  as  ciied  §  59.— C.  P.  Levesque.  Sur  les  Mceurs  des  Grers  du  temps  d'Homere,  in  the  Mem,  de  VInstilut 
Classe  des  Sciences  Mor.  et  Pol.  vol.  li. 

§  63.  The  slaves  (SovXol)  of  the  Greeks,  male  and  female,  were  persons  that 
had  been  laken  prisoners  in  war  (aixfiuXcotot;,  avftpdrtobov) ,  or  were  purchased 
of  others.  Slaves  of  the  latter  class  were  not  common  in  early  times.  The  in 
traduction  of  commerce  or  trade  in  slaves  is  ascribed  to  the  inhabitants  of  tho 
island  of  Chios,  at  a  later  period.     The  master  had  an  almost  unlimited  power 


1(J0  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

over  his  slave,  extending  even  to  the  right  of  life  and  death.     Sometimes  the 
gift  of  liberty  was  bestowed. 

Besides  the  actual  slaves  there  was  a  class  of  day  laborers,  who  were  accus- 
tomed to  let  lh(  ir  services  for  hire  (^rts,  rftfcarai),  especially  in  the  agricul- 
tural and  pastoral  employments,  which  were  originally  so  common  in  Greece. 
A  retinue  of  servants  for  mere  display  or  luxury  was  not  indulged  in  during 
Ihe  period  of  w  hich  we  have  thus  far  been  speaking.     Cf.  §  99. 


II. — Of  the  later  and  more  flourishing  Jges. 

I.     RELIGIOUS     AFFAIRS. 

§  64.  The  number  of  the  Grecian  divinities  increased  with  the  advancement 
of  civilization;  although  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks,  in  its  elements,  was 
chiefly  of  early  origin,  engendered  and  fostered  by  the  ignorance,  superstition, 
and  sensuality  of  the  first  ages.  The  mythicai  fictions  were  enlarged,  the 
modes  oi  representing  the  gods  were  varied,  the  temples,  festivals,  and  sacri- 
fices, and  all  the  solemnities  and  rites  of  worship  were  greatly  multiplied. 
The  pomp  and  splendor  of  their  religion  became  very  imposing,  especially  at 
the  period  distinguished  for  the  flourishing  state  of  all  their  affairs.  At  that 
time  the  plastic  arts  were  in  a  great  measure  devoted  to  the  representation  and 
illustration  of  religious  story,  and  the  ornamenting  of  religious  edifices.  (Cf. 
P.  IV.  §  178,  197,  198,231.)  This  circumstance  gives  additional  interest  and 
importance  to  the  study  of  this  branch  of  antiquities. 

§  65  a.  The  temples  (vaoi,  It  pa)  were  still  built  in  a  simple  taste,  yet  in  greater 
number  and  splendor.  The  interior  had  commonly  two  parts,  of  which  the 
innermost  was  the  sanctuary  (aSuror),  into  which  the  priest  only  entered.  The 
place  where  stood  the  statue  or  image  of  the  god  to  whom  the  temple  belonged 
was  in  the  middle  of  the  temple,  commonly  surrounded  by  a  guard  of  lattice 
work  or  the  like,  and  therefore  termed  ortxbs. 

Originally  the  Greeks,  like  the  oriental  nations,  worshiped  on  the  top  of  mountains 
or  hi;l>.  win  re  they  afterwards  first  erected  their  temples.  When  in  the  common  creed 
i-  were  m'ultiplied  and  assigned  to  valleys,  rivers,  &c.,  as  their  appropriate  pro- 
vinci  -.  temples  wi  re  built  in  such  spots  as  were  supposed  agreeable  to  the  several  gods. 
More  than  one  deiiy,  however,  w'ere  sometimes  worshiped  in  the  same  temple;  they 
then  called  (riWnoi  or  avvoiKerai ;  and  when  they  had  a  common  altar,  <rfy/?w/i«(. 
Different  styles  ol  architecture  were  used  for  different  deities;  Doric  pillars,  e.  g.  lor 
Jupiter  oi  Mars;   Ionic,  for  Bacchus,  Apollo,  Diana;  Corinthian,  for  Vesta  the  virgin. 

The  temple  usually  stood  in  a  space  inclosed  by  a  fence  or  wall  (c/ikos,  nepiSoXos),  which 
contain)  d, besides  thi  temple,  often  other  sacred  buildings  and  a  grove ;  the  whole  space 
was  called  reiuvoi,  a  term  sometimes  restricted  to  the  space  set  apart  in  the  temple  ibr 
the  image  oi  the  god. 

In  the  temple,  some  say  at  the  door,  others  near  the  Hiv-rov,  was  placed  a  vessel  of 
or  brass  {vipi(jiavTfiptoi>)  filled  with  holy  water  lor  the  purpose  of  sprinkling  those 
admitted  to  the  sa<  rifici  s.  The  part  of  the  lemple  before  the  <n\K6$  was  called  irptfojics; 
that  he  hind  n  tima66iopos.  The  outer  porch  was  termed  nptfiruXa  or  -npovvXaia. — There 
also  belonged  to  the  temple  a  treasury  {dpxptov)  for  preserving  its  own  property,  or  that 
ot  others  intrusted  to  it. — The  statues  and  offerings  to  the  gods  found  in  the  temples 
have  been  spokei  !         Statues  called  bumtrri,  fallen  from  Jupiter,  were  kept 

in  the  most  Bacred   part  of  the  temple,  and  concealed  from  "the  sight  of  all  but  the 

'  I  lingtbi  Mructureof  the  temples,  see  P.  IV.  $  234. 

1.  The  altars  (j3w/*6t)  were  placed  towards  the  east,  and  had  various 
forms,  round,  Bquare,  or  oblong.  They  were  ornamented  with  horns,  partly 
thai  the  Bacrificial  victims  might  be  bound  to  them,  and  partly  that  supplicants 
ruighl  lay  bold  of  them,  when  they  fled  to  the  altars  for  refuge.  Perhaps  also 
were  consid  red  as  a  symbol  of  dignity  and  power.  The  names  of  the 
deities,  to  whom  the  altars  were  sacred,  were  usually  inscribed  upon  them, 
Altars,  as  well  as  temples,  were  consecrated  to  their  proper  use  with  solemn 
•  remonies,  particularly  by  anointing. 


PLaTH     X  V  T  II 


lIBwigiiiia 


14 


162  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Different  gods  hnd  rc/Znr.c  also  of  different  dimensions  ;  the  altar  of  Jupiter  Olympiu* 
is  said  to  have  been  twenty-two  feel  high.  'I  lie  altars  of  the  terrestrial  gods  were 
lower  than  those  oi  the  celestial.  To  the  infernal,  sacrifices  were  made  in  pits  or 
trenches  ($  29  used  instead  oi  altars.  The  nymphs  were  worshiped  in  caves  (<Wpa) 
A  It  a  re  wen  formed  ol  various  materials;  often  of  earth,  or  of  ashes,  as  that  at  Thebes 
to  \,  ;  sometimes  "I  horn,  as  that  at  Delos;  sometimes  of  brick;  often  of 

ov<  rlaid  with  gold  (cf.  $  26).     They  were  either  square  or  round  ; 
Bnd  were  often  highly  ornamented  by  sculpture. 

Difli  rent  forma  of  altars  are  given  in  the  Sup.  Plate  30,  where  are  seen  an  altar  of  Jupiter, 
(mi-  of  Neptune,  and  one  of  liacclius.     Cf.  i  '205. 

The  practice  of  appropriating  sacred  groves  for  the,  honor  and  service 
of  the  gods  was  also  retained  in  later  times.  Their  agreeable  shade,  as  well 
B8  the  stilln  ss  reigning  in  them,  was  favorable  to  pious  meditation.  Although 
the  use  of  groves  was  diminished  by  the  multiplication  of  cities  and  villages, 
yel  a  grove  once  dedicated  to  the  gods  remained  forever  sacred  and  inviolable. 
As  well  as  temples  and  altars,  they  were  safe  asylums  for  offenders,  although 
this  privilege  was  conferred  upon  them  only  by  a  special  consecration  for  the 
purpose,  and  did  not  belong  to  all  the  places  of  religious  worship  as  a  matter 
of  course.  The  privilege  of  being  such  asylums  or  places  of  refuge  was  some- 
times awarded  to  the  statues  and  tombs  of  heroes. — Certain  portions  of  land 
and  cultivated  ground  were  also  assigned  to  the  gods,  which  were  likewise 
called  ttfiivtj,  the  fruit  of  which  was  employed  in  offerings,  or  fell  to  the  share 
of  the  priests. 

A  particular  tract  of  land,  situated  between  Athens  and  Megara,  was  consecrated 
to  i  leres  and  Proserpine,  and  called  'Opyu*-. — Trees' were  also  set  apa-t  and  with  cere- 
mony consecrated  to  some  god  {Tkeoc.  Id.  xviii.  43). 

The  privileges  of  the  sacred  temples,  as  asyla,  continued  until  tht,  'eign  of  Tibe- 
rius Caesar,  by  whom  they  were  chiefly  abolished,  or  greatly  abridged  {Tac.  Ann.  iii. 
60-63).  on  account  of  the  abuse  of  them  by  worthless  villains. 

Simon,  I-e,  jjyles.  Mem  Acad.  Imcr.  iii.  35 —R  Mayo,  Mythology,  vol.  i.  p.  156— S.  Pegge,  History  of  the  Asylum,  &c.  in  th« 
Srchzol'.g.a  (a«  cited  P.  IV.  §  2<43  3),  vol.  viii.  p.  I. 

§  67.  The  three  principal  duties  of  the  priests  (tfpfij,  called  also  Upovpyos, 
^lovpyoi,  hvrai)  were  sacrifice,  prayer,  and  instruction.  With  these  were  united 
sometimes  the  declaration  and  interpretation  of  oracles.  The  requisite  qualifi- 
cations  for  the  priesthood  were  a  body  free  from  all  defects  and  blemishes 
[t%ax%rmoi xai  a<pt7.rs\  lawful  birth  (yirtto;),  and  an  irreproachable  course  of 
life.  Upon  the  rank  of  the  god  depended  the  number  of  the  priests,  who  were 
pmployed  to  attend  upon  him,  and  who  shared  each  his  part  of  the  various 
functions  of  the  service.  In  every  place  there  was  one  superior  priest,  if  not 
in  <v  (.i^ifpfts,  tfpo6\6a'c;ea?.oi,  Itpoepdvrai),  charged  with  the  oversight  of  the 
religious  worship  in  general  (dpfcifpwfjwj?). — The  office  of  the  parasites  (rtapd- 
niTw)  was  to  collect  the  grain  and  fruits  designed  for  sacrifices  (rtpoaoSta 
«  -  ri>a)  into  the  storehouse  appropriated  therefor  (napanitiov). — The  heralds 
(xrjpvxff)  were  ranked  among  the  sacred  orders,  and  also  the  superintendents 
(vgfaixopot)  whose  business  was  to  cleanse  and  adorn  the  temples. 

The  clothing  of  the  priests  was  usually  a  long  white  or  purple  robe,  and  their 
head  was  ornamented,  especially  at  sacrifices,  with  a  fillet  and  a  crown  of  the 
leaf  Bacrt  d  to  tlnir  particular  god. 

In  our  Plate  X  X  VI]  fig  ('.  is  a  view  of  a  Grecian  priest  anil  priestess,  in  their  robes  ;  each  has 
n  thyraua  in  on.-  hand,  indicating  that  thev  are  servants  of  Bacchus,  anil  a  vessel  in  the  other. 
I  lie  prieiieM  i-  pouring  :i  liquid  ii|>ini  the  flame  of  an  altar.    It  is  a  monument  given  in  Moses, 

Aniii|iie  Vasei,  Altars,  &c. 

I  I'm  s!>,  holding  their  office  by  inheritance  ($22)  were  called  6i  arywouj;  those 
who  n  ceiv<  d  ii  by  lot,  irAijpamrt ;  those  by  election,  inptrol  or  Utijiiauboi.     Some  of  the 

tlian  fi lies,  in  which  the  priesthood  descended  by  inheritance  were  the  IvyjiA- 

intrusted  with  the  oversight  of  the  Elusinian  mysteries;  K>'ipwi«,  descendants 
■  I   Ceryx  ;  the  <»i  v->  i.'.n,  descendants  of  Thaulon.     There  was  a  sacred   family  at 
Argos  also,  called    \-  ■■■',  &tu.     Priestesses  (apaai,  dpfrrstpai,  apxtlpciat,  Irpotpavrihs)  were 
lake  i  from  noble  families.     Those  of  Ceres  were  termed  Nchrmat ;  those  of  Bacchus, 
!  — Sometimes  services  connected  with  the  worship  of  the  gods 

were  performed  by  persons  not  properly  belonging  to  the  priesthood  («xwpiff/i«*i  rfjj 
''t^'  sac tiI'k  i ire  (I  pom  of),  of  whom  ten  are  said  to  have  been  appointed 

annually  at    Athene,  and  who  conducted  all  the  usual  sacrifices  ;  keepers  of  the  tern 
"le  and  utensils     twfiXaices) ;  stewards  or  treasurers  {rautat  r&v  [tptov  xpnp&rwv). — Priest* 


P.  Ill  RE]  IGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       SACRIFICES.       OATHS.  163 

who  were  constantly  in  attendance  on  the  gods  to  offer  the  prayers  of  the  people  at 
sacrifices,  were  called  \lpmo\oi  9«3i\ — All  who  served  the  gods  were  maintained  out 
of  the  sacrifices  and  offerings. — At  Athens,  those  intrusted  with  the  care  of  religion 
were  required  to  render  an  account  of  tneir  doings  to  certain  civil  officers  appointed 
for  the  purpose  The  'lepopvfipu:'  seems  to  have  beei  charged  with  keeping  the  sacred 
records.     The  priests  had  attendants  called  ttpoJooAoi. 

On  (he  priesthood  of  the  Greek",  see  J.Krcuser,  Der  Hellenen  Priesterstaat  mil  vorzQglich  Rlcksicht  auf  die  Hierodulen.  Mainz. 
— Class.  Journ.  xxxix.  350. — Bougainville,  Des  ministres  des  Dieux  a  Athenes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xviii.  60;  xxiii.  51. — 
Letronne,  Sur  les  fonctions  des  Hieromnemons,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnstttul,  C  I  ass  e  d'Hiit.  el  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  vi.  221. 

2.  Purification  has  already  been  mentioned  (§  23)  as  a  rite  of  great  importance 
among  the  Greeks.  At  some  of  their  solemnities,  the  priests  and  priestesses  were 
obliged  to  take  an  oath,  that  they  were  duly  purified.  Every  person  attending  the 
solemn  sacrifices  was  purified  usually  by  being  washed  or  sprinkled  with  the  water  in 
the  rxpippavriipiov  (cf.  §  65  a).  This  water  was  consecrated  by  putting  into  it  a  burning 
torch  from  the  altar,  or  a  branch  of  laurel  (AioVrj)  or  olive.  Purification  was  also  some- 
times made  by  drawing  round  the  person  a  sea-onion  or  squill  (o-ki'aAo),  or  a  young 
dog  (o-vuXaf) ;  sometimes  eggs  were  used  for  the  purpose  ;  sometimes  the  blood  of  a 
pig.  Some  of  tua  terms  employed  to  designate  purifying  are  irepippaivuv,  ncpip'iTTca6ai, 
Ka')a:ptiv,  hyviXttv,  EXoo/^?,  ayvmpds,  rtAtnj,  &,c. — Sometimes  in  purifications  not  only  the 
hands,  but  the  feet  and  other  parts  of  the  body  were  washed. 

§  G8.  The  sacrifices  had  different  names  according  to  the  occasions  of  them. 
The  thank-offering  (^apirrr^pta)  was  in  recognition  of  some  favor  received, 
often  in  fulfilment  of  some  vow  made;  the  sin-offering  (ixa.i5-n.xa)  was  in  order 
to  propitiate  an  offended  deity  ;  the  invocation-offering  (airrnxu)  was  presented 
in  case  of  seeking  some  particular  f.ivor.  There  were  other  particular  sacri- 
fices, which  were  offered  in  consequence  of  the  specific  command  of  some  god. 
(arto  jUOU'Tfia;). 

The  beginning  of  the  sacrifice  in  later  times  was  made  by  the  libation 
(vrtovty,  §  24.  2);  then  followed  the  incense,  the  burning  of  something  fragrant 
($vfiLa/xa) ;  and  at  length  the  sacrifice  itself,  properly  speaking,  or  the  slaying 
of  the  victim  (itpilov).  The  principal  cetemonies  have  already  been  mentioned 
(§  27). — Persons  who  had  the  ricjht  of  being  present  at  a  sacrifice  were  termed 
k(li$7puoi,  and  those  who  had  not,  fitfyxoi.  The  latter  were  called  upon  by  the 
heralds  to  retire  before  the  ceremonies  commenced. 

Different  animals  were  offered  in  sacrifice  to  different  gods,  as  has  been  mentioned 
in  treating  of  the  ancient  mythology.  One  of  the  principal  victims,  however,  was  the 
ox  (/?o"s) ;  hence  the  term  0oS>mXv,  to  sacrifice  oxen:  those  assistants  who  slew  the 
victims  were  called  ffovOirai.  Bulls  (raupoi),  sheep  (HUc.),  and  goats  (dty£s)  were  often 
offered.  The  bringing  of  the  victims  to  the  altar  was  expressed  by  such  phrases  as 
Trpoaayuv  r&>  /?otyici>,  or  irapamnaai  $vcriav  toTc.  /Joj^oT;  ;  they  were  oiten  brought  adorned  with 
garlands  (o-rfppara),  and  were  always  required  to  be  free  from  blemishes  (riXttoi).  After 
the  victim  was  slain  and  cut  in  pieces,  an  inspection  of  the  entrails  (cnrXayxvodKo-aia) 
was  made  by  the  soothsayer  (o7rAay\i'6o-*-o7ros),  to  ascertain  the  presages  ol  the  future. 

Animals  were  not  demanded  as  sacrifices  from  the  poor,  who  were  allowed  to  offer 
cakes  of  coarse  flour  {-nmava,  xtKavoi,  Trifijiara) ;  these  were  sometimes  made  in  the  shape 
of  animals. 

It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ever  an  approved  custom  among  the  Greeks  to  offer  human 
sacrifices,  although  it  was  repeatedly  done  ;  cf  P.  II  $  17.  Themistocles  is  said  to  have  sacri- 
ficed to  the  gods  several  Persian  captives.  (Pliitaich,  Them.)  Human  victims  were  sacrificed 
particularly  to  the  manes  and  infernal  gods. — Cf.  Lactantius,  I)e  Falsa  Religimie,  c.  Zl.—Eusebius, 
Pnp.  Evang.  iv.  16. 

§  69.  It  is  pertinent  to  notice  here  the  solemn  oaths  of  the  Greeks,  in  which 
they  called  upon  the  gods  to  witness  the  truth  or  avenge  falsehood  or  injury. 
They  distinguished  between  the  solemn  or  great  oath  (u  /j-iyac:  opxoj)  and  affir- 
mations in  ordinary  cases.  Jupiter  was  considered  as  especially  the  god  and 
guardian  of  oaths,  and  avenger  of  perjury,  although  oaths  were  taken  in  the 
name  of  other  gods  also.  It  was  common,  e.  g.,  to  swear  by  the  twelve  great 
superior  gods  (pa  SwSsxo  ^fov$).  Sometimes  they  swore  by  the  gods,  indefi- 
nitely and  generally  ;  and  sometimes  by  inanimate  objects,  vases,  weapons,  or 
any  article  of  which  they  made  use.  Not  unfrequently  the  oath  was  in  the 
name  of  living  or  deceased  men,  such  especially  as  had  been  highly  esteemed 
and  loved.  The  oath  was  usually  joined  with  a  distinct  imprecation  of  ven- 
geance on  the  swearer  himself  in  case  of  falsehood  ;  and  was  sometimes  con 
firmed  by  a  sacrifice,  the  flesh  of  which,  however,  could  not  be  eaten.  Severe 
punishments  were  decreed  against  perjury  (irttopxta).     Yet  the  Greeks,  espe- 


164  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

cial'.y  the  Thessalians,  were  reproached  for  this  crime  by  the  ancients.  A 
least  mutual  distrust  was  characteristic  of  the  corrupt  Greeks  of  later  times, 
and  among  the  Romans  the  phrase  Graeca fides  was  synonymous  with  perfidy. 
I  covenants  were  confirmed  by  making  oaths  and  slaying  sacrifices 
lifies  to  enter  into  covenant.  Notwithstanding  the  great  perfi 
diousni  ss  "t  the  tin  eks,  they  considered  one  who  kept  his  oath  (evopimc)  as  of  course 
;i  plow.-  person  frioqSijr).     'Attho)  marts  signifies  honest  faith. 

tuts  des  Anciens,  in  Ihe  Hist,  dt  V.icad.  da  Inter,  vol.  i.  p.  191 ;  vol.  iv.  p.  I.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Antiq. 
p.  649. 

§  70.  The  opinion  was  very  early  entertained,  that  the  gods  honored  certain 
men.  especially  the  priests,  with  a  particular  intimacy.  There  were  supposed 
to  In    two  modes  of  revelation;   one  immediate,  by  direct  inspiration;  and  the 

ither  mediate  or  artificial,  which  was  considered  as  the  fruit  of  great  knowledge, 
experience,  and  observation.  Oracles  (^p^o-r^pia,  /xovrtta)  were  of  the  first 
kind  ;  and  the  second  kind  was  divination  (fxavrixr;). — From  oracles,  the  Greeks 
were  accustomed  to  seek,  in  important  circumstances  and  unde'akings,  predic- 
tions of  the  result  {x\-,r,'l-1"1'  '"yifli  fiovrtvfiaro).  It  is  obv:ous  that  they  could 
be  turned  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  priests,  to  whose  artifice  their  exist- 
ence and  support  are  in  great  measure  to  be  ascribed.  The  oracular  answers 
were  not  given  in  any  one  uniform  manner,  but  sometimes  immediately,  as  was 
pretended,  from  the  gods  (%pr.Gf>.oL  ovr6$u>voi),  sometimes  through  an  interpreter, 
(^riuoi  vTtofyrjixoi),  or  by  a  pretended  dream,  or  by  lot. 

Persons  who  consulted  the  oracles  were  termed  ?mmp6irot,  Stwpoi,  xpivpoipopoi ;  the  in- 
terpn  ' ■■>;  01,     Presents  and  sacrifices  were  always  requisite  before  consulting 

an  oracle,  which  could  be  done  only  on  appointed  days. 

The  question  has  been  affitated,  whether  the  responses  uttered  from  the  ancient  oracles  were 
the  mere  imposture  of  priests,  or  proceeded  from  the  agency  of  Satan  making  use  of  their  delu- 
sions. Van  Dali  in  a  learned  treatise  urged  the  former  view.  Funtenellc  advocated  the  same 
side.  Ballvs  with  much  learning  maintained  the  latter  view,  in  agreement  with  some  of  the 
Christian  Fathers. 

Dr.  Clarke  (Travels,  P.  ii.  sect.  2.  ch.  xvi.)  describes  a  contrivance,  which  he  supposes  was 
designed  by  (he  arlitice  of  the  priests  to  sustain  the  system  of  oracles.  "  We  found  at  the  foot 
of  the  hill  of  thi'  Acropolis,  one  of  the  most  curious  telltale  remains  yet  discovered  among  the 
vestiges  of  pagan  priestcraft;  it  was  nothing  less  than  one  of  the  oracular  shrines  of  Jirgos, 
alluded  in  by  Pausanias,  laid  open  to  inspection,  like  the  toy  a  child  has  broken  in  order  that  he 
may  see  the  contrivance  whereby  it  was  made  to  speak.  A  more  interesting  sight  for  modern 
curiosity  can  hardly  be  conceived  t"  exist  among  the  ruins  of  any  Grecian  city.  In  its  original 
Male,  it  had  been  a  temple;  the  farther  part  from  the  entrance,  where  the  altar  was,  being  an 
excavation  of  the  rock,  and  the  front  and  roof  constructed  with  baked  tiles.  The  altar  yet  remains, 
and  part  of  Ihe  fictile  superstructure;  but  the  most  remarkable  part  of  the  whole  is  a  secret  sub- 
terraneous |i  issage,  terminal  mi:  behind  the  altar ;  its  entrance  being  at  a  considerable  distance 
low  aril  ihe  riL'ht  of  a  person  facing  the  altar;  and  so  cunningly  contrived  as  to  have  a  small 
aperture,  easily  concealed  and  level  with  the  surface  of  the  rock.  This  was  barely  large  enough 
to  admit  the  entrance  of  a  single  person  ;  who,  having  descended  into  the  narrow  passage,  might 
creep  along  until  he  arrived  immediately  behind  the  center  of  the  altar ;  where,  being  hid  by 
colossal  statue  or  other  screen,  the  sound  of  his  voice  would  produce  a  most  imposing 
effect  among  the  humble  votaries,  prostrate  beneath,  who  were  listening  in  silence  upon  the 
ti"or  of  the  sanctuary.  We  amused  ourselves  for  a  few  minutes  by  endeavoring  to  mimic  the 
solemn  farce  acted  upon  these  occasions  ;  and  as  we  delivered  a  mock  oracle,  ore  rotundo,  from 

ihe  raven a  limn f  the  altar,  a  reverberation,  caused  by  the  sides  of  the  rock,  afforded  a 

tolerable  Bpecimen  of  the   '  /nil  of  the.  gods,'  as  it  was  formerly  made  known  to  the  credulous 

v.. lane-  of  this  now  forgotten  shrine      There  were  not  fewer  than  twenty  fire  of  these  juggling 

in  Pel  iponvesus,  and  as  many  in  the  single  province  of  Bamtia  •  and  surely  it  will  never 

bee a  question  among  learned  men,  whether  the  answers  in  them  were  given  by  the 

inspiration  of  evil  spirits,  or  whether  the\  proceeded  from  the  imposture  of  priests  ;  neither  can 
it  be  urged  thai  they  ceased  at  the  death  of  Christ :  because  Pausavias  (Corinth,  c.  24,  p.  165,  ed 
h'uhmi)  bears  lesii ly  to  their  existence  at  Jirgos  in  the  second  century." 

Sw  Van  Dolt    Ii.  On  licorum      AiW..  1700.  4  —B.  Fontentlle,  Histnire  des  Oracles.     La  Have,  1T2S.  12.- 

J  F.Batou,  Am            ■  H  f  Oneli    ;  iranal.  from  the  French.  Lend.  1710.  2  vols.  8.— Cf.  Rollm,  bk.  x.  ch. 

i) Blackwood'l  Magaz.  vol.  liv.  p.  277. 

§  71.  It  may  be  proper  to  mention  some  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
ancient  oracles.  The  most  ancient  was  that  of  Jupiter  at  Dodona,  a  city  of  the 
Moloesi,  Baid  to  have  been  built  by  Deucalion.  Before  this  time,  however,  this 
oracle,  of  Pel  isgic  origin  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  41),  seems  to  have  existed  in  that  place. 
There  was  a  grove  of  oaks,  sacred  to  Jupiter,  and  superstition  ascribed  the 
actual  exercise  of  the  gift  of  speech  and  prophecy  to  the  trees  themselves, 
which  were  thence  called  (lavrtxai  Spvte.  The  priests,  called  ojio^rot,  and 
Sttoot,  concealed  themselves  upon  and  in  the  trees,  when  they  announced  the 
ire  tended  declaration  of  the  gods.     The  sound  of  a  brazen  vase,  placed  near 

•   temple,  was  also  imagined  to  be  supernatural.     A  fountain  in  the  place  wa» 


P.  III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       ORACLES.  165 

likewise  celebrated  as  possessing  the  wonderful  power,  not  only  of  extinguish, 
ing  a  lurch,  but  of  kindling  it  again. 

1.  The  oracles  in  the  grove  of  Dodona  were  also  said  to  be  delivered  by  doves, 
which  arose  from  the  circumstance  that  the  priestesses,  who  sometimes  announced 
them,  were  called  in  the  Thessalian  language  n?\aat,  and  jtcXmii&s.  1  here  were  also 
priests  called  touo -poi,  whose  business  was  to  interpret  the  sounds  of  the  vessel  on  cer- 
tain occasions.  Two  columns  stood  by  the  temple  ;  to  one  of  which  the  vessel  was 
attached ;  on  the  other  was  a  boy  with  a  scourge  in  his  hand  ;  the  ends  of  the  scourge 
consisted  of  little  bones,  which  being  moved  by  the  wind  knocked  against  the  metallic 
vessel  attached  to  the  other  column. — From  the  use  of  the  brazen  vessel  arose  the  phrase 
Aoj.Woioj/  \a\Ktioi>,  applied  to  talkative  persons. — The  temple  is  said  to  have  stood  upon 
an  eminence  near  a  fountain. — In  the  Sup.  plate  28  is  a  view  of  Dodona,  in  which 
many  of  the  allusions  to  the  oracle  are  represented. 

Saltier,  and  De  Brotses,  L'Oraele  de  Dodona,  in  Ihe  Mem.  Acad.  Jnscr.  vol.  v.  p.  35.  xxxv.  p.  89. — Cordei,  De  oraculo  Dodonaeo. 
Gronii.g.  1826.  8  —J.  Arneth,  Ueber  das  Tauben-orakel  von  Dodona.  Wien,  1840.  8.— Laisavlx,  Das  Pelasgisctie  Orakel  des  Zeu» 
zu  Dodona.    Wilrtzb  1840.  8. 

On  the  site  of  Ihe  temple,  cf.  Pouqueville,  as  ciled  P.  I.  §  87. 

2  u.  Less  celebrated  was  the  oracle  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  in  a  desert  and  almost  inac- 
cessible rpgion  of  Africa,  chiefly  known  by  the  visit  to  it  made  by  Alexander  the 
Great. 

3.  The  site  of  the  temple  and  oracle  of  Jupiter  Amnion  was  discovered  by  the  English  traveler 
Browne  in  1792,  in  the  fiasis  of  Siwa  (Cf.  Renvell's  Geog.  Syst.  of  Herod,  sect.  21.)  Near  it 
was  the  famous  fountain  ofthr  sun.  The  spot  was  visited  by  Belzoni  in  1816.  (Cf.  P.  I.  }  179.) 
The  ruins  of  the  temple  indicate  an  Egyptian  origin. — When  this  oracle  was  consulted,  a  splen- 
did statue  of  the  god  was  carried  in  procession  by  numerous  priests  (cf.  P.  II.  J  24).  A  view  of 
it  is  given  in  the  Sup.  Plate  29. 

4.  Several  other  oracles  of  Jupiter  are  mentioned.  Herodotus  speaks  of  four :  at  Egyptian 
Thebes ;  at  Libyan  Amnion  ;  at  Dodona  ;  and  at  Meroe  in  Ethiopia  ;  and  says  the  one  at  Thebea 
was  the  original.  Besides  these,  there  was  an  oracle  of  Jupiter  in  Bceotia  ;  also  in  Elis  at  Olym- 
pia  ;  and  one  in  Crete,  in  a  cave  of  Mount  Ida. 

§  72.  Apollo,  the  god  to  whom  inspiration  and  prophecy  were  considered  to 
Delong  properly,  had  numerous  oracles.  The  most  renowned  was  that  at 
Delphi,  a  city  of  Phocis,  where  he  had  also  a  temple  illustrious  beyond  all 
others  on  account  of  its  treasures,  the  abundance  and  costliness  of  the  gifts 
bestowed  there.  The  spot  where  the  answer  was  given,  was  called  Pythium 
(n^iov),  and  the  priestess,  who  uttered  it,  Pythia  (ili&ia),  from  the  surname 
which  Apollo  received  in  consequence  of  killing  the  serpent  Python  (Ili&tov). 
This  spot,  or  the  site  of  Delphi,  was  regarded  as  the  centre  of  the  inhabited 
earth  (o^^aXoj  yrts).  According  to  common  tradition  this  oracle  was  first  dis- 
closed by  a  flock  of  goats,  which,  on  approaching  an  orifice  on  Mt.  Parnassus, 
were  seized  with  singular  paroxysms  of  shivering  and  jumping.  The  same 
happened  to  men,  who  approached  this  opening.  This  oracle  was  very  ancient, 
being  celebrated  more  than  a  hundred  years  before  the  Trojan  war. 

1.  Some  derive  the  names  applied  to  this  oracle  and  the  priestess  from  the  word 
iro9co0at,  to  inquire,  or  learn;  but  niOco  appears  to  have  been  originally  the  name  of  the 
city  of  Delphi. — Ihe  temple  was  adorned  with  statues  and  other  splendid  works  of 
art.  Its  walls  were  inscribed  with  salutary  moral  precepts;  among  them  the  cele- 
brated one  Tv<;>Qi  ciavrov.  (P.  V.  %  169.)  Costly  tripods  were  among  the  gifts  conse- 
crated to  Apollo  here.  One  of  the  most  famous  was  the  golden  one  presented  by  the 
Greeks  after  the  defeat  of  Xerxes.  This  was  removed  by  Constantine  and  placed  in 
the  Hippodrome  of  Constantinople,  upon  the  "  triple  heads"  of  the  three  brazen  ser- 
pents twisted  into  one  pillar. 

The  pillar  slill  remains  {Gibbon,  ch.  17.  p  80.  vol.  ii.  N.  York,  1822). — The  three  heads  are  said  to  have  been  in  good  preserva- 
tion when  Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks  ;  Mahomet  II.  then  rode  into  the  Hippodrome  and  shattered  one  of  them  with  hil 
battle  ax  ;  two  were  remaining  in  1700;  but  they  were  stolen  about  that  time  by  some  unknown  depredator.  (Cf.  Loud.  Quart. 
Rev.  ix.  169.) On  the  origin  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  cf.  Mitford's  Greece,  ch.  3.  sect.  2. 

2.  The  great  wealth  accumulated  at  Delphi  (cf.  §  28),  and  the  celebrity  of  the  ora 
cle,  and  consequent  influence  possessed  by  the  state  which  had  the  chief  authority 
over  it,  occasioned  much  jealousy  among  the  Grecian  states;  in  two  instances  par- 
ticularly they  were  involved  thereby  in  actual  hostilities,  in  the  wars  commonly  called 
Sacred. 

Mitfcrd's  Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  xxxvii-xlii.— De  I'alois,  Guerres  Sacrees,  in  the  Jtfem.  Acad.  bucr.  vii.  201.  ix.  97.  xii.  177. 

§  73.  The  tripod  (rptrtoi-s  ^p^arrptoj),  upon  which  the  priestess  sat  in  uttei 
ing  the  answers,  must  be  mentioned  among  the  remarkable  things  pertaining  to 
the  oracle.  It  was  dedicated  to  Apollo  by  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  and 
has  been  viewed  as  having  a  threefold  reference,  to  the  past,  the  present,  and 


166  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

the  future.  The  ni^'a  herself  was  esteemed  as  a  priestess  of  peculiar  dignity 
•a  as  obliged  to  prepare  for  the  functions  of  her  office  by  many  ceremonies. 
In  delivering  the  oracles,  she  appeared  to  be  in  the  most  violent  ecstasy  and 
convulsion.  In  early  times,  the  oracular  response  was  commonly  clothed  in 
the  form  of  hexameter  verse;  often  by  a  poet  employed  for  the  purpose.  Ori- 
crinally  tin-  oracle  was  consulted  but  on  a  single  day  in  the  year,  in  a  month  of 
the  Bpring,  called  Bvaioj  or  avaiof,  afterwards  inquiry  could  be  made  on  a 
certain  day  of  every  month.  Whoever  wished  to  consult  the  oracle  wa3  re- 
quired  to  make  large  presents  and  offerings,  to  put  on  a  wreath  or  crown,  and 
i,i  propose  his  questions  mostly  in  writing,  and  allow  himself  to  be  qualified 
for  receiving  the  answer  by  many  mystic  rites.  The  answer  was  commonly 
so  enigmatical  and  ambiguous  (xo|oj,  hence  Aortas),  that  it  would  apply  to  any 
result  thai  might  happen;  and  whenever  it.  was  clear  and  definite,  the  priests 
had  informed  themselves  of  all  the  preliminary  circumstances  and  the  proba- 
bility s  respecting  the  issue. — The  Delphic  oracle  was  suspended  at  various 
times,  and  became  finally  silent  soon  after  the  death  of  the  emperor  Julian. 

Originally,  there  was  one  Pylhia  (or  irpotprjns)  only  at  Delphi;  but  after  the  oracle 
became  more  frequented,  the  number  was  increased  to  three,  chosen  from  among  the 
uneducated  inhabitants  of  Delphi,  and  bound  to  the  strictest  temperance  and  chastity. 
They  officiated  by  nuns,  and  sometimes  lost  their  lives  in  the  paroxysms  ot  the  in- 
spiration. Those,  who  pretended  to  form  into  sentences  their  incoherent  exclamations, 
tkret  in  number,  were  called  irpoQirai ;  who  always  took  care  to  ascertain  previously 
much  about  the  history  and  characters  of  those  consulting  the  oracle.  The  prophets 
were  aided  in  the  sacrifices  and  ceremonies,  which  preceded  the  placing  of  the  Pyihia 
on  the  tripod,  by  /■•><  priests  called  00-101,  wno  were  under  a  chief  called  bo-iuriip. — The 
roi  were  guides  to  those  who  visited  the  temple,  employed  particularly  in  point- 
ing out  to  them  its  curiosities.  A  great  number  oi  persons  were  required  tor  the  va- 
rvices  of  the  temple  and  oracle. — See  plate  p.  iii.   [Frontisp.  of  Class.  Ant.] 

(  Id  Ih'u  oracle  of  A|...llo.  see  Hardian,  Oracle  de  Delphes,  in  Ihe  Mem.  Acad.  Imcr.  vol.  iii.  p.  !37.— C.  F.  Wihter,  De  Religione 
SI  Oncula  Apollinii  Delphici.     Hufn.  1*27—  K  D  HMtmann,  WUrdigung  des  Delphischen  Orakels.    Boon,  1837.— W.  Gdiie, 
D.i8  Delphiscne  i  rakel,  in  seinem  politische  >,  religio,en,  uud  sinlichen  Eiofluss.    Leipz.  1839.— R.  H.  [Clausen,  io  Ersch  vnd 
ie,  under  Orakd  , 

§  74.  There  were  in  Greece  various  other  oracles  less  celebrated.  The  more 
important  of  thern  were  the  following:  the  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Didyma,  which 
was  called  also  the  oracle  of  the  Branchidae ;  those  of  Delos,  Abae,  Claros, 
Larissa,  Tegyrae  and  other  minor  cities  ;  where  answers  were  also  given  from 
Apollo;  the  oracle  of  Trophonius  at  Lebadea  in  Breotia,  in  a  subterranean 
cave,  said  to  have  been  the  residence  of  Trophonius,  into  which  inquirers  des- 
cended,  alter  performing  solemn  ceremonies,  in  order  to  receive  a  revelation  of 
the  future  by  dreams  or  oracles;  and  the  oracle  of  Amphiaraus  in  the  vicinity 
of  ( )ropus  in  Attica,  where  the  answers  were  imparted  to  the  initiated  by 
dreams. — The  number  of  the  ancient  oracles  amounted  to  two  hundred  and 
sixty. 

1.  The  oracle  of  TV-opftonius  is  described  chiefly  by  Pausanias  (ix.  37),  who  says  he  entered 
the  cave  The  oracle  was  upon  a  mountain,  where  was  a  grove,  temple,  and  statue  of  Tropho- 
nius.  Within  an  inclosure  made  of  white  stones,  upon  which  were  erected  obelisks  of  brass, 
was  an  artificial  opening  like  an  oven  j  here  by  a  ladder  the  person  consulting  the  oracle 
desi  ended,  carrying  in  hia  bands  a  certain  composition  of  honey.  On  returning,  the  person  was 
required  to  write  down  what  bail  been  seen  or  heard.— In  Plate  XIX  is  a  representation  of  this 
Oral  Ie  -  As  there  was  a  Blory  that  a  visitor  to  the  cave  never  smiled  after  his  return,  it  became 
common  to  describe  a  gloomy  person  by  saving  be  had  been  to  the  cave  of  Trophonius ;  see  an 
amusing  application  of  this,  in  Addison' i  Spectator,  No.  559. 

Tlir  ewe  tal'tll  pointed  out  to  traveler!  ;  also  the  two  fountains  Mnemosyne  and  Lethe.— See  Clarke,  Travels,  &c— Pouqueville, 
Vnjaje,  kc   vol    iv.  p,  171, 

9  There  were  numerous  oracles  of  Asclepius  or  ^Esculapius  ;  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
w  ai  it  Bpidanrus,  Her.'  the  sick  Bought  responses  and  the  recovery  of  their  health  by  sleeping 
(.ineubatio)  in  the  temple.  Ii  was  imagined  by  F.  A.  Wolf,  that  what  is  now  called  animal  map- 
'"  ''  ■"  "'  ■"'  -"" ■"'*»'  was  known  io  the  priests  . .f  t liose  temples  where  the  sick  spent  one  or  more 
nlghti  foi  tne  purpose  of  recovering  their  health. 

11    ''  ■'    "  '•'■.  Bejring  lur  OMCb.  d«  Sonnunbuliimui  aw  dent  Alterthum;  in  his  Vermischte  Schriften. 

§  7.r>.  The  pretended  revelation  of  the  future  mediately  (cf.  §  70),  or  by  means 
of  some  system  or  art  of  divination  (/.tavrixr]),  was  effected  in  various  ways. 

I'l.e  most  important  was  by  theomancy  (^fo/iatem'a),  an  art  possessed  by  a 
class  of  persons  who  were  called  ^so/toWny,  and  claimed  to  be  under  divine 

aspiration.     This  class  comprised  three  varieties;   some  were  considered  as 


£EX 


P.  III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       DIVINATION.  167 

interpreters  of  the  demons  by  whom  they  were  possessed,  and  called  baifiovo- 
"Krimoi  or  7iv|wo»/fs;  others  were  called  iv^ovoiaoTai  or  iv^caonxoi,  and  enjoyed 
only  the  intimations  of  some  particular  divinity  ;  and  others  still  were  termed 
sxcranxoi,  and  boasted  of  high  discoveries  obtained  during  a  wholly  superna- 
tural state  of  mind,  which  they  sought  to  render  credible  by  the  pretext  of  a 
long  trance,  insensibility,  or  sleep. 

Besides  what  was  termed  in  general  theomancy,  there  were  several  methods  of 
divination,  of  which  the  following  were  the  principal. — 1.  By  dreams,  dvuponoXia.  The 
Greeks  ascribed  very  much  to  dreams  as  supernatural,  and  viewed  them  either  as 
revelations  and  warnings  from  the  gods  or  from  demons,  or  as  pictures  and  images  of 
future  events.  The  expounders  of  dreams  were  called  oveipoKpimi,  avuporsKmoi,  or  d»ci- 
po7rdXoi.  Three  varieties  of  the  dream  are  named ;  xpnpari.apnq,  when  a  god  or  spirit 
conversed  with  one  in  his  sleep;  opapa,  when  one  saw  a  vision  of  future  occurrences; 
Sffipoj,  in  which  the  future  was  set  forth  by  types  and  figures  (tiWnyoptKws).  Two  other 
varieties  are  also  mentioned,  bmtvwv  and  (pavTaapa,  but  are  not  considered  as  affording 
much  help  in  divination  ;  f^i.iXnjf,  incubus,  night-mare,  was  supposed  sometimes  to 
indicate  the  future.  Dreams  were  supposed  to  be  sent  from  the  god  of  sleep  (P.  II. 
§  113);  and  from  Jupiter  {Horn.  II.  i.  63).  A  goddess  called  Brizo  (flptijUM,  to  sleep) 
was  thought  to  preside  over  the  interpretation  of  dreams,  and  was  worshiped  particu- 
larly in  Delos.  Dreams  which  occurred  in  the  morning  were  most  regarded  in 
divination. 

See  Arlemidoru),  as  cited  P.  V.  §  267.— Burigny,  Songei,  &c  in  the  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  da  Insar.  vol.  Kxxviii.  p.  74.— Theory  of 
Dreamt,  cited  P.  II.  §  113. 

2.  By  sacrifices.  This  was  called  Hieromanctj  (tcpipavrtia)  or  Hieroscopy  (IrpooKimia) 
It  comprehended  the  observations  of  many  particulars  connected  with  the  offering  of 
a  victim,  as  portending  good  or  ill.  One  of  the  principal  things  was  the  inspection  of 
the  entrails,  especially  the  liver  (rmaTocKovia).  and  the  heart.  The  fire  of  sacrifice  was 
also  noticed  (ir-popavTtia) ;  likewise  the  smoke  {Kim.'opavTcia),  the  wine  (dwopanTtia),  and 
the  water  (vc-popavrtia,  -ariyopavTua).  There  were,  in  short,  various  kinds  or  forms  of  this 
divination  according  to  the  different  victims  or  materials  of  the  sacrifices  and  the  dif 
ferent  rites ;  e.  g.  there  was  ukevpoaavrtia,  by  the  flower  or  meal  used ;  i\Oropavrda,  by 
the  entrails  of  fishes ;  woaKoiria,  by  eggs. 

3.  By  birds,  dioivioTiKh.  Those,  who  observed  and  interpreted  omens  by  birds,  were 
called  opvtooKmoi,  ipviBopavTus.  Some  birds  were  observed  with  respect  to  their  flight 
(rai'i'7rrfp"yrc) ;  others  in  respect  to  their  singing  {(o'ikui).  Unlucky  birds,  or  those  of  ill 
omen,  were  called  f£  '<\aipoi,  pernicious,  and  Kb}\»riKal,  hindering  from  designed  under- 
takings, and  by  similar  epithets;  among  this  class  were  the  hawk,  the  buzzard,  and, 
except  at  Athens,  the  owl ;  the  dove  and  swan,  on  the  other  hand,  were  considered 
as  lucky  birds  ;  and  the  crowing  of  the  cock  was  auspicious.  When  the  observer  of 
the  flight  of  birds  was  watching  for  omens  he  looked  towards  the  north,  and  appear- 
ances in  the  east,  which  was  on  his  right,  were  considered  as  favorable;  hence  the 
use  of  <5<:£id{,  right,  to  signify  fortunate. — Omens  were  also  drawn  from  insects  and 
reptiles,  and  various  animals.  Toads,  serpents,  and  boars  were  of  ill  omen.  Bees 
and  ants  were  often  thought  to  foretoken  good. 

4.  By  signs  in  the  heavens  (ttotrripua)  and  other  physical  phenomena.  Comets, 
eclipses,  and  earthquakes  were  all  unlucky  signs.  Thunder  and  lightning  were  lucky 
if  observed  on  the  right  hand  ;  but  unlucky  if  on  the  left.  To  be  struck  with  thun- 
der (/Spoirrjrdc)  was  unlucky  ;  in  places  thus  struck,  altars  were  erected  and  oblations 
made  to  appease  the  gods,  after  which  none  dared  to  approach  them. 

5.  By  lots.  The  two  principal  modes  were  those  termed  o-Tixopavfua  and  /cA>?po(*ai/m'a  ; 
in  the  former  little  pieces  of  paper,  having  fatidical  lines  (o-rocoj)  written  upon  them, 
were  drawn  from  an  urn,  and  were  supposed  to  indicate  the  prospects  of  the  person 
by  or  for  whom  they  were  drawn  out  ;  in  the  other,  various  small  articles,  as  beans 
black  and  white,  pebbles,  dice,  and  the  like,  which  were  all  called  «-X/"jpoi,  and  were 
considered  as  being  of  different  significancy,  were  drawn  from  an  urn  or  other  vessel. 

-Other  modes  were  paQfopavriia,  by  rods,  and  fiiKopavrtia,  by  arrows,  in  which  the 
lot  was  decided  by  the  manner  in  which  they  fell  from  an  erect  posture  or  from  the 
quiver.  Another  was  by  the  use  of  the  niva\  dy>-pri*ds,  on  which  certain  prophetic 
verses  were  inscribed,  and  the  fate  was  indicated  by  the  verse  on  which  the  dice  fell. 

6.  By  magical  arts.  These  were  said  to  have  originated  in  Persia  among  the  Mag:. 
uayoi.  The  degree  of  attention  given  among  the  Greeks  to  these  arts  (mpicpya)  is 
evinced  by  a  striking  fact  recorded  in  the  Bible  (Acts,  xix.  19),  which  seems  to  imply 
that  a  great  number  of  books  were  composed  on  the  subject.  A  few  only  of  the 
various  modes  nted  be  named;  vcKpopavrcia,  aKiopavrda,  and  tyvxppavTtia,  in  which  the 
dead  were  supposed  to  appear  or  speak  ;  yaoTpopavrtia,  in  which  demons  were  ima- 
gined to  speak  from  the  bellies  of  men,  or  omens  were  drawn  from  the  appearances 
of  water  in  the  middle  part  (yno-rpu)  of  certain  glass  vessels  surrounded  with  lighted 
torches:  Kriooaavrtia,  in  which  the  performers  observed  the  forms  assumed  bv  drops 


158  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

of  melted  wax  ;  there  were  numerous  other  modes. — The  aktKTpvopnvTtia  -was  a  sort  (A 
,iivi,  assed  among  the  magical  arts;  the  letters  ot  the  alphabet  were 

written  in  a  circle;  a  grain  of  wheal  or  barley  was  laid  upon  each  letter ,  a  cock  wa* 
iter;  and  the  desired  information  was  obtained  by  putting  together 
,  ...  in,  h  the  cock  [iickcd  the  grains.— It  is  proper  to  mention  here  some 
..i  the  magical  arts,  by  which  mysterious  effects  were  supposed  to  be  wrought ;  as, 
:  which  medicated  herbs,  minerals,  and  the  like  ((pappaxa)  were  used; 
.rra.irt,  which  was  a  sort  oi  fascination  or  malign  influence  which  certain  per- 
sons w«  re  suppos<  u  to  exert. 

Set  Bonamy  and  Lc  Blond,  ic.  as  ciled  $  227.— On  divination  by  the  cttp,  cf.  Class.  Journ.  x.  232. 

7.  Finally,  divination  was  also  made  from  various  things  included  under  the  general 
name  oi  omens  [avp  toXa).  ( Ine  class  of  these  consisted  of  such  as  were  drawn  from 
the  person  himself,  as  iraX/jol,  palpitations  of  some  part  of  the  system:  fi6p,j3oc.,  a  ringing 
.it  the  ears;  --■<  .  sneezings,  &c.  Another  class  consisted  of  those  drawn  from 
objects  external  to  the  person;  as  the  meeting  of  certain  objects  or  animals  on  the 
road  '<.   or  certain  occurrences  at   home  (to  dtKoa-KornKdv).     Certain  words 

were  also  ominous;  such  were  called  Brrcu,  (cXrjitfvsj,  Qfjpai.     The  Greeks,  especially  the 
il  to  avoid  words  of  ill  omen,  carefully  substituting  others,  as,  e.  g. 
stead  of  'Epiviwr,  and  ^'Aarijj  instead  of  <rXon-)B. 

On  the  anrient  art  of  divination,  see  Cicero,  De  Divinatione. — Cf.  IVachsmuth,  Historical  Antiquities,  as  cited  §  13. — Potter, 
Archied.  Gnec.  bk.  ii.  ch   12-18. 

§  76.  The  festivals  formed  an  important  part  of  the  religious  worship  of  the 
Greeks.  Their  establishment  and  support  was  partly  for  the  sake  jf  honoring 
and  supplicating  the  gods,  and  commemorating  persons  of  merit,  and  partly 
for  the  sake  of  rest,  recreation,  union,  and  harmony  of  social  feeling.  Their 
number  greatly  increased  with  the  multiplication  of  the  gods  and  the  progress 
of  luxury  and  wealth;  the  variety  and  splendor  of  the  accompanying  ceremo- 
nies increased  in  the  same,  proportion.  Especially  was  this  the  case  at  Athens. 
They  were  mostly  held  at  the  public  expense,  the  means  being  drawn  from 
various  sources. 

See  M,  G.  Hermann,  Die  Feste  von  Hellas  hisiortsch-philosophisch  beirbeilet  unci  zum  erstenma!  nach  ihrem  Sinn  und  Zweck 
Blluterl.     Berlin,  I <■  03    2T!l.  8. 

§  7?  /.  Some  of  the  most  important  festivals  have  been  mentioned  (P.  II.) 
in  the  history  of  particular  gods,  under  the  head  of  Mythology.  A  slight 
notice  of  them  here  must  suffice.  The  principal  out  of  an  almost  countless 
multitude,  will  be  named  in  alphabetical  order,  and  then  some  particulars  added 
respecting  a  few  of  these. 

1  u.  'A yp i '•'< v i a,  a  nocturnal  festival  instituted  in  honor  of  Bacchus. 'ASdvia, 

dedicated  to  Venus  and  the  memory  of  Adonis. 'A A<r><i,  to  Bacchus  and  Ceres. 

■r-ri,ia.  observed  at  Athens  three  days,  also  in  honor  of  Bacchus. 'An- a- 

rovpta,  at  Athens,  in  commemoration  of  a  victory  obtained  by  Melanthus,  through 

Stratagem,  over  the  Boeotian  king  Xanthus,  likewise  in  honor  of  Bacchus,  and  other 

a  festival  of  Aphrodite  or  Venus,  particularly  on  the  island  of 

Cyprus. Bpa  op  h  to,   sacred  to  Diana,  in  Attica,  celebrated  every  fifth  year. — 

■     <vi,i,  lo  Apollo  in  Boeotia,  only  every  ninth  year. SfjXia,  also  to  Apollo, 

on  the  island  of  Delos,  every  tilili  year. i^  i)rpt  a,  sacred  toDemeteror  Ceres. 

liiiroXeio,  an    Athenian  festival,  instituted  in  honor  of  Jupiter,  as  tutelary  god  of  the 
•  • -i  to  via:  a,  to  Dionysus  or  Bacchus  ;  a  greater  and  more  solemn  festi- 
val in  the  cities  ;  and  a  lesser  one  in  the  country  ;  the  same  that  was  called  by  the  Ro- 
mans Bacchanalia.  There  were  innumerable  forms  of  this  festival. 'Ek  ardpfla  i  a, 

dedicated  by  the  Argives  to  Juno,  to  whom  they  sacrificed  a  hecatomb  on  the  first  day 

oi  this  festival. ''EXeiumiu  a,  the  most  celebrated  festival  of  Ceres,  a  greater  and 

smaller,  connected  with  the  well  known  mysteries. "Kppai  a,  a  festival  of  Mercury, 

rcadia,  and  Crete. 'E<pi(Tia,  a  festival  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. "Hpaia,  a 

l  '   o  al  Argos. 'Htpaitrreta,  sacred  to  Vulcan  at  Athens,  accompanied 

b)  races  with  torches. Btapo<p6pia,  the  festival  of  legislation  in  honor  of  Ceres,  at 

Athena  and  other  Greek  cities. Kapveta,  sacred  to  Jupiter  and  Apollo,  almost 

throughout  all  Greece,  for  nine  days, Akom,  an  Arcadian  festival  in  honor  of 

ii       [But  this  term  usually  designates  a  festival  of  Pan 

spending  to  i   an  Lupercal.     Cf.  P.  II.  $  80.] 'OaKo<p6p ta,  a  festival 

°*  ,l"     \''  luted  by  Theseus,  and  so  called  from  the  custom  of  carrying 

branches  about  on  tin  occasion. n  a  v  a  0  >',  v  a  ■  a,  one  of  the  most  solemn  festivals 

at  Aliens,  dedicated  to  Minerva.  The  lesser  was  celebrated  annually;  the  greater 
every  fifth  year.  Both  wen  connected  with  various  contests  and  games.- — luXw- 
9ta,  a  Thessalian  festival  dedicated  to  Jupiter,  having  some  resemblance  to  the  Six. 
htrnali'i  of  the  Romans. 'a,pata,a.  general  name  applied  to  solemn  sacriticos 


>m&m^  »j®m$ 


r    III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       FEST    fALS.  169 

which  were  brought  to  the  gods  in  the  different  seasons,  with  a  view  to  secure  good 
weather. 

For  a  more  compl  ite  enumeration  and  description,  cf.  Potter,  Archseol.  Graeca,  bk.  ii.  ch.  20  — Cf.  Lurcher,  on  certain  Greek 
festivals,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlv.  p  412;  and  xlviit.  p.  252. 

2.  "The  festival  called  'A &<'> via  was  celebrated  in  most  of  the  cities  of  Greece. 
The  solemnity  continued  two  days.  On  the  first,  certain  images  or  pictures  of  Adonis 
and  Venus  were  brought  forth  with  all  the  pomp  and  ceremonies  used  at  funerals;  the 
women  tore  their  hair,  beat  their  breasts,  and  counterfeited  other  actions  usual  in 
lamenting  the  dead.  This  lamentation  was  called  d<Wiao7«d$  or  dBuvia,  and  hence  acWrae 
iiyetv  signifies  the  same  as  "ASavtv  ic\aietv,  to  weep  for  Adonis;  and  the  songs  on  this 
occasion  were  denominated b&uviha.  With  the  images  were  also  carried  shells  filled 
with  earth,  in  which  grew  several  sorts  of  herbs,  particularly  lettuces;  in  memory 
that  Adonis  was  laid  out  on  a  bed  of  lettuces.  These  were  called  vivoi,  gardens  ;  and 
hence  'A&Zviios  icifrot  were  proverbially  applied  to  things  unfruitful  and  fading,  because 
those  herbs  were  sown  only  so  long  before  the  festival  as  to  be  green  at  that  time,  and 
were  presently  cast  out  into  the  water.  The  flutes  used  on  this  day  were  called 
ytyypiat  from  yiyypns,  the  Phoenician  name  of  Adonis;  the  music,  ytyypacrjidi ;  and  the 
songs  were  called  ytyypavTa..  The  sacrifice  was  denominated  xaOiSpa,  because  the  days 
of  mourning  were  called  by  that  name.  The  second  day  was  spent  in  all  possible 
demonstrations  of  joy  and  merriment ;  in  memory,  that  by  the  favor  of  Proserpine, 
Venus  obtained  that  Adonis  should  return  to  life,  and  dwell  with  her  one-half  of  every 
year.  This  fable  is  applied  to  the  sun  which  produced  the  vicissitudes  of  summer  and 
winter." 

Cf.  P.  II.  5  47.— Banier,  Culte  d'Adonis,  in  the  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.  val.  iii.  p.  98. 

3.  "The  Aiovvcia  were  sometimes  called  by  the  general  name  of  "Opyta,  which, 
though  s->metimes  applied  to  the  mysteries  of  other  gods,  more  particularly  belonged 
to  those  ol  Bacchus.  They  were  also  sometimes  denominated  Baicxna.  They  were 
observed  at  Athens  with  greater  splendor,  and  with  more  ceremonious  superstition, 
than  in  any  other  part  of  Greece ;  the  years  were  numbered  by  them  ;  the  chief 
aichon  had  a  share  in  their  management ;  and  the  priests  who  officiated  were  honored 
with  the  first  seats  at  public  shows.  At  first,  however,  they  were  celebrated  without 
splendor,  being  days  set  apart  for  public  mirth,  and  observed  only  with  the  following 
ceremonies: — a  vessel  of  wine  adorned  with  a  vine  branch,  was  brought  forth  ;  next 
followed  a  goat ;  then  was  carried  a  basket  of  figs  ;  and  after  all,  the  phalli. — At  some 
of  them,  the  worshipers  in  their  garments  and  actions  imitated  the  poetical  fictions 
concerning  Bacchus ;  they  put  on  fawns'  skins,  fine  linen,  and  miters ;  carried  thyrsi, 
drums,  pipes,  flutes,  and  rattles;  crowned  themselves  with  garlands  of  ivy,  vine,  fir, 
and  other  trees  sacred  to  Bacchus.  Some  imitated  Silenus,  Pan,  and  the  Satyrs,  and 
exhibited  themselves  in  comic  dresses  and  antic  motions  ;  some  rode  upon  asses;  and 
others  drove  goats  to  the  slaughter.  In  this  manner  persons  of  both  sexes  ran  about 
the  hills  and  deserts,  dancing  ridiculously,  personating  men  deranged  in  their  intel- 
lects, and  crying  aloud,  Etioe  Sii/Jot,  Et'ot  Bdx\c,  «  Ta«\£,   Idpaicxe,  o-r  'Ioj  B<i*\T. 

The  great  festival,  Awicna  pcydXa,  was  sometimes  called  dcri/ca,  or  ra  kclt'  aarv,  be 
cause  celebrated  within  the  city  of  Athens,  in  the  beginning  of  spring,  in  the  month 
'Et\a<pnfto\ir')i>.     It  was  sometimes  by  way  of  eminence  called  Atoi<w<a,  because  it  was 
the  most  celebrated  of  all  festivals  of  Bacchus  at  Athens,  and  was  probably  the  satne 

as  Aioi'iiiTia  dp\ai6Ttpa. 

The  less,  AionVia  puKpa,  was  sometimes  called  r5  kclt  dypovg,  because  it  was  observed 
in  the  country.  It  was  a  sort  of  preparation  to  the  former  and  greater  festival,  and 
was  celebrated  in  autumn,  in  the  month  Tloo-stSsoyv  or  TafiriKiuv.  Some  are  of  opinion, 
that  it  was  the  same  as  Aioraria  Xr/i/atu,  which  received  its  name  from  Grinds,  a  wine- 
press." 

There  appear  to  have  been  four  Attic  festivals  in  honor  of  Bacchus  ;  the  Aiovvma 
kcit  dypovg,  the  hfivata,  the  'Ae&crrij/jta,  and  the  Atovvcna  tear  ootv.  Other  festivals  in  his 
honor  are  also  named. 

In  our  Plate  XXV.  fig.  e,  we  have  a  Bacchante  dancing  with  a  thyrsus  in  one  hand  and  a  wine 
cup  in  the  other;  in  fig./,  another  Bacchante  with  some  musical  instrument  in  each  hand,  per- 
haps the  crotala.     A  male  reveler  is  seen  on  the  altar  of  Bacchus,  given  in  the  Sup.  Plate  30. 

Cf.  Schbll,  Hist.  Litt.  Grecque,  vol.  ii.  p.  5,  as  cited  P.  V.  §  7.  9.— On  festivats  of  Bacchus,  see  also  P.  II.  §  59  ;  P.  IV.  §  66.  2  —See 
Spalding,  in  the  Abhandl.  der  Berl.  Acad.  1811 ;  and  Jl.  B'dckh,  Vom  Unterschiede  der  Attischen  Lenaen,  Antheslerieii,  &c  in  the 
Ibhandl.  der  Berl.  Ac.  1819. 

4.  "  The  'EXsikt  ivt  a  was  a  solemnity  observed  by  the  Celeans  and  Phhasianh 
every  fourth  year;  by  the  PheneatfE,  the  Lacedaemonians,  Parrhasians,  and  Cretans, 
but  more  especially  by  the  Athenians,  every  fifth  year,  at  Eleusis,  a  borough  town  of 
Attica.  It  was  the  most  celebrated  solemnity  in  Greece,  and  was,  therefore,  by  way  of 
eminence,  called  tA  Lt<vT>)pta,  the  mysteries,  and  TEAtrf).  It  is  said  by  some  to  have  been 
instituted  by  Ceres  herself,  when  she  had  supplied  the  Athenians  with  corn  in  a  time 
of  famine.  S  >me  say  that  it  was  instituted  by  king  Erectheus ;  and  others  :>v 
E.nmolpus. 


170  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

It  was  divided  into  the  pitpi  and  ptyaKa  pxrrfjpta,  lesser  and  greater  my3tei.es;  aid 
then  the  latter  were  in  ho/ior  of  Ceres,  the  former  in  that  of  her  daughter  Proserpine 
Kuep.\  itnrrijpia,  the  lesser  mysteries,  were  observed  in  the  month  'Avtteo-njpiw  at  Agrae. 
a  place  near  the  river  Ilissus ;  and  the  pcy,i\a  pvaTr,pM,  greater  mysteries,  were  cele- 
brated in  the  month  1WW",;,;'>  at  Eleusis,  a  borough-town  of  Attica,  from  which.Ceres 
was  called  Eleusinia.  In  later  ages  the  lesser  festival  was  used  as  a  preparation  10 
the  greater,  in  which  they  could  not  be  initiated  till  they  had  been  purified  at  the 
former. 

About  a  year  after  purification  at  the  lesser,  they  sacrificed  a  sow  to  Ceres,  and 
were  admitted  to  the  greater  mysteries,  the  secret  rites  of  which  (with  the  exception 
of  a  few  known  only  to  the  priests)  were  openly  revealed  to  them,  and  hence  they 
were  c  and  nr&rrat,  inspectors.     Persons  of  both  sexes  and  of  all  ages  were 

jnitia  .  olemnity.     To  neglect  the  initiation  into  these  mysteries  was  consi- 

dered  a  crime  of  a  very  heinous  nature,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  accusation  for  which 
es  was  condemned  to  death. — All  the  Greeks  might  claim  initiation  into  the 
mysteries;  but  the  people  of  every  other  nation  were  excluded  by  an  ancient  law; 
and  persons  convicted  of  sorcery  or  of  any  atrocious  crime,  and  especially  if  they 
had  committed  homicide,  even  though  involuntarily,  were  debarred  from  these 
mysteries. 

The  manner  of  initiation  was  as  follows.  The  candidates,  being  crowned  with 
myrtle,  were  admitted  by  night  into  a  place  called  fjuoruede  o-rj/w;,  the  mystical  temple, 
or  p  (rroSdicoi  '"/ja,  which  was  an  edifice  very  capacious  (P.  II.  §  63).  At  their  entrance 
they  washed  their  hands  in  holy  water,  and  at  the  same  time  were  admonished  to 
present  themselves  with  minds  pure  and  undented,  without  which  the  external  clean- 
ness oi  tlie  body  would  not  be  accepted.  After  this,  the  holy  mysteries  were  read  to 
them  out  of  a  book  called  Trerpupa,  from  irhpa,  a  stone,  because  the  book  was  only  two 
stones  cemented  together.  Then  the  priest  who  initiated  them,  and  who  was  called 
I  'ttis,  proposed  to  them  certain  questions,  to  which  they  returned  answers.  Soon 
after,  they  beheld  strange  and  frightful  objects:  sometimes  the  place,  in  which  they 
were,  appeared  bright  and  resplendent  with  light  and  radiant  fire,  and  instantly  was 
covered  with  pitchy  darkness;  sometimes  a  hollow  sound  was  heard,  and  the  earth 
seemed  to  groan  beneath  their  feet.  The  being  present  at  these  sights  was  called 
xiroipia,  intuition.  They  were  then  dismissed  in  these  words,  Kdy£,  "Opn-a^.  The  gar- 
ments in  which  they  were  initiated  were  deemed  sacred,  and  efficacious  in  averting 
evils  and  incantations. 

The  hierophantes  had  three  assistants:  the  first  was  called  fatovxos,  torch-bearer,  to 

whom  it  was  permitted  to  marry;  the  second,  *%"£,  the   crier;  and   the  third,  6  em 

i,  from  iiis  ministering  at  the  altar,     'hpoipivrns  is  said  to  have  been  a  type  of  the 

Great  Creator  of  all  things;  iaSovXH,  of  the  sun;  <ri5p"J,  of  Mercury;  and  b  bri  ffas/u^, 

of  the  moon. 

There  were  also  certain  public  officers  whose  business  consisted  in  seeing  that  all 
things  were  performed  according  to  custom.  Of  these  was  /Jao-iXtuc,  the  king,  who 
was  one  of  the  archons,  and  who  was  obliged  to  offer  prayers  and  sacrifices  at  this 
solemnity,  and  to  observe  that  no  indecency  or  irregularity  was  committed  during  the 
festival ;  four  orifisAijrai,  curators,  who  were  elected  by  the  people,  and  ten  persons  who 
assisted  at  this  and  some  other  solemnities,  and  who  were  called  hpcnroioi,  from  their 
offering  sacrifices. 

This  festival  continued  nine  days,  and  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  twenty-third  day  of 
the  month  Boti^popidv.  During  this  time  it  was  unlawful  to  arrest  any  man,  or  to  pre- 
Si  nl  any  petition  ;  and  they  who  were  found  guilty  of  such  practices  were  fined  one 
thousand  drachms,  or,  as  others  say,  put  to  death. 

On  the  fourth  day  of  the  festival,  they  made  a  solemn  procession,  in  which  the 
traXufcop,  holy  basket  of  Ceres,  was  carried  in  a  consecrated  cart,  crowds  of  persons 
shouting  as  they  went,  Xatpt,  Anpiircp  (Hail,  Ceres).  After  these,  followed  certain 
w.nnen  called  Kumnp6poi,  who  carried  baskets  in  which  were  contained  carded  wool, 
grains  of  salt,  a  serpent,  pomegranates,  reeds,  ivy  boughs,  a  sort  of  cakes  called 
y"i\.  poppies,  &c. — The  fifth  was  called  'H  rr# Aa/nr<i<k>i/  hpcpa,  the  torch-day;  because, 
the  nighl  following,  the  men  and  women  ran  about  with  torches  in  their  hands.  It 
was  also  customary  to  dedicate  torches  to  Ceres,  and  to  contend  who  could  present 
the  largest  ;  and  this  was  done  in  memory  of  the  journey  of  Ceres,  who  sought  Pro- 
•  rpine  with  a  torch  lighted  at  the  flames  of  ./Etna. — The  sixth  day  was  called  "Ia*-\oc, 
hum  [acchus,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres,  who  with  a  torch  in  his  hand  accompa- 
nied the  iroddess  in  her  search  after  Proserpine.  His  statue,  crowned  with  myrtle, 
anil  bearing  a  torch,  was  carried  from  the  Ceramicus  to  Eleusis,  in  a  solemn  proces- 
sion called  "W\os-. — On  the  seventh  day  were  sports,  in  which  the  victors  were  re 
warded  with  a  measure  of  barley,  which  was  the  first  grain  sown  in  Eleusis." 

Itebnuan,  Arctwn],  l.reca.—  On  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries,  see  the  references  given  P.  II.  $  63.— A  full  account  of  Ihe  Greek  mys- 
•tries  it  j-iven  in  Limlmrg-Drouwn,  Hislnire  de  la  Civilisation,  Mor  et  Relig.  des  Grecs. 

5.  The  Qt<rpo<p6pia  was  a  festival  in  honor  of  Ceres,  surnamed  Swpixpdpos  (legifera 
nr  lawgiver),  because  she  was  said  to  have  first  taught   mankind  the  use  of  laws.     Jt 


P.   III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       FESTIVALS.  17 1 

was  celebrated  in  many  Grecian  cities ;  by  the  Spartans,  the  Thebans  in  Boeotia,  tb* 
Syracusans  in  Sicily,  and  others. — "  But  the  Athenians  observed  this  festival  with  tltf. 
greatest  show  of  devotion  ;  the  worshipers  were  freeborn  women  (it  being  unlawful 
for  any  of  servile  condition  to  be  present),  whose  husbands  were  wont  to  defray  the 
charges ;  and  were  obliged  to  do  so,  if  their  wives'  portion  amounted  to  three  talents. 
These  women  were  assisted  by  a  priest  called  Xreipavriipdpog,  because  his  head  was 
adorned  with  a  crown  ;  and  by  certain  virgins,  who  were  kept  under  severe  discipline, 
being  maintained  at  the  public  charge  in  a  place  called  tfray<o</iop£iW.  The  women  were 
clad  in  white  apparel. — Three  days  at  least  were  spent  in  making  preparations.  Upon 
the  eleventh  of  Pyanepsion,  the  women,  carrying  books  upon  their  heads,  wherein 
the  laws  were  contained,  went  to  Eleusis,  where  the  solemnity  was  kept;  whence 
tl;is  day  was  called  "AvoSoc,  the  ascent.  Upon  the  fourteenth  the  festival  began,  and 
lasted  until  the  seventeenth.  Upon  the  sixteenth  they  kept  a  fust,  sitting  upon  the 
ground  in  token  of  humiliation;  whence  the  day  was  called  N^o-ma,  a  fust." 

Cf.  Pttttr.  Boyd's  ed.  p.  378.— WtOouttr,  De  Thesmnphonis.  Wnlid.  1820.  8. On  the  Fasts  of  the  ancients,  see  Morin,  L'L'saje 

du  Jiv.ne.  chez  les  Anciens,  &c.  iti  the  Mem.  de  iAcad.  des  Insor.  vol.  iv.  p.  29. 

6.  "  The  navaOrjvata  was  an  Athenian  festival  in  honor  of  Minerva,  the  protec- 
tress of  Athens.  It  was  first  instituted  by  Erichthonius,  who  called  it  'Mfivata  ;  and  it 
was  afterwards  revived  by  Theseus,  when  he  had  united  into  one  city  all  the  Athe- 
nian people,  and  by  him  was  denominated  XlavaBitvaia.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  it 
was  the  same  as  the  Roman  Quinqualria.  At  first  it  continued  only  one  clay  ;  but  il 
was  afterwards  prolonged  several  days,  and  celebrated  with  great  magnificence. 

There  were  two  solemnities  of  this  name,  one  of  which  was  called  MsydXa  navadfjvaia, 
the  Great  Panathenasa,  and  was  celebrated  once  in  five  years,  beginning  on  the  twenty- 
second  of  Hecatombaeon ;  the  other  was  denominated  Mi/c/ju  tlavaOfjvcua,  the  Less  Pana- 
thenaea,  and  svas  observed  every  third  year,  or,  as  some  think,  every  year,  beginning 
on  the  twentieth  or  twenty-first  of  Thargelion.  In  the  latter  were  three  games,  ma- 
naged by  ten  presidents  who  were  elected  from  the  ten  tribes  of  Athens,  and  who  con- 
tinued in  office  four  years.  On  the  first  day  was  a  race  with  torches,  in  which  first 
footmen  and  afterwards  horsemen  contended,  and  which  was  also  observed  in  the 
greater  festival.  The  second  contention  was  tiavbpias  rfyojv,  a  gymnastic  exercise  in 
which  the  combatants  gave  proof  of  their  strength  or  manhood.  The  place  of  these 
games  was  near  the  river,  and  was  called  from  the  festival  llavadrivaiKdv.  The  third 
was  a  musical  contention  instituted  by  Pericles  ;  the  subject  proposed  was  the  eulogium 
of  Harmoditts  and  Aristogiton.  and  also  of  Thrasybulus,  who  had  rescued  the  repub- 
lic from  the  yoke  of  the  tyrants  by  which  it  was  oppressed.  The  poets  also  contended 
in  four  plays,  which  from  their  number  were  called  Tcrpaloyia.  Besides  these  there  was 
a  contention  at  Sunium,  in  imitation  of  a  sea-fight.  (Cf.  Ih  rod.  viii.  55. — Pausan.  i-  27. 
§  2.)  The  victor  in  either  of  these  games  was  rewarded  with  a  vessel  of  oil  and  with 
a  crown  of  the  olives  which  gievv  in  the  Academy,  and  which  were  called  popiai  from 
pfyo;,  death,  or  from  p<pos,  a  part.  There  was  likewise  a  dance  called  Pyrrhichia,  per- 
formed by  boys  in  armor,  who  represented  to  the  sound  of  the  flute  the  battle  of  Mi- 
nerva with  the  Titans.  No  man  was  permitted  to  be  present  at  these  games  in 
dyed  garments,  under  a  penalty  to  be  imposed  by  the  dytovodsrris,  president  of  the  games. 
Lastly  a  sumptuous  sacrifice  was  offered,  to  which  every  Athenian  borough  contributed 
an  ox;  of  the  flesh  that  remained,  a  public  entertainment  was  made  for  the  whole 
assembly  ;  and  at  this  entertainment  cups  of  an  unusual  size  were  employed. 

In  the  greater  festival  most  of  the  same  rites  and  ceremonies  were  observed,  but 
with  greater  splendor  and  magnificence,  and  the  addition  of  some  other  matters.  In 
particular,  at  this  solemnity  was  a  procession,  in  which  was  carried  the  sacred  n-crXos, 
garment  of  Minerva.  This  irhXos  was  woven  by  a  select  number  of  virgins,  who  were 
called  ipyaoriKai,  from  f'pyo",  a  work,  and  who  were  superintended  by  two  of  the 
<ippri<i>6pni,  and  commenced  their  employment  at  the  festival  XaX/a-iii,  which  was  on  the 
thirtieth  of  Pyanepsion.  The  garment  was  white,  without  sleeves,  and  embroidered 
with  gold:  upon  it  were  described  the  achievements  of  Minerva  against  the  giants,  of 
Jupiter,  of  the  heroes,  and  of  men  renowned  for  valor  and  great  exploits;  and  hence 
men  of  courage  and  bravery^  were  said  to  be  Sfioi  ireifKov,  worthy  of  being  portrayed  on 
the  garment  of  Minerva.  The  ceremonies  attending  the  procession  with  the  n-nrXos 
were  as  follows.  In  the  Ceramicus  without  the  city,  was  an  engine  built  for  the  pur- 
pose in  the  form  of  a  ship,  upon  which  the  irrn-Xoc  was  hung  in  the  manner  of  a  sail, 
which  was  put  in  motion  by  concealed  machinery.  The  7tctXuc  was  thus  conveyed  to 
the  temple  of  Ceres  Eleusinia,  and  thence  to  the  citadel,  where  it  was  placed  upon 
Minerva's  statue,  which  was  laid  on  a  bed  strewed  with  flowers,  and  called  r:\aucis. 
This  procession  was  composed  of  a  great  number  of  persons  of  both  sexes,  and  of  aii 
ages  and  conditions.  It  was  led  up  by  old  men,  and,  as  some  say,  by  old  women,  car- 
rying olive  branches  in  their  hands;  and  hence  they  were  called  SaXXoc^ixx,  bearers  of 
green  boughs.  After  these  came  middle-aged  men,  who,  armed  with  lances  and 
bucklers,  seemed  only  to  respire  war,  and  who  were  accompanied  bj  the  /jitroiKot,  so 
journers,  carrying  little  boats  as  emblems  of  their  beine  foreigners,  and  tberefoie 
called  iKa$v]<]>6poi,  boat-bearers.     Then  followed  the  women,  attended  by  the  sojourners' 


]7'2  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

wives  who  were  called  hSpia  >6>i,  from  carrying  water-pots  in  token  of  servitude.  These 

■vera  followed  by  young  men,  who  sang  hymns  in  honor  of  the  goddess,  and  who  were 

crowned  with  millet.     Next   proceeded  select  virgins  ot  high  rank,  whose  features, 

ahape   and  deportment,  aitracted  every  eye,  and  who  were  called  Ka^dpot,  irom  then 

carrying  baskets,  which  contained  sacred  utensils,  cakes,  and  all  things  necessary  for  the 

aacnfi  i  -      Tht  se  utensils  were  in  the  custody  of  one  who,  because  he  was  chief  ma- 

cessions,  was  called  ipxSiaspos.     The  virgins  were  attended  by 

daughters,   who  carried    umbrellas  and   folding-chairs,   and  who  were 

thence   denominated   nKta&wp6pm,  umbrella-carriers,  and   p<0/»c/>»po<,  seat-carriers.     It  is 

ii  the  rear  was  brought  up  by  boys,  who  walked  in  coats  used  at  proces- 

iiKoi.     The  necessaries  for  this  and  other  processions  were 

prepared  in  a  public  ball  erected  for  that  purpose  between  the  Piraean  gate  and  the 

temple  of  tens:  and  the  management  of  the  whole   business  belonged  to  the  vouotpi- 

who  wen   appointed  to  see  that  the  ancient  customs  were  observed. 

The  Panathenaic  proces.ion  is  represented  on  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon.— See  Stuart,  Auliq.  of  Athens,  cited  P.  IV.  §  243.  1.- 
i.e  du  Parthenon,  cited  P.  IV.  §  190.  4— A  small  but  h.-rndsonie  view  of  the  Acropolis  and  the  Panathenaic  procea 
no-  it  given  in  B  ytPi  Potter. 

1.  Jti,b,nson,  Arch  Grxc.-Polter.-Lond.  Quart.  Rev  xiv.  517.— H.  A  Midler,  Panathenaica. 

Anion"  the  monuments  of  ancient  art  still  in  preservation  are  certain  vases  called  Panathenaic 
as  they  are  supposed  from  inscriptions  on  them  to  have  been  actually  employed  to  contain 
thp  gacred  oil  bestowed  upon  victors  in  these  sanies  as  a  part  of  their  prize. 

vet.  /  the  Panathenaic  Va*es;  in  the  Transact,  of  the  Roy.  Soc.  of  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  102.    Lond.  1834.— Dt 

f.aylut,  Vaaeadnnl  lea  ancieni  faiaoient  usage  dans  les  festives,  in  the  Mem.  Acad  laser,  xxiii.  342. 

§  78.  The  great  public  games  of  the  Greeks  were  also  a  part  of  their  religious 
ci  stoms.  They  were  looked  upon  as  sacred,  and  were  originally  established 
in  honor  of  the  gods.  They  were  always  begun  and  ended  with  sacrifices.  It 
also  entered  into  their  design,  and  was  their  effect,  to  render  religion  more 
attractive  by  association  with  sensible  objects,  to  bring  into  nearer  contact  tho 
several  portions  of  Greece,  and  to  stimulate  and  publicly  reward  superior 
talents. — The  exercises  of  these  games  were  of  five  sorts,  and  had  therefore 
the  common  name  Ylevta^ov.  They  were  running,  leaping,  wrestling,  throw 
ins  tin  discus,  and  hurling  the  javelin,  or  boxing,  which  some  put  in  the  place 
of  the  contest  with  the  javelin. 

■ -..  (la  I.utte  des  anciens— Pu»ilat,  Course,  Pisque,  &c.)  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  da  htscr.  vol.  iii. 
;    HI  a  -  t.  F  Phitipp,  De  Pentatlilo  sive  Quinquertio.    Berl.  1S27.  8. 

§  79.  The  race  (opOjiioj)  was  between   fixed  boundaries,  the  starting-place 

(af-fiic;.  |3aJi(3is),   and   the  goal   or  end   (nxorto;,  rip/ia),  on  a  piece  of  ground 

tired  off  for  the  purpose  (dv*6$,  nrdbuov),  1'25  paces  in  extent.     The  racers 

were  sometimes  clad  in  full  armor  {u7fk1.tobf16y.oc). — There  were  also  chariot- 

and  horse-races. 

Those  who  only  ran  once  over  the  stadium  were  called  crTaStoeipouoi ;  those  who  ran 

over  the  space  doubled  (MauXoc),  that  is,  both  to  the  goal  and  back,  were  called  ctanXo- 

:   those  who  ran  over  the  space  twelve  times  in  going  and  returning,  i.  e.  twenty- 

four  stadia,  or  according  to  others  only  seven  stadia  (coXtxos),  were  termed  Sohxoipupoi. 

The  goal  was  sometimes  called  Kap-rhp;  because,  in  the  6iav\oc.  and  the  6o\t\o;,  the 

ract  rs  in  runt  round  it. — The  prize  {affkov,  flpafleiov)  was  commonly  merely  a  crown  of 

pine,  or  parsley. The  term  kIXijtss  was  applied  to  horses  which  performed  in 

tin    hurst  -race    single.      Two  horses  were   also    used,   upon  one  of  which   the   per- 
rode  to  the  goal,  and  then  leaped   upon  the  other.     In  the  chariot- 
re  ••,  two,  three,  four,  or  more  horses  were  employed  to  draw  the  chariot  {Hp^a) ;  hence 
the  terms  bitapot,  t  dptmroi,  rcrpiajpoi,  &c.     The  chariots  were  sometimes  driven  over  the 

trse  twelve  tint  pfywi).     Ii  was  an  object  of  emulation  among  the  wealthy 

1  chariots  for  the  race  to  the  public  games  of  Greece. 

1  ouraei  de  (  hevaui  et  de  Chars  dans  les  jeux  Olympiques,  in  the  Mem.  Acad  Inscr.  viii.  314,  330;  ix.  360.— 
..  de  Oumcy,  Sur  la  Coursr  armee  et  les  oplitodromes,  in  the  Mem.  de  Plnslilul,  C  1  isie  A'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  iv. 
rea. —  On  the  Olympic  Stadium,  i  f.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev  vol.  v.  p.  277. 

§  80.    For  the  leap  (a7.ua)  also  boundaries  were  marked,  the  place  from  which 

, ,),  and  the  place  to  which   (nxdyya)   it  was  made.     This  exercise  was 

performed  Bometimea  with  the  hands  empty,  but  oftener  with  metallic  weights 

in  them,  usually  of  an  oval  shape  (dvr>]pss),  sometimes  with  weights  attached 

to  the  bead  or  the  shoulders. 

lie   d  ped  over  was  called  Kavwv.     The  point  to  which  the  performers  were 

ip  waa  marl  ring  the  earth*  ^ence  its  name  from  oKi'mno.     The  phrase 

rti  ickauuiva,  applied  to  signify  excess  or  extravagance,  was  taken  from  this 
exercise. 


t.  III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       PUBLIC    GAMES.  173 

§  81.  Wrestling  (rta>.jj,  xata)3>.rlnxrj)  was  commonly  performed  'n  a  covered 
portico  (jjuaroj),  the  combatants  being  naked,  and  making  the  most  violent 
exertions  to  throw  each  other  to  the  ground.  When  one  had  done  this  with  his 
adversary  three  times  (u  Tpcaljas),  he  received  the  prize.  There  were  two  modes 
of  this  exercise,  one  in  the  erect  posture  (o^onu?,rj),  the  other  in  the  lying  pos- 
ture in  which  the  parties  contended  rolling  on  the  ground  (avax%tvortu%rt  and 
aoJvtyaii  or  xi&tocj). — When  wrestling  was  united  with  boxing,  it  was  called 
II  ay  x  par  to  v  or  nafifidziov. 

Afier  the  names  of  the  candidates  had  been  announced  by  a  herald,  they  were 
matched  by  lot.  For  this  purpose  a  silver  urn  was  used  containing  as  many  balls  as 
there  were  candidates.  The  same  letter  was  inscribed  on  two  balls,  and  those  who 
drew  the  same  letter  were  antagonists  in  the  contest.  In  case  of  an  odd  number,  he 
who  drew  the  odd  lot  was  called  Zfedpog,  and  required  to  contend  with  those  who  con- 
quered. A  competitor  confessed  his  defeat  by  his  voice,  or  by  holding  up  his  finger; 
hence  dips  6aiero\oi>  became  proverbial  to  signify  confess  that  you  are  conquered. 

In  the  strict  wrestling,  blows  were  not  allowed,  nor  in  boxing  was  it  proper  for  the 
competitor  to  throw  his  antagonist  ;  but  in  the  Pancratium,  both  modes  were  prac- 
ticed by  the  combatants    (jrayKpariaorai  or  TTUjifiaxoi). 

§  82.  The  quoit  or  discus  (ornxos,  507.05)  was  made  of  stone,  brass,  or  iron 
of  a  circular  form,  and  was  thrown  by  means  of  a  thong  (xa\d>&iov)  passing 
through  a  hole  in  the  centre.     He  who  threw  the  farthest  took  the  prize. 

1.  The  discus  was  about  three  inches  thick  and  ten  or  twelve  in  diameter.  Somo 
state  that  the  dicwo;  was  of  slone,  and  the  06X0;  of  iron ;  others  that  the  former  was 
carefully  made  and  polished,  the  latter  a  rough  mass  of  iron  ;  the  difference  may  have 
been  wholly  in  their  form  or  shape. — The  exercise  is  said  to  have  originated  with  the 
Lacedaemonians. 

2u.  The  hurling  the  javelin  (/>iUif,  dx-oirio-!?)  was  practiced  either  with  the  hand 
alone,  or  by  means  of  a  thong  attached  to  the  shaft. 

In  Plate  XVII.  fig.  Y,  is  seen  a  javelin  with  the  thong  (amentum)  attache  tl  to  it. 

§  83.  JBoxing  {nvyfir;)  was  performed  with  clenched  fists,  around  which  they 
sometimes  hound  the  cestus  (i.uaj),  i.  e.  a  thong  or  piece  of  hide  loaded  with 
iron  or  lead.  The  chief  art  in  this  game  was  to  parry  the  blows  of  the  antago- 
nist, which  were  usually  aimed  at  the  face. 

The  combatant  was  called  ritVTTj,-,  from  ttdJ,  a  fist.  The  cestus,  originally  reaching 
no  higher  than  the  wrist,  was  afterwards  extended  to  the  elbow  and  sometimes  to  the 
shoulder,  and  at  last  came  to  be  used  both  for  defence  and  attack.  ri  he  tfuams 
were  of  several  kinds;  those  termed  nuXixai  gave  the  softest  blows;  and  the  pipp-qices 
gave  the  most  severe.  The  exercise  was  violent  and  dangerous.  The  combatants  often 
lost  their  lives,  and  victory  was  always  dear  bought.  Bruises  on  the  lace  by  blows 
were  called  vir^ta. 

Besides  these  exercises  of  bodily  strength  and  agility,  there  were  at  the  public  games  of  the 
Greeks  contests  in  music,  poetry,  and  rhetoric,  of  which  mention  is  niuiie  in  the  Archaeology  of 
Literature  <cf.  P.  IV.  J  65,  J  66). 

§  84.  The  four  most  errand  and  solemn  games  of  the  Greeks  were  the  Olympic, 
Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemean,  which  were  called  by  way  of  eminence  Sacred 
games  (aywvjj  Itpoi). 

The  first  and  most  distinguished  were  the  Olympic,  named  from  the  place 
Olyrnpia  in  Elis,  and  dedicated  to  the  Olympian  Jupiter.  By  some,  Jupiter 
was  considered  as  their  founder;  by  others,  an  earlier  Hercules  belonging  to 
the  Idaean  Dactyli;  by  others,  Pelops;  by  most,  Hercules  the  hero,  who  was 
the  first  victor  in  all  the  exercises,  except  in  wrestling.  They  were  renewed 
by  Iphitus,  a  contemporary  of  Lycurgus,  about  B.  C.  8S8,  and  afterwards  by 
Chorrebus,  B.  C.  770.  Afterwards  they  were  an  object  of  special  care  to  the 
people  of  Elis.  Several  inspectors  (cbartu,  /ja^So-D^oi)  had  charge  of  the  ex- 
ternal arrangements,  under  the  direction  of  a  chief  inspector  (axura'p^j). 

1  u.  Those  who  wished  to  appear  as  combatants  were  obliged  to  spend  ten  months 
at  the  Gymnasium  in  Elis,  practicing  the  games  and  various  preparatory  exercises  unde* 
the  instruction  of  the  judges,  who  were  in  the  Olympic  games  especially  termed 
'El>Xa:'oo((eat.  The  order  in  which  they  successively  engaged  in  the  contests  was  decided 
by  lot.  The  prize  was  a  crown  or  wreath  of  olive  (/corno,).— Among  the  Olympic 
victors,  Alcibiades  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated;  the  names  of  thirteen  others  Pin 
dar  has  preserved  to  posterity  by  his  Olympic  odes.  Statues  were  often  erected  to  the 
connuerors  in  the  grove  of  Jupiter.     Their  fame  was  spread  the  more  widely  ai  ac- 

15 


J  74  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

count  of  the  vast  multitudes  of  spectators,  that  flocked  to  the  gamts  from  every  pan 
oi  Greece,  and  from  Asia,  Africa,  and  Sicily.     <  Iriginally  females  were  not  allowed  to 

attend. The-  repeated  every  fifth  year,  in  the  month  'Eicaro/i/Jaiuw,  an- 

Bwering  partly  to  July,  and  continued  five  days.     They  gave  rise  to  the  custom  of 
reckonuio  time  and  dating  events  by  olympiads.     Each  Olympiad  consisted  of  lour 
years.      I  he   first   olympiad  is  generally  considered  in  chronology  as  corresponding 
with  the  year  776  B.  C. 
2.  One  judge  at  first  presided  over  the  games;  afterwards  two;  subsequently  there 

wore  twt  Ive  ;  then  i  ight,  fror.i  each  tribe  of  the  Eleans.     The  place,  where  these 

assembled  and  superintended  the  preparatory  exercises  (irpoyw/ii/au/jaro)  of  the  combatants, 
was  CaUi  d  i    "•     They  took  the  most  solemn  oaths  to  adjudge  the  prizes  im- 

partially. Although  women  were  strictly  excluded  from  witnessing  these  games  at 
first,  they  w<  re  afterwards  allowed  not  only  to  be  present,  but  even  to  contend  in  them. 
<  Originally  the  contests  all  took  place  in  one  day  ;  but  at  length  several  days  were  de- 
voted to  them,  and  sometimes  a  day  to  processions  and  sacrifices  and  to  the  banquets 

tors.     The  Olympic  games  were  celebrated  under  the  Roman  empe- 
rors; d  A.  D.  394,  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius. 

been  said  respecting  the  various  favorable  influences  which  these  games 

excrti  e.     They  are  said  to  have  promoted  peace  and  harmony  between  the 

md  states,  as  they  drew  together  spectators  from  every  quarter,  who 

thus  constituted  the  great  assembly  (Ilayfiyvpis)  of  Greece.     Olympia  was  in  fact  called 

,«.  the  common  country  of  all.     Hardihood  and  valor  among  the  soldiery 

Iso  mentioned  as  natural  effects  of  the  various  athletic  exercises  performed  at  them. 

Id  not  fail  to  stimulate  to  literary  exertion,  as  they  furnished  poets,  historians, 

and  orators,  with  the  best  opportunities  to  rehearse  their  productions. 

Ha  .(.i/i'i  Heeren,  p.  129.— C  JVaCt  Diss,  on  the  Olympic  games,  in  nis  Iransl.  of  Pindar,  cited  P.  V.  §60.  5.— Cf.  Svlzer's  Allg. 

I  article  Pindar. — ThirlwaWs  Hist,  of  Greece. For  more  particular  accounts  of  the  games,  Dissen,  Utber  die 

Anorrinung  der  Olympischen  Spiele  ;  in  his  Kldru  Schriften. — Krause,  Olympia  oder  Darsiellung  der  grossen  Olympischen  Spiele. 
- 13.  8. 

§  85.  Tho  Pythian  games  (riv^a)  were  celebrated  upon  the  Crissaean  plains, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Delphi,  which  was  once  called  Pytho  from  the  surname  of 
Apollo.  The  games  were  sacred  to  this  god,  and  were  a  commemoration  of 
his  victory  over  the  Pythian  serpent.  They  were  instituted  either  by  himself, 
or  by  Amphictyon  or  Diomedes.  Originally  they  were  held  at  the  beginning 
of  every  ninth  year  (iwat?r;pis),  afterwards,  like  the  Olympic,  at  the  beginning 
of  every  fifth  year  (rtfirafrrpt;).  The  Pythiad  was  sometimes  used  as  an  era 
in  chronology,  but  not  commonly ;  it  appears  to  have  been  reckoned  from  the 
3d  year  of  the  4!>th  Olympiad,  B.  C.  582.  As  a  reward  or  prize  the  victors 
received  certain  apples  sacred  to  Apollo,  often  also  a  crown  of  laurel. 

1  ".  The  contests  appear  to  have  been  at  first  only  in  music,  and  to  have  been  re- 
ward. ■    : .  gold,  or  something  of  value.     The  song  called  nn0oc(5c  w/w,-,  which 
was  performi  >!  in  thi  se  contests,  celebrated  the  victory  of  Apollo  over  the  serpent ;  it 
or  six  distinct  portions,  which  represented  so  many  separate  parts  and 
i  rtaking  and  achievement.     Of  the  same  import  was  the  customary 
solemn  dance,  composed  of  five  parts. 

'-'  ''•   All  the  (  x<  r-ses  in  use  at  the  Olympic  games  were  gradually  introduced  into 

the  Pythian.     The  Ampkictyons  had  the  oversight  of  them  ;  to  these  the  candidates 

i  i"  present  themselves.     Nine  conquerors  are  especially  celebrated  in  the 

Pythiat  Pindar.     The  spot  where  these  games  were  held  was  a  plain  between 

Delphi  and  Cirrha,  sacred  to  Apollo. 

Ih.  Pythian  games  were  sometimes  railed  XhQiktvoviko.  ad\a,  because  they  were  under 
the  care  nf  the  Amphictyons.  The  particular  persons  appointed  to  take  the  oversight  of  the 
games  wire  called  'EinueAijrat ;  who  also  acted  as  judges.  Thpy  were  assisted,  in  keeping 
r»r«ler,  h.  the  itaartyo<popot.  The  Greek  states  sent,  to  attend  these  games,  persons  termed 
Bc(i>p6t  ami   1 1  vBatOT&t. 

§  86.  The  Nemean  games  (Nr/iaa  or  Xf^ata)  derived  their  name  from  Ne- 
mea,  a  city  in  Argolis  between  Cleonae  and  Phlius,  in  the  vicinity  of  which 
they  won-  cell  brated.  They  were  held  every  third  year  (tpist^Lxoi)  so  as  to 
rail  on  every  Becond  and  fourth  Olympic  year.  It  was  never  common  to  com- 
pute linn  by  Nemeads.  The  superintendents  and  judges  were  selected  from 
the  neighboring  cities,  Argos,  Corinth,  and  Cleona;,  and  were  persons  distin- 
\r  lished  particularly  for  their  love  of  justice.  Their  dress  was  black,  because 
the  games  were  first  instituted  as  a  funeral  solemnity  (dywi/  trtira'optoj)  in  honor 
if  Opheltt  9,oi  \iiclicinoriis;  although  others  state,  that  they  were  instituted  and 
1.  die it.  ii  to  Jupiter  by  Hercules,  after  slaying  the  Nemean  lion.     The  prize  of 


P.  III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       PUBLIC    GAMES.  175 

the  victor  was  a  crown  of  parsley  (aiuvov).     Ten  conquerors  in  the  Nemean 
games  are  celebrated  by  Pindar. 

Sec  Villoiscm,  Les  jeux  Nen'eans,  in  the  Mem  Acad,  hiscr.  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  29. 

§  87.  The  Isthmian  (fames  ("id^uta)  were  so  called  from  the  place  of  theii 
celebration,  the  Corinthian  isthmus,  or  the  neck  of  land  joining  Peloponiu :sus 
with  the  continent.  They  were  instituted  in  honor  of  Melicertes,  a  son  of  Ino 
and  Athamas,  who  under  the  name  of  Palscnwn  was  received  by  Neptune  into 
the  number  of  sea  gods.  Others  represent  Theseus  as  the  founder  of  the 
games,  and  Neptune  as  the  god  to  whom  they  were  consecrated.  With  the 
Corinthians,  all  the  ether  states  of  Greece  (except  the  Eleans,  who  were  ex- 
cluded by  some  dreadful  execration,)  united  in  celebrating  these  games.  They 
were  held  at  the  beginning  of  every  third  year  (rpiftrjptxoi),  and  were  attended 
with  the  musical  contests  as  well  as  those  in  all  the  athletic  exercises.  The 
prize  was  originally,  and  also  in  later  times  again,  a  crown  of  pine;  for  a 
period  between,  it  was  a  crown  of  dry  parsley.  The  judges  were  at  first 
selected  from  the  Corinthians,  afterwards  from  the  Sicyonians.  Pindar,  in  his 
Isthmian  odes  yet  extant,  has  sung  the  praise  of  eight  victors,  mostly  Pancra- 
tiasts,  who  gained  the  prize  in  wrestling  and  boxing  at  the  same  time. 

In  our  Plate  XVI.  are  seen  various  forms  of  ancient  crowns  and  garlands.  Fig.  8  represents 
the  Isthmian  crown  ;  ti^'.  9,  the  crown  of  myrtle  ;  fij;.  10,  the  laurel. 

Solon  established  by  a  law  that  every  Athenian,  who  pained  a  victory  at  the  Isthmian  frames, 
should  also  receive  from  the  public  treasury  (Plat.  Sol  i:i)  a  reward  of  one  hundred  drachms.— 
The  triumphal  odes,  in  which  the  praises  oi' the  victors  were  celebrated,  were  termed  Epinikia. 

See  Massicu,  in  the  Mem.  .tear,',  [nscr.  vol.  v.  p.  95,  214.— Dissen,  in  his  eJilion  ot  Pindar ;  cf.  P.  V.  $  60.— Krause,  Die  FyUiicn, 
,   tineen,  imd  Is'hmien.     Cf.  §  8?.  2. 

§  83.  On  account  of  the  great  estimation  in  which  Athletics  were  held  among 
'he  Greeks,  and  thair  intimate  connection  with  religion  and  the  interests  of  the 
date,  the  subject  deserves  a  few  additional  remarks. 

1  u.  In  the  most  general  sense,  the  term  included  intellectual  as  well  as  bodily  ex- 
ercises, pur^ueu  with  earnestness  and  zeal ;  but  it  was  commonly  used  to  signify  those 
rioro  fre.tue.it  and  violent  bodily  exercises,  which  were  so  much  practiced  in  Greece, 
fperiallv  at  the  games  already  descnl  ed,  and  which  were  viewed  a's  an  essential  part 
of  education,  and  constituted  a  great  object  of  the  Gymnastic  system.  Many  of  those 
who  had  enjoyed  full  instruction  therein,  made  these  exercises  the  main  business  of 
their  life.  Such  were  called  <i6Ajjrui  and  iyumarai.  The  teacher  of  the  system  or  art 
was  called  yiyowrfic  and  Ivarapxm,  superintendent  of  a  JuotSj,  which  was  a  covered  gal- 
lery where  the  exercises  were  performed  in  winter,  and  was  so  called  from  the  floor 
being  made  smooth  and  level.  Although  the  Alhletae  were  not  strictly  in  the  service 
of  the  state,  yet  they  received  great  honor.  Their  whole  mode  of  life  was  conducted 
with  reference  to  augmenting  their  bodily  strength,  and  they  submitted  to  many  rigid 
precepts.  In  most  of  the  exercises  they  -were  naked  ;  in  casting  the  quoit  and  the  jave- 
lin they  wore  a  light  covering.  By  frequent  anointing,  rubbing,  and  bathing,  they  ren- 
dered their  bodies  more  strong  and  supple.  In  preparation  for  a  combat,  they  covered 
themselves  with  dust  or  sand,  in  order  that  they  might  take  better  hold  oi  each  other, 
and  avoid  too  great  perspiration  and  exhaustion.  Generally  the  ground,  or  surface  of 
the  area,  on  which  they  exercised,  was  wet  and  slippery. 

2  u.  Before  being  permitted  to  enter  this  area,  they  were  subjected  to  an  examination 
and  a  rigid  preparation.  For  this  purpose  judges  {aS\odirai,  dyowoStrai,  'EXXavoriiVai) 
were  appointed,  whose  number  was  not  always  the  same,  who  decided  concerning  the 
prize,  and  excited  the  combatants  by  animated  exhortations.  The  rewards  oi  the  con- 
querors were  the  applause  and  admiration  of  the  people,  the  public  proclamation  of 
their  names,  the  laudatory  song  of  the  poet,  the  crown  of  victory,  statues,  solemn  pro- 
cessions, banquets,  and  other  privileges  and  advantages. 

Fci-  jdditional  remarks  on  this  snhject,  see  P.  IV.  §  63,  §  6J. — C.  F.  J).  Huckheimer,  Versuch  eines  Systems  der  F.t?;ern>ne  der 
Griecheo,  Dess.  I7S5.  2  vols.  8.  a  work  very  instructive  on  this  topic  and  on  Grecian  education  generally  — Cf.  Jahu'*  Treatise  oc 
Gymnastics).  Northampt.  1828.  g.—Jrtier.  Qtmrt.  Rev.  vol.  iii.  p.  125.— Burette,  Histoire  des  Athletes,  in  the  Hist,  de  CJliad  dtt 
lnscr.  vol.  i.  p.  211. — J".  Faber,  De  Re  Athletica,  &c.  Lugd.  1595.  4. ;  also  in  Groiiovius,  vol.  viii.—  H.  Mercurialis,  De  AOe  Gym- 
nastica.  Amst.  1672.  4—  P.  M.  Paciaudius,  De  Athletarum  ki'/juttjjuei  in  Palaestra  Grxcorum.  Rom.  1756.  4.—/.  H.  Kramz. 
Theagenes ;  oder  wissensch.  Darstellung  der  Gymnastik,  Agonistik,  und  Feslspiele  der  Hellenen.     Halle,  1835.  8.  with  plates 

$  89.  Dramatic  representations  or  theatrical  ■performances,  among  the  Greeks,  be- 
longed appropriately  to  religious  festivals;  and  bad  their  origin,  in  fact,  in  religious  cere- 
monies, particularly  in  the  rites  connected  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus  at  Athens;  this 
circumstance  is  more  fully  noticed  in  the  Archaeology  and  the  History  of  Greek  litera- 
ture ;  see  P.  IV.  §  66.  P.  V.  $  36,  §  37,  and  47.  Some  account  of  the  structure  of  the 
Greek  theatres  is  given  under  the  head  of  Architecture;  see  P.  IV.  §  235.     Beside* 


)76  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES., 

what  is  said  in  the  sections  referred  to,  a  few  remarks  may  be  added  properly  in  thu 
place,  respecting  the  machinery  and  the  performers.  _ 

1     In  their  thi  atrical  exhibitions  the  <  Greeks  employed  various  mechanical  contrivance* 

^lnn  following r  the  esoXoytiov,  a  platform  concealed   by  clouds  and 

Bupportinn  the  gi  ds  in  conversation  ;  the  ^U\<v.-<)  and  the  ripwoc,  instruments  employed 

to  bring  cTgod  or  other  personage  suddenly  upon  the  stage,  or  withdraw  him  or  lift  him 

jnl0  ||  „,  ropes  to  enable  him  to  walk  apparently  in  the  air;  Bpovnh 

ontrivances  for  imitating  thunder  and  lightning. 

■  number  of  actors  [brwcprrdi)  in  the  whole  of  a  play  was  ot  course  various  ;  bu\ 

no  more  than  three  at  once  appeared  on  the  stage  (irew)  in  the  part  appropriated  to 

Although  the  author  of  the  piece  represented  was  sometimes  obliged 

t0  De  yel  those  who  were  actors  by  profession  were,  as  a  class,  of  low 

,.|l;l, .;,  , mis. —In  order  that  the  voices  of  the  speakers  might  be  aided  and 

[he  so  over  the  whole  of  the  theatre,  artificial  helps  were  employed;  among 

tin  ge  were  the  brazen  vessels  (-/y^O  resembling  bells,  which  were  placed  in  different 

of  the  structure. — In  the  rude  state  of  the  art  the  features  of  the  actor  were  con 

d    by  smearing  the  face  with  wine-lees,   or  by  some  rude  disguise. 

:    P.  V.  v>  39,  HI)  introduced  the  regular  mask  {rrpowrnXo-v ,  peruana) ;  which, 

ultimati  ly,  was  formed  of  brass  or  some  sonorous  metal,  or  at  least  had  a  mouth  so 

prepared  as  to  increase  the  sound  of  the  voice.     There  was  a  vast  variety  in  the  form, 

of  the  masks,  so  as  to  represent  every  age,  sex,  character,  and 

no  li    -  than  twenty-five  classes  of  tragic  masks  are  enumerated  by  Julius 

Pollux;  six  for  old  men;  seven  for  young  men ;  three  for  male  slaves ;   five  for  /<  male 

slaves;  and  fourfor/ree  women.    The  tragic  mask  often  had  a  great  elevation  of  the  head 

to  heighten  the  stature  of  the  actor;  and  for  the  same  purpose,  the 

oi  wore  a  very  thick-soled  boot  (xMopyos,  f/i/?<is-).     Of  comic  masks  forty-three 

i  i  lied  ;  nine  for  old  men;  ten  for  young  men;  seven  for  male  slaves;  three 

for  old  women  ;   fourteen  for  young  women.     The  comic  mask  for  the  oldest  man  was 

called  irdmroj  irpiiros.   Besides  all  these  there  were  masks  appropriate  to  the  satyric  drama. 

Representations  of  several  ancient  masks  may  be  seen  in  nur  Plate  XLIX.  cf.  P.  IV.  5  IS9.  I. See  Schlcgtl,  on  the  Drama,  Led. 

les  Anciens,  in  the  Mem  rf»  VlnitiM,  C  1  a  ss  e  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Jtoic.  vol.  i.  256.  vii.  S5.— Monqez, 
(on  use  of  masks  for  increasing  the  power  of  the  voice),  in  the  Mem.  de  VTust.,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Ar is,  vol.  v.  p.  89.— See 
»lso  5  23S.  3. 

3.  The  Cliair  &op<Js)  was  composed  of  performers  wholly  distinct  from  the  actors ; 
its  leader,  it  often  took  part  in  the  dialogue.  The  Chorus  was  maintained  at 
1  e  ;  one,  source  of  which  was  in  the  dresses  and  decorations,  which  were  of 
the  mi's  kind.     See  P.  V.  §  37,  and  the  references  there  given. 

$  90.  As  the  theatre  was  opened  at  sunrise,  or  even  as  soon  as  day-break,  the  spec- 
tators assembled  very  early  in  order  to  secure  good  seats,  which,  as  the  edifices  were 
built  at  the  public  expense,  were  at  first  free  for  every  person.  In  consequence  of  the 
■  onti  si  for  places,  which  this  occasioned,  a  law  was  passed  at  Athens,  under  which  a 
i  was  demanded.  This  was  fixed,  for  a  time  at  least,  at  twooboli.  But 
under  the  influence  of  Pericles,  another  law  was  also  enacted  requiring  the  proper  ma- 
gistrate to  furnish  from  the  public  treasury  the  amount  of  this  tee  to  every  one  who 
applied  for  it  that  he  might  attend  a  dramatic  performance.  The  money  thus  used  was 
termi  d  tara,  and  the  magistrate,  T«/e'«c.  riot/  daopaecSv.     The  number  of  spec'a- 

tors  was  often  very  meat  (cf.  I'.  IV.  §  235).  Barthelemy  has  given  a  vivid  description 
of  their  crowding  to  the  theatre. 

Tritveh  nf  Antwhanii  (as  ( ited  P.  V.  §  153.  2),  ch.  xi.  Cf.  also  eh.  \xx.—Bmihelemy,  Nombre  des  pieces  qn'on  representoient  en 
un  jour  a  Athene*,  in  the  Mem.  Acad,  hiicr.  xxxix.  172.  -On  Creek  theatrical  performances,  cf.  1'.  V.  \i,  36-47.— Lond.  Quart 
kre.  xii.  119.-/.  Proud/It,  in  the  fiibl.  Repository,  vol.  i.  of  2ii  Series,  p.  449.— BStKger, as  cited  P.  V.  &  So. 

II.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS. 

§  91.  After  what  has  been  already  said  (§§  33,  ss.)  of  the  original  circum- 
-'■iii'  i  a  and  constitution  of  the  Greek  states,  we  may  confine  ourselves  now  to 
their  characteristics  and  peculiarities  in  la'ter  times.  The  account  of  the  various 
changes  of  their  constitution  and  the  consequences  thereof  belongs  to  history 
rather  than  antiquities.  The  latter,  properly  considered,  will  treat  chiefly  of  the 
civil  regulations  of  the  most  flourishing  republic,  Athens,  without  overlooking 
those  of  the  other  considerable  states,  especially  the  Spartans,  who  were  dis- 
tinguished by  many  peculiarities  from  the  Athenians,  although  they  had  also 
many  points  of  resemblance. 

§  92.  The  early  political   changes  at.  Athens  have  been  mentioned  (§  39). 

the  kings,  whose  power  was  greatly  circumscribed  by  the  chiefs  of  noble 

families,  and  i  fwhom  Codrus  was  the  seventeenth  and  last  (106R  B.  C),  the 

rfetrates  were  the   Archons.     When  these   became  despotic,  Draco 


P.  HI.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  177 

(624  B.  G.)  lnfodueed  a  code  of  laws,  which  soon  occasioned  new  troubles  by 
their  severity.  Recou'se  was  then  had  to  Solon  (594  B.  C),  who  abolished 
all  the  laws  of  Draco,  ocept  the  one  respecting  murder.  Solon  changed  the 
form  of  government  in  many  points,  diminished  very  much  the  authority  and 
power  of  the  Archons,  gave  the  people  a  share  and  voice  in  judicial  inquiries, 
and  thus  transformed  the  aristocracy  previously  existing  into  a  mixed  and  mo- 
derate democracy. 

On  the  Civil  Affairs  of  the  Athenian?,  cf  G.  Postdhis,  De  Republica  Alheniensium.  Lu;t).  Bat.  1635.  A.—C.  P.  Levaque,  sur  la 
Constitution  d'Atrrenes,  in  Mem  dc  Vltutitttt,  C  I  a  s  s  e  de-  Sciences  Mar.  et  Pol.  vol.  iv.— K.  F  Hermann,  LehrLuch  der  Griech- 
ischen  Staatsalterthurner.  In  English  trans)  entitled,  Political  Antiquities  of  Greece.  Oxf.  1536.  S.  An  improved  edition  of  the 
original  publ.  in  1936.—  IVachsmulk.  as  cited  §  13.— AT.  D.  Hllllmami,  Slaatsrecht  d.  Alterthums.    Coin.  ti20   8. 

§  93.  Originally  the  people  had  been  divided  into  four  tribes  (<j>u?.ai,),  and 
also  divided,  according  to  their  places  of  residence,  into  a  number  of  boroughs 
or  wards  (S^tot).  Each  tribe  likewise  was  subdivided  into  three  curias  (fpat- 
pJou,  1$vrj)  according  to  their  consanguinity,  and  each  of  the  curia?  into  families 
(ytvrj,  rptcucaSfs).  But  Solon  divided  the  citizens  according  to  their  wealth 
into  four  classes;  1.  nH>-raxorT<.oiui'§(.(ui'0(,,  those  who  gathered  from  their  fields 
in  moist  and  dry  crops,  at  least  500  /xii^cfivoc ;  2.  'imttLs,  those  whose  grounds 
yielded  300  /xi?>Lfxvoi,  and  who  were  able  to  maintain  a  war-horse  (L'rfrtoj  rtoxe- 
funfjjpt.oc');  3.  Z$vyirs<u,  those  whose  lands  produced  200  (or  150)  (itStftvo:, 
and  who  owned  the  space  of  one  acre  or  £f  xiyoc; ;  4.  Qr^s^,  those  who  had  any 
less  income.  All  the  citizens  were  admitted  to  the  assembly  of  the  people 
(§  106),  but.  only  the  first  three  of  the  above  classes  shared  in  the  burdens  and 
expenses  of  the  state,  and  therefore  they  alone  could  receive  offices,  and  from 
them  alone  the  senate  (fiavX-r),  §  107)  was  chosen,  which  at  that  time  consisted 
of  400.  Solon  also  advanced  the  authority  of  the  Areopagus  (§  108),  as  he 
gave  it  jurisdiction  of  the  most  important  criminal  cases. 

§  94.  Athens  remained  under  ihese  regulations  only  about  thirty-four  years. 
Then,  even  before  the  death  of  Solon,  Pisi stratus  became  sole  master  of  the 
state,  and  notwithstanding  all  opposition,  continued  such  until  his  death,  528 
B.  C.  His  two  sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  succeeded  him.  These  were 
soon  stripped  of  their  power;  Hipparchus  being  slain  by  Harmodius,  who  was 
offended  on  account  of  his  sister  [Thuc.  vi.  544)  and  was  aided  by  his  friend 
Aristogiton;  and  Hippias  being  driven  into  banishment  by  the  people.  After 
this,  the  constitution  received  a  new  form  under  the  influence  of  Clisthenes. 

The  number  of  the  tribes  (rpvXai)  was  now  increased  to  ten.  From  each  of 
these,  fifty  senators  (rJov^rrai)  were  yearly  elected,  so  that  the  Senate  consisted 
of  500.  After  this  the  power  of  the  people  was  still  more  increased.  Aristides 
effected  the  abolition  of  the  law  of  Solon,  which  excluded  from  offices  the  low- 
est of  the  four  classes  of  citizens.  Pericles,  with  the  assistance  of  Ephialtes 
deprived  the  Areopagus  of  a  great  portion  of  its  power ;  he  also  occasioned  many 
important  changes  in  the  constitution,  which  were  gratifying  to  the  lower 
classes,  and  by  which  the  democracy  became  less  guarded  and  restrained,  and 
the  way  was  opened  for  the  ochlocracy  that  soon  followed. 

§  95.  After  various  changes  in  tbe  government,  Athens  was  taken  by  Ly- 
sander,  B.  C.  404.  The  supreme  power  was  then  ves'ed  in  the  thirty  tyrants, 
who  were,  however,  deprived  of  their  authority  after  three  years',  by  Thrasy- 
bulus,  and  banished.  In  their  stead,  decemviri  (SfjcaSot^ot)  were  instituted, 
who  likewise  abused  their  power,  and  were  exiled,  afier  the  former  democracy 
was  restored.  This  form  was  retained  until  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
when  it  was  overturned  by  Antipater,  and  the  government  vested  in  a  certain 
number  of  nobles  or  chiefs.  After  the  death  of  Antipater,  Cassander  committed 
the  republic  to  a  lieutenant;  and  under  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  it  enjoyed  again 
freedom  and  popular  power.  With  some  changes,  this  state  of  things  con- 
tinued until  the  time  of  Sylla,  who  in  the  Mithridatic  war  conquered  Athens 
and  subjected  her  to  the  Romans.  The  final  destruction  of  the  city  happened 
towards  the  end  of  the  fourth,  century  by  the  hands  of  Alaric,  king  of  the 
Westgoths. 

§  96  t.  Athens  was  the  most  beautiful  and  splendid  city  in  Greece.  Its  circuit  way 
»bout  one  hundred  and  seventy-eight  stadia.     Its  topography  is  given  more  particularly 


178  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

in  ,]„  ol  Classical  Geography  'rf.  P.  I.  %%  104-116);  here  we  shall  only  name 

ol  the  principal  buildings  and  works.     One  part  of  it  was  the  citadel,  which  lay 

upon  a  steep  rock  :  tin-  ai  Eirsl  constituted  the  whole  city  under  the  name  ot  Cecropia 

and  was  afterwards  termed  Acropolis.     The  most  remarkable  buildings  on  the  Aeropo 

[is  v  Propylcea,  the  TlapBariv,  or  temple  of  Minerva  with  the  famous 

i     idias,  and  the  joint  temple  ot  Neptune  Erectheus  and  Mi- 

i       |S.     [n  the  other  portion  (which  was  called  the  lower  city),  the  temples  ot 

Vulcan,  \  enus  I  rania,  Theseus,  Jupiter  Olympius,  and  the  Pantheon  sacred  to  all  the 

g  the  most  remarkable.     Of  the  numerous  covered  porticos,  the  Pas- 

:    p    |  \  .      :  i    R-as  the  most  renowned,  and  adorned  with  the  most  magnificent 

paintings  and  ornaments,      fne  <  >deum,  built  by  Pericles,  was  devoted  to  musical  and 

P,  IV.   §  235.  3).     The   name  of  Ceramicus  was  given   to  two 

within  and  the  other  without  the  city,  the   former  enriched  with 

,     edifi     s,  the   latter  used   as  a  burial   ground.     There  were  several   market 

with  different   names  according  to  their  specific  uses.     The  Gymnasia 

ii    Baths,  the  S'adium  ascribed  to  Herodes  Atticus,  the  Academy,  the  Cyno 

-.     :     Hippodrome,  and  the  Theatres,  belong  to  the  remarkable  and  interesting 

-  which  adorned   the  city  of  Athens.      The  three  harbors,  Pirseus,  Munychia, 

Phalerum,  should  likewise  be  mentioned. 

i  vim  ol"  the  Parthenon,  see  Plate  XXI.  fif;.  1  ;  in  t lie  same  Plate,  ds,   2,  is  the  leinple  of 

inn's  ;  fig.  3,  the  temple  of  'Kheseus.— A  view  of  the  Parthenon  in  its  ruins  as  yiven  by  Hob- 

.  ii  in  the  Plateon  page  132.— For  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  connected  with  that 

nine  Erectheus,  see  the  Plate  on  page  30.— For  a  plan  of  Athens,  see  Plate  I. 

§  'iT.  The  inhabitants  of  Athens  and  of  the  whole  of   Attica  were  either 
at,,  free  citizens;  fis-toixot,  free  commoners,  resident  aliens  or  sojourners; 
or  c"oi'/-e.  slaves.     The  first  class  was  the  most  respectable;  the  last,  the  most 
miis.     The  number  of  resident  foreigners,  however,  was  not  insignificant. 
right  of  citizenship  was,  in  the  flourishing  times  of  the  republic,  a  high 
!  rivilege,  which  was  conferred  only  upon   men  of  honorable  descent  and  dis- 
tinguished merit,  and  upon  such  not  without  difficulty,  since  the  agreement  of 
six  thousand  citizens  was  first  requisite.     Free  born  Athenians  were  those  whose 
parents  wen-  born  at  Athens,  or  at  least  one  of  whose  parents  was  born  there; 
and  those  of  the  latter  class  held  a  lower  rank,  and  privileges  in  some  respects 
less  than  the  former. 

1  it  By  Cecrops  the  Athenians  were  divided  into  four  tribes  (cf.  §  93)  as  follows  ; 
1.  (Corporis,  from  ins  own  name;  2.  '  Avr6xQa)i> ;  3.  'Axraia;  4.  UapaXia.  To  each  of  these 
tribes  belonged  several  districts,  boroughs,  or  wards  (<%«"),  of  which  there  were  at 

i  174  in  Attica,  and  which  differed  Irom  each  other  in  various  points  of  manners 
and  customs.  The  names  of  the  tribes  were  afterwards  changed,  and  the  number  in 
creasi  <i  to  ten  (cf.  5  94),  finally  to  twelve. 

Oo  the  &i)tioi  of  Attica,  see  IV.  M.  Leake,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature;  a  full  account,  with  a  j^od 
map.— A  complete  list  ol  Ihem  is  fiven  in  It'oclismuth's  Historical  Antiquities. 

2  it.  The  numbei  of  citizens,  n-oXiVai,  in  the  time  of  Pericles  amounted   to  14,040; 

and  in  the  I   Demetrius  Phalereus,  according  to  a  census  taken  by  his  direction, 

B.  (".  309.  the  number  was  Jl.000. 

i  n  the  census  ol    Deineirius,  the  whole  population  of  Attica,  including  aliens 
'el.    •  99),  women,  children,  and  slaves  (cf.  §  99),  has  been  estimated  at  500,000. 

On  the  population  of  Allica,  see  Jtothh's  Public  Economy  of  Athens.— CUnton'i  Fasti,  Appendix.— timer.  Quart.  Register,  op 
'"■  ienl  Nations  vol.  ix.  p.  143.— Saiuti  Croix.  Sur  la  population  del'  kttique,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlviii. 
I>  I  IT.— And  IMronnt,  in  the  Man.  rfi  Vlnititut,  Classe  cfllnt.  a  Lit.  .Inc.  vol.  vi.  165. 

§  98.  The  fiitoixoi  were  those  foreigners,  or  persons  not  natives  of  Attica, 
who  became  residents  in  the  city  or  territory.  They  took  no  part  in  the  govern- 
ment, being  admitted  neither  to  the  assemblies  of  the  people  nor  to  public 
offices,  but  were  subjeel  to  all  the  laws  and  usages  of  the  land.  They  were 
obliged  to  select  from  the  free  citizens  a  patron  or  guardiai  (ftpootdt*ii) ,  in 
wln.se  name  they  could  manage  business  and  maintain  actions  in  the  civil 
courts,  and  to  whom  they  must  tender  certain  services.  Certain  services  to  the 
■Mie  also  required  of  them,  besides  which  an  annual  tribute  (finoLxiov) 
exacted  ;  ten  or  twelve  drachms  for  each  man;  and  six  for  each  woman 
without  sons;  mothers  with  sous  that  paid  being  free  from  the  tax.  Some- 
limes  exemption  fr taxation  (drtteia)  was  conferred   upon  individuals  as  a 

toward  for  meritorious  services.     Demetrius  found,  by  his  census,  10,000  of  the 
class  of  foreign  residents. 

'I  he  term  ■•  si  wa«  applied  to  foreigners  remaining  jn  the  city  or  country  for  a  short 
lui  e  only,  as  distinguished  from  the  loreign  residents,  although  it  was  sometimes  applied 


PLATE     XXI. 


180  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

so  the  latter  ;  i»  was  also  applied  reciprocally  to  persons  who  wt;e  mutually  pledged 
by  former  acquaintance,  or  in  any  other  way,  to  treat  each  other  with  hospitality. 
If  a  metic  neglected  to  pay  the  imposed  tax,  he  was  liable  to  be  sold  for  a  slave 
-  was  actually  sold,  because  he  had  not. the  means  of  paying  it;  bu; 
■  il  by  Demetrius.  .  . 

•.  ices  r<  quired  of  the  residents  was  the  carrying  of  a  vessel  with  water, 

.inch  the  married  alien  women  were  obliged  to  perform   to  the   married 

es  "i    Athens  in  the  grand  Panathenaic  procession  ;  the  daughters  of  aliens  were 

d  on  the  same  occasion  to  render  to  the  Athenian  maidens  the  service  of  carrying 

parasols    r*ia?ij  opia).    See  §  77.  6. 

Cf.  SamU  Cr„ix,  Sbr  les  Meteques,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  da  Inscr.  vol.  xlviii.  p.  176. 

§  99.  The  slaves  (SouXot)  were  of  different  sorts,  those  belonging  to  the  pub- 
He  (oov&oi  hyuur.im),  and  those  belonging  to  private  citizens  (otxifew)-  The 
latter  v,,  re  completely  in  the  power  of  the  master,  and  were  often  treated  with 
great  severity.  Yet  they  sometimes  purchased  freedom  by  their  own  earnings, 
or  r<  ceived  it  by  grift  as  a  reward  for  merit.  Public  slaves  also  were  often  set  at 
liberty,  when  they  had  rendered  the  state  some  valuable  service.  Freedmen 
very  seldom,  if  ever,  obtained  the  rights  of  citizens,  and  were  still  termed 
In  general,  the  condition  of  the  slaves  in  Attica,  abject  and  miserable 
as  it  was.  appears  to  have  been  in  some  respects  less  so,  than  in  other  states 
of  Greece,  especially  in  Lacedasmon.  The  slaves  of  Attica  amounted  to 
400,000  in  the  time  of  Demetrius. 

The  term  Aiketjis  signifies  one  living  in  the  same  house  with  any  one  ;  6iKov6poc.,  signi- 
fies one  who  oversees  one' s  affairs,  and  is  sometimes  applied  to  designate  a  particulai 
slave,  since  slaves  were  sometimes  intrusted  with  the  office  of  steward  ;  imnptrnq,  signi- 
fying primarily  a  rover,  and  secondarily  an  atlendunt,  is  also  sometimes  applied  to 
slaves.     Xen.  Mem.  ii.  10.  . 

At  Allans  slaves  were  not  allowed  to  imitate  freemen  in  the  fashion  of  their  dress 
,,r  the  cu1  ot  their  hair;  their  coals  must  be  with  one  sleeve  only  {'cTcpouao-xaXoi)  and  the 
hair  (in  in  the  servile  form  (Spf|  dvSpain&dJ&rii).  They  could  not  properly  bear  the  names 
of  Athenian  citizens,  but  must  be  called  by  some  foreign  or  low  name.  They  were 
allowed  to  bear  arms  only  in  extreme  cases.  The  punishments  inflicted  were  severe  ; 
for  common  offences  they  were  whipped  (pwnymw) ;  for  theft  or  running  away  they 
were  bound  to  a  wheel  and  beaten  (ori  rpo\ov);  for  some  crimes  they  were  sentenced  to 
grind  in  the  nulls  (;>r^>  s) ;  sometimas  they  received,  upon  their  forehead  or  some 
other  pari,  the  brand  with  hot  iron  (oriyua).  In  giving  testimony  in  court  they  were 
also  subject  to  torture  (fiaoavoc). — Yet  at  Athens  the  slaves  could  bring  civil  actions 
against  their  masters  and  others  for  violation  of  chastity  and  for  unlawful  severity 
h  iihti  and  dutias  blur,).     When  greatly  oppressed,  they  could  also  flee  to  the  temple 

heseus,  from  which  it  was  held  as  sacrilege  to  force  them. Slaves  carried  on 

the  whole  business  of  the  Athenians;  even  the  poorer  citizens  depended  on  them. 
Then  wag  a  sale  of  slaves  on  the  first  day  of  every  month  by  merchants  (ai^paTTohKa- 
•it/V/i)  :  usually  announced  by  a  crier  standing  on  what  was  called  the  vender's  stone 
Crparrr  I  lie  price  varied  according  to  their  abilities.     Many  were  skillful  in  the 

elegant  arts,  and  versed  in  letters  ;  while  others  were  only  qualified  to  toil  in  the  mines. 

Set  !.■  i  "Me  und  Zustand  der  Sclaverey,  kc.     (History  or  Slavery  and  Villanage  in  Greece.)    Berl.  1789.— Cf 

llhtntats,  vi.  (cf.  1'.  V.  !)  123).-  Btnihardy,  Grundrisa  der  Griech.  Lit.  p.  36.— Bill.  Repos.  and  Quart.  Olserver,  No.  xvii.  p.  13S. 

§  loo.  The  magistrates  at  Athens  were  divided,  in  reference  to  the  mode  of 
their  appointment  to  office,  into  three  classes,  the  ^fiporov^roi,',  the  xXrtpotoi, 
and  tin  mi,  ,~o(.  The  first  named  were  chosen  by  the  whole  people  raising  the 
baud  ;  the  second  were  appointed  by  lot  by  the  Thesmothetae  in  the  temple  of 
Theseus  ;  and  the  last  were  chosen  by  particular  portions  of  the  people,  by  the 
tribes  and  the  districts,  from  among  their  own  number. — The  magistrates  were 
in  quired,  on  the  expiration  of  tin  ir  offices,  to  render  an  account  of  their  admi- 
nistration to  a  tribunal,  which  was  constituted  by  ten  accountants  (iMyiorai)  and 
ten  director*  or  judges  (ninrot,  called  al§0  iijf  ruarou). 

In  choosing  the  Archons  and  other  magistrates  by  lot,  the  ordinary  method  was  to 
,nit  the  names  ol  the  candidates  inscribed  on  brazen  tablets  (mvd/cia),  into  an  urn  with 
black  and  white  beans  (KvapoO ;  and  those  whose  tablets  were  drawn  out  with  white 
beans  were  elected. 

oi,  Ibn  All  a magi  II  lie*,  cf.  Btcnchaid,  in  the  Man  dt  VAcad.  da  Inscr.  vii.  51.— Cf.  Julius  Pollux,  Ommiasticon. 

§  101.  The  most  important  magistrates  were  the  Jrchons  (apXovtf  j)»  There 
**>xe  usually  nine  Archons,  chosen  by  lot  (xXj-pwrdi.),  but  subjected  to  an  exa 


P.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       MAGISTRATES.       REVENUES.  181 

mination  as  to  their  qualifications,  before  they  were  admitted  to  take  the  oath 
and  enter  their  office. 

1.  The  examinations  of  the  Archons  was  two  fold  ;  one  in  the  senate  called  'Ana- 
•cpwi;,  the  other  in  the  forum,  called  AoKifiairia,  before  the  Heliastce  (qAiaorai  §  110). 
Among  the  points  of  examination  were  the  following:  whether  their  ancestors  for  three 
generations  baH  been  Athenian  citizens;  whether  they  had  a  competent  estate;  ar.i 
whethei  they  were  free  from  bodily  defects  (dtytfais). 

2  u.  The  first  of  the  nine  in  rank  was  styled  Archon  by  way  of  eminence,  »  'Apxav, 
sometimes  ''Apro)"  iirwvnpo;,  because  the  year  was  named  from  him.  He  attended  to  the 
domestic  affairs  of  citizens,  decided  differences  which  arose  between  relatives,  had  the 
care  of  widows,  appointed  guardians,  and  took  the  oversight  of  certain  festivals  and 
solemnities,  and  also  of  theatres. — The  second  was  called  King,  or  archon  king, 
apx'ov  /?«a-iAtr?.  To  him  were  assigned  certain  duties  pertaining  lo  religious  worship, 
which  were  originally  performed  by  kings  exclusively;  he  was,  in  general,  overseer  of 
religious  affairs. — The  third,  named  Polemarch,  m\tfiapxps.  attended  to  the  domestic  af- 
fairs of  strangers  and  sojourners,  performing  the  same  duties  in  reference  to  them, 
which  the  first  archon  did  for  the  ci  izens.  In  the  time  of  the  Persian  war,  he  had  an 
important  share  in  managing  military  affairs. — The  six  remaining  archons  were  called 
Thesmothetoz  (fitapLoBkrai),  and  were  chiefly  occupied  with  legislative  affairs ;  they  also 
took  cognizance  of  such  judicial  matters  as  did  not  fall  under  other  jurisdiction. 

3.  The  three  principal  archons  usually  selected  each  two  assistants,  ealled  xapeSpot., 
assessors,  who  sat  on  the  bench  with  the  Archons,  having  been  subjected  to  the  same 
examinations  with  other  magistrates,  and  being  required  to  render  in  the  same  way  an 
account  (iv&ivri)  of  their  office. 

§  102.  Another  magistracy  at  Athens  was  that  of  the  Eleven,  U  "ErSfxa,  ten 
of  whom  were  taken  one  from  each  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  the  other  was  their 
secretary  (ypau/jLatsvi).  They  were  properly  overseers  of  the  prisons,  and  di- 
rected in  the  execution  of  capital  punishments.  In  later  times  they  were  also 
(ailed  vofxotyv%o.xh$. — These  were  different  from  the  Phylarchi  (^v?.ap^ot),  who 
were  originally  the  inspectors  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  afterwards  command- 
ers in  war.  The  De.marchi  (o-^uap^oi)  performed  similar  duties  in  relation  to 
the  districts  (6ruot). — The  At]%iap%oi  had  the  care  of  the  public  register  ("Kcv- 
xcoua),  and  made  scrutiny  in  the  assemblies,  and  collected  fines  of  those  not 
present.  They  were  six  in  number;  but  were  aided  by  the  To^orcu,  who  were 
a  sort  of  bailiffs  or  deputy  sheriffs,  to  the  amount  of  1000. — The  No^io^srat 
were  also  1000  in  number,  and  were  charged  with  the  examination  of  past 
laws  to  see  if  any  were  injurious  or  useless,  and  with  some  minor  matters  of 
police. 

Besides  the  magistrates  above  named,  there  were  many  others  connected  with  the 
treasury,  the  senate  and  assembly  of  the  people,  and  the  courts  of  justice  ;  the  most 
important  of  them  will  be  noticed  in  connection  with  those  topics.  There  were  also 
various  other  public  functionaries,  who  were  not,  strictly  speaking,  magistrates,  but 
ought  perhaps  some  of  them  to  be  named  here. —  The  'P/?ropr?,  orato**,  were  ten  in 
number,  appointed  by  lot  to  plead  public  causes  in  the  senate  and  assembly;  they  were 
sometimes  called  owtjyopoi,  and  were  a  different  body  from  the  avv&iitoi,  who  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  people. — The  H/jOT/itf?,  ambassadors,  were  chosen  usually  by  the  peo- 
ple, sometimes  by  the  senate,  to  treat  with  foreign  states.  When  sent  with  full  power, 
they  were  called  UpeofizTs  avroK-piirop^  ;  generally  their  power  was  limited  (cf.  §  143). 
They  were  usually  attended  by  heralds  (icnpoiczs) ;  this  name  however  was  sometimes 
given  to  the  persons  sent  on  an  embassy — We  may  also  mention  the  notaries,  ypappa- 
refs ;  besides  the  great  number  employed  by  the  various  magistrates,  there  were  three  pub- 
licly chosen;  one  by  the  assembly  of  the  people,  to  recite  before  them;  and  two  by 
the  senate,  one  to  keep  the  laws,  and  the  other  the  records  in  general.  The  office  was 
not  at  Athens  very  honorable,  and  was  sometimes  held  by  well  educated  slaves,  called 

Annhtot  (cf.  §  99). 

§  103.  The  ordinary  revenues  were  of  four  sorts:  1.  Tt%y],  rents  from  public 
domains  and  other  public  property,  and  duties  paid  on  articles  of  commerce  and 
on  certain  pursuits  and  persons;  2.  «&6pot,  tributes,  or  annual  payments  exacted 
from  allied  or  subjected  cities  and  states;  3.  Ti/.irluata,  fines,  which  all  went  tc 
the  public  treasury,  except  the  tenth  part  devoted  to  the  service  of  Minerva,  and 
one  fifteenth  -«ppropriated  for  the  other  gods  and  the  heroes,  that  were  patrons 
of  the  city  ;  4.  Af  iroupyuu  iyxvx\vot,  periodical  liturgies,  or  services,  in  which  in- 
dividuals were  required,  for  a  time,  to  perform  certain  duties  or  maintain  certain 
public  establishments  at  their  own  expense. — Bes:,es  the  ordinary,  the  neces- 


J82  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Mties  of  the   state  sometimes   required   an   extraordinary  revenue;  ami  then 
u)  laid  upon  citizens  and  residents  formed  an  important 
resource. 

I  nder  the  rsM,  or  rents,  we  may  include  the  income  from  the  mines;  the  most  im- 
which  were  the  silver  mines  oi  Laurion;  the  ore  from  these  was  termed 
i ;   they  were  regarded  as  a  grand  source  of  wealth  to  Athens. 

k,  on  Ihe  Mines  of  Laurion,  in  his  Public  Economy. 

Under  the  $V  or  tributes,  we  may  include  the  duty  of  ten  per  centum  (SsKartj,  lata. 
iposed  on  vessels  passing 'from  or  into  the  Euxine ;  which  was  exacted  at 
Chrysopolis   cf.  P.  I.  §  160),  which  the  Athenians  fortified  tor  the  purpose. 

l'l;,i      i       ...,,,  fines,  must  be  included  the  fees  or  deposits  (TpuravEta),  which  were 
h  parties  before  beginning  a  suit  in  court ;  these  deposits  w ere  large 
in  proportion  to  the  sum  brought  into  question  by  the  trial.     To  the  same  head  must  be 
rci.  rred  also  the  proceeds  of  confiscated  properly  (iwi67rPaTd)- 

.:,  r  the  Liturgies  (Ketrovpyiat)  were  included  chiefly  three,  \opnyia,  yrjivaaiapxia,  and 
I  hose,  who  rendered  the  first  named  service,  (\opnyoi,)  were  required  to  pay 
{p,  nses  ol  the  whole  chorus  employed  at  the  public  festivals  and  theatrical  exhi- 
bitions Those  to  whom  the  second  was  assigned  were  obliged  to  furnish 
ihe  varmus  m  cessaries  for  the  wrestlers  and  other  combatants  in  the  public 
In  the   third  service   mentioned,  certain  persons  (to-nu-oprc  roV  <p»\w*)  provided 
entertainment  or  banquets,  on  the  public  festivals,  tor  a  whole  tribe.— These  services 
v..  re  always  assigned  to  the  most  wealthy  citizens.     In  the  time  of  Demosthenes  there 
was  in.   following  system  :  each  of  the  ten  tribes  pointed  out  120  of  the  wealthiest  citi- 
zens                    oit;  the  1200  thus  selected  were  divided  into  two  portions  according 
to  their  wealth,  the  iravu  jrXowtoi  and  the  ijrroi-  xXovaioi ;  these  two  parts  were  each  formed 
into  tin  classes  or  companies,   called  avupopiju ;    from   the  ten  av^opiat  of  the  more 
wealthy,  300  of  the  wealthiest  men  were  selected,  who  were  required  to  furnish  the 
Bsary  suppliesof  mom'y  and  with  the  rest  of  the  1200toperlorm  all 
(  xtraordinary  duties  in  rotation.    If  anyone  of  the  300  could  name  a  person  more  wealthy 
than    himself,    lie  was  excused      The  residents  {jihoiKoi)  sometimes  performed  these 
lesides  the  ordinary  \aro»pyiat  above  mentioned,  there  were  some  extraordi- 
nary;  particularly  lira  in  a  time  of  war,  rpiripapxia  and  tlacpopd.     The  rpinpap\oi  were 
obliged  io  provide  necessaries  tor  the  fleet  and  building  of  ships.     The  eicQsporrss  were 

required  to  contribute  money  according  to  their  ability  for  different  purposes. The 

manner  in  which  they  performed  such  of  these  services  as  were  assigned  to  them,  and 
the  degn  e  ol  expense  and  splendor  to  which  they  went,  became  sometimes  a  subject 
ol  i  mulation  a ng  the  rich  and  ambitious  Athenians. 

I  lD  i  m|  the  Athenian  revenues  and  expenditures,  see  A\i%.  BochKs  Slaatshaushaltun?  der  A'hener.   Mil  21  In 

■cbriflen  Deri.  1817.  2  vols.  S.  Eng.  Traiul.  Public  Economy  of  Athens.  Lond.  1S2S. — Cf.  Bancroft's  Heeren,  ch.  viii  —Ma 
W,  ch   n  Ol   Hie  Revenues  of  Attica  (cf.  P.  V.  §  IS6.  2). 

On  the  Tneran  hy,  Btfcklfa  Ui  kuoden  uber  das  Seevvesen  des  Attisclien  Maates.    Perl.  1840. 

§  104.  The  legislative  control  of  the  financial  concerns  belonged  to  the  peo- 
ple, and  their  administration  and  management  to  the  senate.  But  a  particular 
officer  was  at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  called  rauiac  fyc  xoivrt;  rtpor.obov,  be- 
cause he  had  charge  of  the  public  revenue,  and  also  ra,uia?  rrtc  8iotx^afue,  as 
having  charge  likewise  of  the  public  expenditures.  He  was  chosen  by  the 
(^ftporow'a)  for  four  years. 

1  ;/.  There  were  many  subordinate  officers  in  the  department  of  finance.     One  class 
'•  d  "I  Mich  a<  attended  to  the  collecting  of  the  revenue,  and  to  the  previous  ar- 
rangements.    To  tins  class  belonged  the  ir&jAijrai,  ten  in  number,  one  from  each  tribe. 
having  the  care  ol  whatever  the  state  sold  or  leased;  the  -npaKropeq,  who  received  all 
fines  imposed;   th<  -  who  assessed   the  imposts  and   tributes;  the  dtaypaftfs, 

who  enrolled  ihe  names  ol  families  and  individuals,  and  assessed  to  them  their  part  in 
raisin  lordinary  revenue;  the  ck\o]  •;■„,  who  collected  the  taxes,  duties,  rents, 

!i     properly,  not  officers,  but  such  persons  as  took   leases  of  public 
lands  oi  othi  r  public  properly,  and  paid  the  rent  to  the  officers. — A  second  class  con- 
■  ;    ol    such    officers    as    kepi     the    moneys    collected,    and    distributed    them     for 
public  uses.     Of  this  class  were  the  drroMin-ai,  ten  in  number,  chosen  by  lot  ;   and  the 
.  who  had  the  care  of  the  treasures  in  the  temples  ($>  28). — Such 
office,-  as  wi  re  employed  in  keeping  or  examining  the  multifarious  accounts  of  the  de- 
partment may  be  considered  as  a  third  class,  including  the  ypapiputreTs,  clerks,  and  hro. 
under-cL  rks,  and  thedvrtypa  <€ts,chech'ng-cli  rks or auditors.  Among  the  lauer 
it.. iv  be  named  particularly  ihe  ■'<>■•  ;,,„,,,,-,,,,.  controller  of  the  expenditure. 

Some  ol  the  causes  of  expenditure  from  the  public  treasury  should  be  noted  here. 
The  public  edifict  s  and  other  works  were  built  only  at  a  very  greal  expense,  and  could  lie 
pr<  servi  i  ci  ordi  r  only  af  a  greal  annual  cost.  Pericles  expended  many  thousands  of 
mil  ni-  upon  works  oi  architecture  in  Athens. The  festivals  were  another  source 


P.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       AMPHICT-VOXS.  18,1 

of  expense ;  when  we  consider  their  number,  and  think  of  the  cost  of  the  sacrificial 
victims  and  offerings,  the  banquets,  the  processions  (jro/nrat),  the  theatrical,  musical,  and 
gymnastic  entertainments,  and  the  rich  prizes  sometimes  bestowed,  it  is  obvious  that 
immense  sums  must  have  been  expended  in  maintaining  them. — Much  was  expended 
also  in  distributions  or  donations  to  the  populace  (diaw>/i<u,  Siadoozig) ;  the  most  important 
expenditure  in  this  way  was  by  the  dtaiftoMa,  or  distribution  of  the  oboli  to  each  poor 
citizen  as  tlieoric  money  (Szupuca,  cf.  §  90). — Means  of  support  for  poor  and  disabled 
citizens  ( Uivaroi),  and  also  for  children  whose  fathers  had  fallen  in  battle,  were  likewise 
furnished  from  the  public  treasury,  and  formed  another  item  of  expense. — In  addition 
'o  these,  we  must  mention  the  expenses  of  the  government,  including  the  salaries  of  nil 
the  various  magistrates  and  officers  of  different  grades,  and  the  wages  of  the  senators 
ijuoQdc  ffovXevTucos),  and  of  those  who  attended  the  assembly  (jiioQds  iiacKriaiatrrtKds). — The 
support  of  i  he  army  and  navy  required  also  huge  sums  of  money  even  in  time  of  peace. 
In  time  of  war,  the  expenses,  not  only  of  this  class,  but  of  many  others  also,  must 

have  been  greatly  increased It  may  be  impossible  to  form  any  satisfactory  estimate 

of  the  amount  of  these  various  expenditures.  The  comparative  value  of  the  precious 
metals  in  ancient  and  modern  times  must  not  be  overlooked  here,  as  they  were,  at  least, 
three  times  as  valuable  then  as  now. 

§  105.  Among;  the  public  assemblies  of  the  Greeks,  which  took  into  consi- 
deration the  affairs  of  the  whole  state,  the  council  of  the  Jlmphictyms  (nvvoboe 
A.(itipixivovwv,  AixrpLxtvovia)  is  especially  worthy  of  notice.  According;  to  com- 
mon opinion,  it  was  first  instituted  by  Ainphictyon,  son  of  Deucalion;  accord- 
ing- to  some,  by  Acrisius,  king;  of  Argos.  The  twelve  people  or  states  united  in 
this  council  (to  -tZiv  'Ew./iwi'  evveSpuov)  used  to  meet  by  their  delegates,  two 
from  each  city  ordinarily,  at  Thermopylae;  from  this  circumstance  the  dele- 
gates were  called  [IvXayopat,  and  the  council  itself  TTiXaia.  Sometimes  they 
met  at  Delphi.  They  assembled  only  twice  a  year,  in  spring  and  autumn, 
unless  on  some  extraordinary  occasion.  The  design  of  the  council  was  to 
adjust  and  settle  public  national  disputes  or  difficulties,  and  the  delegates  had 
full  power  to  make  salutary  changes  and  regulations.  Some  very  important 
disputes,  as  e.  g;.  between  the  Plataeans  and  Lacedaemonians,  and  between  the 
Thebans  and  Thessalians,  were  terminated  by  this  diet,  which  was  continued 
to  some  time  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. 

Some  writers  have  taken  a  different  view  of  the  origin  and  design  of  this  council. 
They  assert  that  the  Amphictyons  were  only  an  association  of  persons  residing  about 
or  near  Delphi,  or  some  other  place  ;  diupucrvovts  being  nearly  equivalent  to  dfujuKTiosec ; 
and  that  the  assembly  was  originally  held  simply  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  gratifica- 
tion and  religious  festivity,  having  no  precisely  definite  common  object,  and  being  dif- 
ferent from  a  confederation  for  mutual  defence,  or  a  congress  for  mutual  deliberations. 

This  is  Hie  \ieiv  of  Hermann,  in  his  Lehrbuch,  ciled  ^  92.— Similar  is  lhat  of  Saiutt  Crmz,  Des  Anciens  Gouvernemcns  Feder* 
tifs.  Par.  1799.— The  political  character  and  desien  of  Ihe  c-.uncij  is  maintained  hy  F  IV  Tillnumn.  Urberden  Bund  der  Amphic- 
tjronen.  Ilrrl  1812.  B  —(■'.  also  Mitford,  Hi-I  of  Grrece,  ch.  lii.  seel.  3.~Tlnrlivnll.  His!,  ol  Greece,  c.  y.  .xliii.— Ttt  I'alois,  Sill 
les  Ami  hictyons,  in  Ihe  Mem.  dt  VAcad.  des  Inter.  &c.  vol.  iii  p.  191  •  and  v.  p.  405.— T.  Leland,  Discourse  pref.  lo  his  Life  of 
Phili/i  nf  Mactdnn. 

§  106.  Assemblies  nf  the  people  (ixxX-qiia.i)  were  very  frequent  at  Athens,  and 
had  an  important  influence.  In  these  the  acts  of  the  senate  were  canvassed, 
laws  were  proposed  and  approved  or  rejected,  magistrates  appointed,  war  de- 
clared, and  the  like.  The  place  where  they  met  was  either  the  market-place 
(ayoprx),  or  a  broad  space  near  the  mountain  called  the  Pnyx  (rii<i;|),  or  the 
theatre  of  Bacchus.  The  ordinary  assemblies  {ixx%rint.a.i  xupuu)  were  held 
monthly  on  established  days;  the  extraordinary  (ixxXrjoitu  ovyxkytot)  were 
called  on  pressing  and  important  emergencies. 

1  //.  These  meetings  were  managed  and  conducted  by  the  IIp»rca>as,  the  HpikJpoi,  ana 
the  'Emo-ran;;.  Before  entering  upon  business,  a  sacrifice,  usually  of  a  young  pig,  was 
offered.  Then  the  herald  ordered  silence,  offered  a  prayer  to  the  gods,  and  stated,  on 
the  direction  of  the  HpfcXpoi,  the  subject  to  be  discussed  by  the  assembly,  and  those 
above  fifty  years  of  age  were  first  invited  to  speak;  after  which  any  one  above  thirty, 
of  fair  character  had  the  liberty.  Whatever  came  before  the  assembly  had  already  been 
discussed  in  the  senate,  whose  decision  upon  it  (irpo^ovXcupa,  ^pfi^io-jia  ri5;  ffo"\i);)  received 
its  full  legality  only  by  the  vote  of  the  assembly,  and  was  then  called  emphatically  a 
decree,  i//ijrf)t!r/uz.  Often,  however,  a  decision  of  the  senate  without  the  confirmation  of 
the  assembly  was  in  force  for  a  year;  at  least  it  was  so  in  those  cases  in  which,  iv 
order  to  avoid  too  frequent  meetings,  the  people  had  granted  an  independent  validity. 

2.  The  people  voted  by  stretching  forth  their  hands  {XEiporona),  and  sometimes  by  a 
mode  of  balloting  in  which  beans  [Kvapai)  and  stones  tyntpot)  were  east  into  vessels  pre 


184  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

pared  for  the  |  irpose  (*d<5oi). — When  the  business  was  completed,  the  Ii>rdrac  dismissed 
■  mbly. 

Sre  G.  F.  Schbmann,  De  Comitiis  Atheniensium,  lib.  iii.    Grypbisw.  1819.  &.—R.  Whislon,  On  the  Athenian  Assemblies,  in 
Smi'M'i  Diet,  of  Amiq.  p.  361 Jrutopluxna,  n  his  KKKAqo-idjottrat. 

§  1(1?.  The  senate  or  higher  council  (r  avw  j3ovtoj)  consisted,  according  to  the 
arrangements  of  Clisthenes,  of  500;  and  was  therefore  styled  the  senate  or 
council  of  the  500  {r  dovXr)  tZv  nivtaxoa^v).  In  earlier  times  it  consisted  of 
400,  and  in  later  of  600  members. 

1  ,,.  The  500  were  chosen  annually  by  lot,  50  from  a  tribe,  which  furnished  a  ready 
division  ol  the  senate  into  len  equal  parts.  Each  of  these  divisions,  containing  50 
members,  took  charge  ol  the  public  business  for  35  or  36  days,  in  an  order  ot  rotation 
decided  by  lot  :  and  the  members  of  the  division  having  this  charge  at  any  one  period 
was  called  lipm-di-cts  for  the  time,  and  the  period  itseli  was  called  npyrai-ua.  The  50 
ere  subdivided  into  5  portions  of  10  members.  These  portions  attended  to 
their  business  in  rotation,  each  for  a  period  of  7  days,  and  the  members  were  called 
II  pot  for  thai  Mine,  the  name  being  taken  from  their  sitting  in  the  senate  as  presiding 
officers.  From  the  Upoedpoi  was  elected  the  'Emar&TrK,  who  was  at  their  head,  and  of 
the  head  of  the  senate,  but  held  the  place  only  tor  a  single  day. — it  was  the 
business  ol  the  npuraveis  to  assemble  the  senate,  and  propose  the  subjects  of  delibera- 
tion. Thej  also  conducted  the  meetings  of  the  people,  in  which  however  they  only 
presided  in  connection  with  tune  Tlp&Spoi,  who  were  chosen  out  of  the  other  divisions 
nl' the  sen  ate  anil  had  an 'Eototjitk  at  their  head.  The  Ilpurdrac  had  a  common  hall, 
where  they  passed  most  of  their  time  daily,  called  the  Prytaneum  (npurai/sTon),  near  the 
senate-house  (BooXctoj/,  and  Bo'Aevrfipion). 

2«.  The  members  of  the  senate  expressed  their  opinions  standing,  after  which  the 
votes  were  taken.  They  received  a  drachma  (fyaxpri)  per  day  for  every  day's  attend- 
ance.    The  power  of  the  senate  was  very  great. 

:t.  The  senate  commonly  assembled  every  day.  excepting  festivals  and  days  consi- 
dered as  unlucky.  The  senators  were  all  required  to  take  what  was  called  the  sena- 
torial oath  (rdv  (Jov\£>mKdv  opieoii)  to  do  nothing  contrary  to  the  laws  In  voting,  they 
cast  each  a  black  or  white  bean  into  the  box  or  urn  {<&&>;,  leaHo/co;)  prepared  lor  the 
purpose;  if  the  number  of  white  exceeded  that  of  the  black,  the  decree  or  resolution 
was  affirmed;  otherwise  rejected. 

§  10ft.  No  court  of  justice  in  Greece  was  more  celebrated  than  the  Jlrenpa- 
(rus  at  Athens.  Its  name,  'Apftortayoj,  signifies  Hi 11  if  Mars,  and  was  derived 
from  the  circumstance,  that  the  court  was  held  on  a  hill  so  called,  near  the  cita- 
del. Others  derive  the  name  from  the  tradition,  that  the  god  Mars  was  the  rirst 
criminal  tried  before  this  tribunal.  The  time  of  its  establishment  is  uncertain, 
but  was  very  early,  before  the  age  of  Solon,  who  did  not  institute  it,  but  en- 
larged its  jurisdiction  and  power.  The  members  of  this  body  ('Apftortaytrot) 
were  originally  the  most  upright  and  judicious  citizens  of  every  condition,  but 
after  the  modifications  made  by  Solon,  only  such  as  had  been  elected  Archons. 
Their  office  was  held  for  life.  All  high  crimes,  as  theft,  robbery,  assassination, 
poisoning,  arson,  and  offences  against  religion,  came  before  this  court,  which 
inflicted  in  such  cases  death  or  fines.  At  first  its  sittings  were  only  on  the  last 
three  days  of  each  month  :  but  afterwards  they  were  more  frequent,  and  at  last 
daily  ;  they  were  always  in  the  open  air,  and  at  night. 

1  a.  The  sitting  was  opened  with  a  sacrifice,  upon  which  both  the  accuser  and  the 
accused  took  an  oath  with  direful  imprecations.  Then,  either  personally  or  by  attor- 
ney urged  their  cause  ;  but  no  prnaments  of  rhetoric,  no  attempts  to  move  the 
passions,  were  ever  allowed.  After  this  the  judges  gave  their  decision  by  means  of 
white  or  black  stones.  As  the  court  always  sat  in  the  dark,  the  white  pebbles  were 
distinguished  by  holes  bored  in  them.  Two  urns  were  used,  one  of  wood  to  receive 
the  white  Btones,  which  were  votes  to  acquit  the  defendant,  and  one  of  brass  to  re- 
ceive the  black,  winch  on  the  other  hand  were  votes  for  his  condemnation.  The  sen- 
was  immediately  pur  m  execution.  In  early  times  the  dignity  and  purity  of  this 
tribunal  Btood  very  high;  but  afterwards  its  character  fell  in  the  general  corruption 
i  !   morals. 

2.  In  their  oath  (Aupomk)  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  swore  by  the  Furies  (o-t/eai  ?<■«;). 

In  tne  trial  they  were  placed  upon  what  were  called  the  silver  stones  (dpyiipooy),  the 

jilanliiT  or.  thai  of  Injury  (t>/?p«),  and  the  defendant  on  that  of  Impudence  {avattua),  or 

)|   Innocenci  [dvairta]  —'I  he  brazen  urn  stood  in  front  of  the  other,  and  was  called  b 

dso  bxipios,  because  votes  east  into  it  declared   the  accusation  valid;  and 

docn  ed  death.     The  wooden  was  termed  b  om'o-w,  b  axvpo;,  or  6  fAffo". 

*enocUii(  (lie  peuolei  used  in  decisions,  cf.  jtiMon'i  Note  to  Potter,  p.  71. On  the  Areopap  is  and  the  other  courts  of  A  th 


P.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       ATHENIAN    COURTS.  185 

He  A.  ir.  Heffter,  Die  AthenJische  Gerichtsverfassun".  Coin,  1822  i.—M.  H.  E.  Meir,  Der  Atlische  Process.  Vier  B'Jcher. 
Halle,  1S24.  8  —  Abbt  (  anayt,  i.'Areopagus,  in  Ihe  Mem.  Acad.  hucr.  vii    174. 

§  109.  The  5Efj>sra«  were  also  persons  of  distinguished  merit,  who  constituted 
the  court  called  'Exi  IIoaxacHo  from  the  statue  of  Minerva  (said  by  some  to 
have  been  brought  from  Troy)  in  the  temple,  where  it  was  held.  Its  origin  is 
ascribed  to  Demophoon,  a  son  of  Theseus,  and  by  others  to  Draco,  who,  if  he 
did  not  fust  institute  it,  certainly  modified  it  anew.  The  judges  were  fifty-one, 
selected  from  noble  families,  five  from  each  tribe,  and  one  appointed  by  lot,  all 
over  fifty  years  of  age.  Solon  confirmed  the  powers  of  this  court;  but  referred 
to  the  Areopagus  all  the  more  important  questions,  leaving  to  the  'E<perat,  juris- 
jiction  only  over  homicide,  injuries  followed  by  death,  and  the  like. 

There  were  three  other  less  important  courts  belonging  to  the  class  which  had 
cognizance  of  actions  concerning  blood  (tjti  tdv  rpovi,xwv). — The  court  'Eitl 
A.'/.fti't'u  was  held  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Delphinius,  and  took  cognizance  of 
cases  where  the  defendants  confessed  the  fact  but  pleaded  some  justification.— 
The  court  *Ev  Upvtaviia,  was  held  at  the  Prytaneum  (cf.  §  107)  and  investi- 
gated cases  of  deaths  by  accidents,  unknown  agents,  or  persons  that  had 
escaped. — The  court  'Ev  ^pcarroi  was  held  upon  the  sea-shore  in  the  Piraeus, 
and  heard  the  causes  of  such  criminals  as  had  fled  out  of  their  own  country.— 
In  all  these  courts  the  'llipirai  presided  and  pronounced  the  sentence. 

The  magistrates  called  (j>v\a8aai\s:Ts  are  said  to  have  had  some  duty  in  the  court  iv  XlovravriM  ; 
especially  in  the  cases  termed  ai  t<Zv  dxpvxwv  6i<ai,  in  which  the  instruments  of  homicide  were 
subjected  to  trial.  In  the  earliest  times  there  were  four  of  these  magistrates;  one  perhaps  from 
each  of  the  four  tribes. 

§  110.  Besides  the  courts  already  described,  there  was  another  class  having 
jurisdiction  only  in  civil  cases  (Jni  tHov  br^iottxCJv),  of  which  there  were  six. 
The  most  important  was  the  'Hxtaia.  Its  name  was  either  from  0.7.1a,  multi- 
tude, on  account  of  the  throng  attending  it,  or  from  ijxcoj,  sun,  on  account  of  its 
Seing  held  in  the  open  air.     The  number  of  its  judges  (jjXiairat  oizcnrcu)  was 

ot  always  the  same  ;  the  whole  number  amounted  to  G0O0,  who  were  chosen  foi 
me  year  by  lot;  out  of  these  were  taken  the  number  requisite  in  each  particular 

rial  or  action.  The  least  number  that  sat  was  50  ;  sometimes  the  whole  6000 
'■ere  assembled  ;  the  more  usual  number  was  200  or  500.  It  was  the  province 
af  the  ^f^o^trat  (§  101)  to  introduce  the  action  into  court  (hadyiiv  oi,xr;v  hi 
to  SixavT-Quov),  and  full  power  was  given  by  them  to  the  judges  to  investigate 
and  decide  the  case. 

1  u.  When  the  accused  did  not  deny  the  jurisdiction  (-afaypafi)  or  request  a  dela> 
j'T0//07i-i).  both  he  and  the  accuser  were  put  under  oath.  Then  the  parties  deposited 
a  sum  of  money  as  security  (TTp-irancia),  and  proceeded  to  bring  forward  the  cause.  In 
doing  this  they  were  limited  to  a  definite  time,  measured  by  a  water-clock  (KXcJjvdpa). 
The  decision  was  given  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  Areopagus  (§  lot') :  and  the  de- 
fendant, in  case  of  a  sentence  of  death,  was  given  over  to  the  "Eixfoca  ($  102),  and  in 
case  of  fine,  to  the  Tlp'iKrop-;  or  'EvXoyn,,-  (*i  104).  If  he  could  not  pay  the  fine,  he  was 
cast  into  prison  ;  and  if  he  died  in  confinement,  not  only  the  disgrace,  but  the  punish- 
ment also,  fell  upon  his  son. 

2.  The  bailiffor  deputy  employed  to  summon  (-poo-icaXrivSaO  the  defendant  before  the 
ThesmothetEB,  or  witnesses  before  the  court,  was  termed  KKrJT<op  ;  sometimes  one  or 
two  ot  t he  witnesses  whose  names  were  indorsed  upon  the  declaration  (Vjfis,  cyK\ripa), 
together  with  the  plaintiff,  were  the  summoners  (icXiyriipEj).  The  oath  of  the  plaintiff 
before  the  opening  of  the  trial  was  called  Trpowpioaia  ;  that  of  the  defendant,  dvTwpooii.  \ 
a  name  for  both  was  hap/iaia.  Door-keepers  (/c«y*Xi&s)  were  appointed  by  a  magistrate 
to  guard  the  court  from  a  crowd.  The  amount  of  the  security  money  was,  as  has  been 
hinted  (§  103),  in  proportion  to  the  amount  at  stake  in  the  action.  In  trivial  cases  it 
was  a  drachm,  and  called  -apai-'icnq  \  the  deposit  made  by  one  who  sued  for  goods 
confiscated  by  the  state,  or  for  inheritances  of  a  certain  kind,  was  termed  xapaKaraiJoM). 
If  the  plaintiff  {5uZico>»)  failed  of  proving  the  indictment  (iin'a)  against  the  defendant 
(fsvyav),  he  paid  a  fine  called  iiroftcXia.  While  the  action  (Jfwftj)  was  proceeding  or-^as 
in  suspense,  a  notice  of  it,  inscribed  on  a  brazen  tablet,  was  hung  up  (rWtaOai  i  in  on* 
of  the  most  public  places  of  the  rity.  The  witnesses  (pap-rip!:;)  were  all  put  under  a 
solemn  oath,  which  they  took  together  at  the  altar  erected  in  the  court-room.  Their 
testimony  was  called  for  by  the  advocates  (avvqyopot)  as  they  wanted  it  in  proceeding 
with  their  pleas.1 

The  office  of  the  judges,  liKaarai,  resembled  that  of  our  jurymen  ;2  they  were 
isu  illy  paid  three  oboh  a  day.     They  sat  upon  wooden  benches,  which  were  covered 


J86  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

with  rags  (i/»ia9i'a).     In  addressing  them  the  advocates  stood  upon  elewtion?  cal.'od 

["he  number  of  prosecutions  and  trials  was  very  great.     There  were  many 

vho  -•  em  to  have  made  il  their  business  to  discover  grounds  of  accusation 

-i   the  wealthy.     These  men  gained  the  name  of  avKoipavrai,  a  term  which  was 

liisi  applied  to  such  as  prosecuted  persons  that  exported  tigs  (<nrf  roi  avica  tpaivctv),  a  law 

prot,  tation  having  been  enacted   at  a  time  when  there  was  a  great 

scarcity  ol  that  fruit.3 

Sir  IC.  /.iicVj  l'ref  .ce  lo  Isasus  (cf.  P.  V.  4  101.  3). »  See  /.  Pttlingal,  Enquiry  into  the  Practice  and  Use  cf  Juries  among 

theUri-rkv  rod  Roman.    Load.  17o<).  4  »  cf.  tfUJortt,  Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  xxxi.  sect.  !. 

3.  The  judicial  process  was  substantially  the  same  in  the  various  courts. — The 
five  other  civil  courts  besides  the  Heliaa  were  those  called  Hapafivarov,  Tpiyuvov,  To 
Katwij .   i  and  T<5  Mijri  c" '. 

Respecting  Iheu  courts,  n  '  5  I0S.  2.—  Schumann,  Ant.  Jur.  Publ.  Grxc— Plainer,  Process  und  Klagen. 

§  111.  Iii  addition  to  the  ten  public  courts,  there  was  also  a  judicial  body, 
called  w  ttooapdxovta,  consisting  of  forty  persons  chosen  by  lot,  who  held  their 
courts  successively  in  the  several  districts  of  Attica  having  cognizance  of  cases 
where  the  sum  or  value  at  stake  did  not  exceed  ten  drachmas. 

There  was  likewise  a  body  of  Arbitrators,  Aiovirjjrou,  consisting  of  440  aged 
men,  forty-four  from  each  tribe,  holding  office  for  a  year,  and  authorized  to 
settle  minor  controversies  within  their  respective  tribes,  but  subject  to  appeal. 
Thi  se  were  called  x\r,pi#toL,  being  chosen  by  lot. — Disputing  parties  were 
allowed  to  choose  arbitrators  for  themselves ;  these  were  called  S»asot»xnjptot 
or  xar  STtitpoittiv  Auur/'rai.  Minor  causes  could  not  be  entered  in  the  superior 
courts,  until  they  had  been  heard  before  some  court  of  arbitrators. 

The  number  nf  public  arbitrators  or  Stairttrit  KXriptaroi  slated  above  is  drawn  from  a  passace 
in  Ulpian  upon  Demosthenes  ;  some  writers  have  proposed  a  different  reading  nf  the  passage  so 
as  to  make  the  whole  milliner  hwit  forty, four  from  each  tribe. — The  private  arbitrators  were 
sometimes  termed  Siarnrai  dupedf. 

CVtMf  Journ.  XXJCix.  330. — M.  H.  ffudwnlcker,  Ueber  den  Schiedsrich'.er  Di.lteten  in  Athen,  und  den  Process  vor  dems^lbtn. 
Jena,  1812. 

§  1 12.  Actions  or  suits  were  divided  into  two  classes;  public  (8ixat  Sandmen., 
xatriyopCat),  such  as  concerned  the  whole  slate;  and  private  (8Jxcu  I8iai,  and 
o.xu',  simply),  which  concerned  only  individuals.  Of  the  former  class  were  the 
Following:  rpou|>jJ,an  action  for  the  highest  crimes,  as  e.g.  murder  (rfdvoj),  joozson 
(rpdpfiaxov),  arson  (rfupxata),  sacrilege  (LepoavXia),  and  many  others  esteemed 
less  heinous;  "Ixi^tj,  an  action  for  the  crime  of  embezzling  or  in  some  way 
squandering  public  property  ;  vEv8st|ij,  an  action  against  persons  usurping 
prerogatives  not  belonging  to  them,  or  refusing  trial  although  confessing  guilt; 
Artaywy)},  an  action  against  a  criminal  taken  in  the  act;  'E<j>ijy»7<7if,  against  a 
criminal  found  in  concealment  and  there  visited  by  a  magistrate;  ' AvSpoXr^ia, 
against  such  as  concealed  a  murderer,  which  allowed  the  relatives  of  the  mur- 
dered person  to  seize  three  persons  connected  with  the  concealing  party  and 
retain  them  until  further  satisfaction;  'EtaayysUa,  an  action  for  a  public 
offence  against  the  state,  or  for  a  breach  of  trust,  or  against  the  Atavtritai  when 
one  was  dissatisfied  with  their  decisions. — Actions  belonging  to  the  class  called 
private  were  far  more  numerous,  and  were  named  according  to  their  various 
occasions. 

Somi   "I  the  public  actions  included  under  the  general  denomination  of  ypatpn,  and 
not  named  above,  wen   the  billowing:  rpavjiaiKtiponoiac,  a  wound  given  by  design;  /hi- 
•  tspiracy;  an  hta,  impiety;   irporWia,  treachery;  desertion,  whether  from  the 
arm}  -  .  or  the  fleet,  Xenrofiriinoy,  or  from  a  particular  station,  \eiwora%u>»;  fri- 
volous pro lion,  trviempa  ria;  bribery  both  against  the  giver,  icKaapds ,  and  against  the 

,  Some  ol  the  private  actions  or  suits  were  the  following:  rawjyopiaj  6'ncri,  an  action  of 
Biandi  •   .  an  anion  for  usury  ;  dueiac  Mien,  an  action  of  battery;  0\i(3m,  ol 

In  Bpass  ;  ifXoa-iJf,  ol  thefl  ;  i^ewfyiapruptou,  for  perjury. 

§  113.  The  kinds  of  punishment  were  various,  according  to  the  nature  and 

degree  of  the  offe ■  for  which  they  were  inflicted.     Of  Those  not  capital,  tho 

following  were  the  principal  :  (1)  Ti^ara,  pecuniary  fine,  called  also  Zrj/.ua; 
il  is  was  sometimes  aggravated  by  corporeal  punishment:  (2)  'Atii.ua,  disgrace. 
which  was  of  thne  kinds;  first,  the  loss  of  some  privilege  but  not  of  posses- 
ions: second,  the  loss  of  the  rights  of  a  citizen  with  confiscation  of  property ; 


F.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       PUNISHMENTS.       REWARDS.  187 

third,  the  loss  of  all  privileges  civil  and  sacred,  both  by  the  criminal  himself 
and  his  whole  posterity  for  ever:  (3)  Aovtoia,  slavery ,-  this,  however,  by  So- 
lon's laws,  could  be  inflicted  only  on  freedmen,  sojourners,  and  such  as  had 
been  disgraced  (artuot)  :  (4)  "Iriyuaro.,  brand-marks,  by  a  hot  iron  on  the 
forehead  or  hands,  inflicted  chiefly  on  runaway  slaves  or  freedmen:  (5)  LrrXr, 
in  which  the  name  of  the  offender  and  his  crime  were  inscribed  on  a  pillar, 
exposed  to  public  view  :  (t!)  Afauo?,  bonds ;  of  which  there  were  several  kinds; 
as  the  xvtyuw  (also  x?.otuc),  a  wooden  collar,  which  bent  down  the  head  and 
neck;  the  #ou'i§,  a  kind  of  stocks,  in  which  the  feet  or  legs  were  made  fast; 
the  rrai'ij,  a  piece  of  wood  to  which  the  offender  was  bound  as  to  a  pillory;  and 
the  rpo^oj,  a  sort  of  wheel,  applied  to  slaves  who  were  bound  to  it  and  tortured  : 
(7)   &vyi},  atttyvyla,  banishment,  with  confiscation  ot  goods. 

Banishment  is  said  in  have  been  preferred  by  the  Greek  courts  to  imprisonment  on  account 
of  t  he  expense  occasioned  by  Hie  latter.  The  prison  al  Athens  was  termed  deapioiTnpiov,  and  by 
euphemism,  oixnpa.  Prisons  in  different  regions  were  called  by  different  names,  in  Bteotia, 
there  was  the  'Ai'n;  KaXov  ;  at  .Sparta,  the  Keddag;  at  Cyprus,  the  Kipapos  ;  at  Corinth,  the  Kws  ; 
at  Samos,  the  Tnfjipa. 

§  111.  The  Ostracism,  6r,Tpaxiifib<;,  was  not,  properly  speaking,  a  judicial 
punishment.  It  was  a  banishment  for  ten  years,  of  such  persons  as  were  thought 
to  be  dangerous  to  the  state.  The  votes  were  given  by  shells,  ocrrpctxa;  each 
man  marked  upon  his  bntpaxov  the  name  of  the  person  he  would  banish  ;  if 
the  same  name  was  upon  the  majority  of  G000  shells,  the  person  was  sentenced 
to  banishment.  The  most  upright  and  most  distinguished  citizens  fell  under 
this  sentence  ;  and  the  Athenians  finally  abolished  it,  as  the  Syracusans  did  a 
similar  custom  among  them.  The  Syracusan  punishment  was  called  H(ra%ia 
ftbs,  because  the  name  was  written  on  leaves,  nirat.o.. 

The  ostracism  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  instituted  by  Hippias,  son  of  Hipparchus  ;  other* 
say  by  Clisthenes.  B.  C  about  510,  who  was  first  banished  by  it.  It  continued  about  one  hun- 
dred years;  it  was  abolished  B.  C  about  412,  and  because  it  was  then  degraded  by  being  em- 
ployed on  a  very  contemptible  person  by  the  name  of  Hyperbolas.  Among  the  illustrious  Athe- 
nians who  were  driven  from  the  city  by  this  pernicious  custom,  were  Themistocles,  Thucydides, 
Cinion,  and  Aristides. 

Giinoz,  L'Ostracism,  in  the  Mem.  de  V.lcad.  da  Inter,  vol.  xii.  p.  145. 

§  115.  The  punishment  of  death,  ©ai-aroj,  was  inflicted  in  several  modes;  as 
by  the  sword,  «i$o$,  beheading  ;  by  the  rope,  Bpo^oy,  strangling  or  hanging;  by 
poison,  &upftaxov,  drinking  hemlock  (xutvuov)  usually;  by  the  precipice, 
Kp/?Miof,  casting  from  a  rock  or  height ;  by  the  Ka-ranovrcafibs,  drowning. 

Other  modes  of  inflicting  death  were,  by  the  Eravfids,  crucifying,  a  mode  used  by 
the  Greeks  less  frequently  than  by  the  Romans;  by  the  cudgels,  rYvrmavat  <>r  heating, 
in  which  the  malefactor  was  hung  on  a  pole;  by  throwing  into  a  pit.  BapaOpov,  which 
was  a  noisome  hole  with  sharp  spikes  at  the  top  and  bottom  (called  also  "Opvypa);  by 

stoning,  Ai6o0o\ia;  and   by  burning,  Hop. The  punishment  of  death  could  not  be 

lawfully  inflicted  upon  any  citizen  of  Athens  during  the  absence  of  the  sacred  galley 
(i'i  TrapaXo;  rpirjpri;)  which  was  annually  sent  to  the  island  Delos  with  a  solemn  sacrifice. 

§11G.  Public  rewards  and  honors  were  awarded  to  meritorious  persons. 
Among  these,  were  the  following;  (1)  nporfipia,  the  front  or  first  seat,  in  the 
theatres,  at  the  festivals  and  on  all  public  occasions;  (2)  'Etxwv,  a  statue, 
erected  in  a  public  place;  (3)  ^.rifavoi,  crowns,  conferred  by  the  senate,  or  the 
people,  or  by  particular  tribes  and  boioughs  upon  their  own  members;  these 
were  most  frequently  a  reward  for  valor  and  military  skill  ;  (4)  'AttXfia,  ex- 
emptionfrom  taxes,  which  was  of  various  degrees,  but  seldom  extended  to  the 
contributions  required  for  war  and  for  the  navy;  (5)  StV^oij  iv  Ylpvtavtlu, 
entertainment  in  the  common  hall,  called  Prytaneum  ;  originally  limited  to  a 
single  day;  but  afterwards  daily  and  permanent  in  the  case  of  some  (atist-Tot) ; 
it  was  an  honor  bestowed  on  the  most  worthy  men,  sometimes  upon  whole 
families,  and  was  viewed  as  a  high  distinction.  After  the  death  of  such  as 
had  received  special  honors,  their  children  and  descendants  enjoyed  in  some 
measure  the  benefit  of  the  same.  These  honors  were  obtained  with  difficulty 
in  the  better  times  of  the  republic,  but  became  quite  common  afterwards,  and 
lost  their  salutary  influence  in  a  state  of  corrupted  manners. 

§  1 1 7.  No  people  of  antiquity  was  so  much  celebrated  for  the  wisdom  of  thek 
laws  as  the  Greeks.     The  first  legislation  in  Greece  is  ascribed  m  Ceres  anu 


15S  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Triptolemus  (P.  II.  §  01).  Afterwards,  Theseus,  Draco,  Solon,  Clisthenes,  an«i 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  were  the  most  distinguished  authors  of  the  laws  adopted 
by  the  Athenians.  The-  number  of  the  Attic  laws  was  constantly  increased  witl. 
the  changing  circumstances  of  the  state.  It  was  commonly  the  province  of  the 
!l,i"<r:u  to  propose  laws.  A  proposal  adopted  in  the  assembly  was  called 
either  a  A  j^a,  when   it  had  only  some  specific  application,  or  law, 

vouo;,  when  its  obligation  was  universal  and  unchanging.  An  ordinance  of 
Solon  required  an  annual  revision  of  the  laws,  to  ascertain  what  alterations  or 
additions  mioril  be  necessary.  His  own  laws  were  inscribed  on  tables  of  wood 
(cf.  P.  IV.  §"53). 

1.  Th<  designates  what  may  be  called  a  constitutional  law,  or  established 
orinci]  i  iguished  from  a  particular  enactment;  thus  it  would  be  applied  e.  g. 
to  the  laws  ol  Draco  and  Solon,  although  those  of  Draco  were  commonly  called 
0ca,iU.  in  distinction  from  those  oi  Solon  called  v6pot.  The  term  v6Sio;  is  also  sometimes 
,,-,  ,1                     e  of  8  n.-r,  a  natural  11  u:  1 1 1  or  social  usage  or  fixed  custom. 

2.  If  0  I  to  introduce  a  law,  he  named  it  to  the  Xlpvavuc,  who  brought  it 
|„  fore  the  \h)\  it'  the  senate  approved,  it  was  called  a  IlpopovXci'iia ;  it  was 

-,im{  upon  a  tablet,  which  was  fixed  up  publicly  at  the  statues  of  the 
i:-  .:  ,  ■  .  some  days  before  the  meeting  of  'he  assembly  {tKKknuia) ;  from  this  circum- 
stance, 11  was  also  called  npoypappa. 

li  ui  ]  not  comport  with  Hie  limits  of  this  sketch  to  detail  particular  Athenian  laws.  — These  may  be  found  in  Sam.  Petit,  Leges 
Attica;  (cf  F.  V.  i  55  3',.  and  in  the  work  entitled  Jurisprudents  Romana  el  Mica,  T.  iii.— Comp.  Jo,  Meursii  Themis  Attica. 

U  B.  16J1    4.- See  also  Potter's Archseologia  Gia:c..,  Lk.  i.  ch.  xxvi The  most  remarkable  laws  of  the  Greeks  generally  art 

•ahibiled  by  Kbpke  in  Nitsch's  Beschreibung,  &c.  cited  i  13. 

$  118.  Next  to  Athens,  Lacedaemon  was  the  most  flourishing  of  the  (Jrecian 
states,  and  its  most  remarkable  antiquities  should  be  briefly  noticed  (cf.  §  40). 
The  province  in  which  this  city  lay  bore  the  same  name,  but  was  called  also 
Lelegia,  CEbalia,  Laconia  or  Laconica,  and  was  the  largest  part  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. The  city  of  Lacedaemon  or  Sparta  was  situated  in  an  unbroken 
plain,  on  the  river  Eurotas,  and  was  in  early  times,  according  to  the  direction 
of  Lycurgus,  without  walls.  Its  soil  was  fertile,  and  its  internal  plan  and  its 
edifices  such  as  to  be  respectable,  although  they  did  not  give  a  just  idea  of  the 
power  and  resources  of  the  state. 

On  the  civil  constiiulion  of  this  slate,  we  may  refer  to  I.  K  F.  Manso,  Sparta,  ein  Versuch  zur  Aufklarung  der  Geschichle  und 
\, :rfassui ■_  dieses  Staats.  Leipz.  I8U0-5.  3  vols.  8.— Ifitich,  Beschreibung,  &c.  as  cited  §  13.— MWler,  History  and  Antiquities  nl 
Hie  Doric  Race.  Transl.  by  Tufnell  and  Lcvjis.  Oxf.  1830.  2  vols,  i —IV.  Drummond,  Review  of  the  Governments  of  Sparta 
and  Athens.- C.  P.  Levaqta,  Sur  la  Constitution  de  Sparta,  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnstilut,  Classe  des  Scienms  Mor.  et  Pol.  vol.  iii. 

i  in  thi  ruins  of  Sparta,  see  P.  I.  §§  126-129.— A  view  of  the  modern  village  Mistra,  near  Is  site,  is  given  in  the 

Plate  on  pa?e3:. 

§  11!).  In  Lacedaemon  the  citizens  were  of  two  kinds,  such  as  had  received 
the  rights  of  citizenship  by  inheritance  from  their  parents,  and  such  as  had 
acquired  them  personally.  They  were  together  divided  into  six  tribes,  of  which 
that  of  the  lleraclidee  was  the  first.  Each  of  these  was  again  subdivided  into 
ive  classes,  called  w/3a*,  making  thirty  in  all.  The  presidents  or  leaders  of 
these  were  called  rfpoaxttu. 

1.  The  first  class  of  citizens,  being  of  free-born  parents,  and  having  complied  with 
all  the  Spartan  discipline,  were  culled  the  Sjiotot,  or  equals;  while  the  other  class  were 
termed  .  inferiors,  including  freedmen  and  sons  of  freedmen,  and  all  such 

as  had  nol  fully  conformed  to  the  Spartan  discipline. 

C*.  F.  Hermann,  De  conditione  atque  online  eorum  qui  Hnmo;i  ar..  Laced,  appellati  sunt.    Marb.  IS32.  4.    Same  author,  Da 
i   ntrinii  uqualitatis.     Marb.  IS34. 

I  'I  In  iii.:  ion  into  six  tribes,  above  referred  to,  was  made  by  Lycurgus.  Some 
Btate  live  as  the  number,  not  considering  the  Heraclidce  as  a  separate  tribe.  The 
others  were  the  At/n.i-nt.  so  called  from  their  residing  near  the  marsh  or  morass  (Ai/j^) 
■  li  thi  le  of  the  city;  the  Kwoao-'ptTc;,  so  called  from  their  vicinity  to  a  branch 

ti  mount  Taj  etus  termed  K.vt>6oovpa  (dog's  tail)  on  account  of  its  figure  ;  the  LTirafa- 
rai;  tin-  M  a  :  and  the  Ai'-fe'ie,  who  received  this  name  because  they  resided  near 

the   tomb  ol   .lv'eiis.  Ar'i',. Miilhr  asserts1,  that  in  every  Doric  state  there  were 

Ihret  tribes,  i  * (  is.  nn/itpuXoi,  and  AvpavaTai  or  A''uSi>eg;  or  the  Hyllean,  Dytnanatan, 
tnd  Pamphylian  ;  and  says,  we  cannot  suppose  the  existence  in  Sparta  of  any  other 
than  i best  i trie  tribes,     lie  represents  each  of  these  as  divided  into  ten  ti  'at, 

ami  a. his,  that  two  ami  probably  more,  yet  not  all,  of  the  o>0ai  of  the  Hyllean  tribe 
must  have  bt  en  Heraclida.  Each  of  the  tbflai  is  said  to  have  contained  ten  rpiami&c, 
wl  irh  were  communities  comprising  thirty  families. — There  was  another  division  of 
,'»«  Spartans,  into  six  utiuat  consisting  only.of  such*  as  were  of  a  proper  age  for  mill* 


P.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       SPARTAN    MAGISTRATES.  189 

tary  service.  —A  subdivision  of  tribes  into  ^parpiat,  or  ycir/,  or  rpWrvts,  is  also  mentioned 
as  having  prevailed3  in  various  places. 

«  See  Midler,  Hist,  and  Antiq.  as  cited  §  118.  vol.  ii.  p.  76-80. »  Cf.  Robinson,  Archaeol.  Grsec. 3  Wachsmuth,  Histor. 

Ant.  cf  Greece. 

§  120.  It  is  known  that  the  Spartans  were  obliged,  on  the  birth  of  theii 
children,  to  subject  them  to  a  close  scrutiny  as  to  their  vigor  and  soundness  of 
constitution,  and  to  submit  it  to  the  decision  of  the  presidents  of  the  cijicu,  or 
clans,  whether  they  were  suitable  to  be  preserved  and  raised  ;  a  regulation 
designed  to  prevent  a  population  of  weak  and  sickly  citizens.  The  education 
of  the  children  was  treated  with  the  greatest  care.  All  the  citizens  not  only 
had  equal  rights,  but  also  a  community  of  goods  and  privileges.  The  lands 
were,  by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  equally  apportioned  among  them. 

As  soon  as  a  child  was  born,  it  was  carried  to  a  place  called  Lesche  (Acaxn)  to  be 
examined  by  the  elders  of  the  family  or  clan.  If  disapproved  as  having  an  imperfect 
frame  or  weak  constitution,  it  was  cast  into  a  gulf,  called,  'AmBerm,  near  mount  Tay- 
getus.  If  approved,  a  share  of  the  public  lands  was  assigned  to  it,  and  it  was  taken 
back  to  the  father's  house  and  laid  on  a  shield  with  a  spear  placed  near  it.  The 
whole  education  was  intrusted  to  the  parent  until  the  child  reached  the  age  of  seven; 
then  the  regular  public  education  (dyuyh)  commenced.  The  boys  at  this  age  were  in 
rolled  in  the  classes  termed  Agelce  (ay^Xai  or  l3o?<ai,  herds) ;  such  as  refused  this  lost 
the  rights  of  citizenship  ;  none  but  the  immediate  heir  to  the  throne  was  excepted; 
the  other  sons  of  the  kings  were  obliged  to  submit  to  the  correction  of  the  master 
{Jlaiioj6fioi).  The  discipline  was  more  strict  alter  the  age  of  twelve.  At  about  sixteen 
they  were  called  mieSvai.  At  eighteen  they  entered  the  classes  termed  t<pr\(ioi.  and 
about  two  years  after  received  the  appellation  of  etpsves  or  "ptvsg,  and  were  admitted  to 
the  public  banquets.  At  thirty  they  were  ranked  as  men,  e^ifioi,  and  were  allowed  to 
undertake  public  offices. 

Cf.  MUller,  as  above  cited,  vol.  ii.  p.  313. 

§  121.  The  slaves  among  the  Lacedaemonians  were  treated  with  great  cruelty 
(cf.  §  99).  There  appears  to  have  been  but  one  class,  viz.  the  Helots  ("Eaut1!  j), 
who  according  to  the  common  account  were  derived  from  the  maritime  town 
Helot;  ("E^oj)  captured  by  the  Spartans.  Others  consider  the  name  as  derived 
from  fhe  verb  fXco,  and  signifying  prisoners.  The  unhappy  Messenians  taken 
in  the  second  Messenian  war  were  incorporated  among  the  Helots. 

1  u.  The  Helots  were  required  to  cultivate  the  land,  and  perform  the  most  laborious 
and  dangerous  services  in  war.  They  were  exposed  to  every  sort  of  abuse,  and  even 
to  the  murderous  attack  of  the  young  Spartans,  especially  in  the  custom  termed 
Kpi>7n-£t'a,  which  was  an  annual  legalized  hunt  against  these  degraded  subjects.  Yet 
some  among  them,  as  a  reward  of  distinguished  merit,  obtained  liberty  and  citizen- 
ship, on  occasion  of  receiving  which  they  were  crowned  with  garlands  and  led  about 
the  temples.  They  then  were  called  entvi/aKrot,  or  dij>hat,  or  vcotapoietc.  The  last  epi- 
thet seems  to  have  designated  such  as  enjoyed  more  of  civil  rights  than  the  common 
freedmen,  whose  rank  was  far  below  that  of  the  free-born.  The  number  of  slaves  in 
this  state  was  very  large. 

2.  The  a<perat  were  a  class  released  probably  from  all  service ;  the  epmrtipcc  werL 
slaves  employed  only  in  war  ;  the  fc<rxonwvavTat  served  on  board  the  fleet ;  the  p\6Qtovts, 
were  domestic  slaves  brought  up  with  the  young  Spartans  and  then  emancipated. 

3.  There  was  another  class  of  inhabitants  in  the  province  of  Lacedasmon,  who  al 
though  not  slaves  were  yet  held  in  a  state  of  subjection  by  the  Spartans.  They  were 
the  natives  of  towns  reduced  by  the  latter  to  a  tributary  and  dependent  state  ;  they 
were  called  Perioeei  (lUpiotxoi).  They  were  engaged  in  the  navy  and  in  the  army 
along  with  Spartan  citizens,  and  sometimes  were  intrusted  with  offices :  at  the  battle 
of  Plataea  there  were  10,000  men  of  this  class. 

Respecting  the  Perioeei  and  the  Helots,  see  MUller,  vol.  ii.  p.  17,  SO.—Capperonien,  Sur  l'esclavage  des  Hilotes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad 
Inscr.  xxiii.  271. 

§  122.  At  the  head  of  government  were  two  kings  or  leaders  (ap^oysVai), 
who  must  be  certainly  descended  from  the  Heraclidae,  and  must  possess  an 
unexceptionable  exterior.  They  did  not  possess  the  full  regal  authority  (rfa.it- 
SarsiXila),  but  a  power  limited  by  the  laws,  to  which  they  were  accustomed 
every  month  to  swear  obedience.  In  war  their  power  was  greatest.  They  had 
also  the  oversight  of  the  worship  of  the  gods,  and  sometimes  performed  the 
office  of  priests. 

In  peace  their  chief  civil  prerogative  was  to  preside  in  the  senate  ana  propose  tn« 
subjects  for  deliberation  ;  and  each  could  give  his  vote  on  any  question.     In  war  the 

16 


190  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Spartan  kinsrs  had  unlimited  command  {vrpamyds  dvroKparuip),  and  could  even  put  to 
death  without  trial  (;V  \cipd;  kS/»m).  They  are  said  also  to  have  had  in  time  of  war  espe- 
cially a  body-guard  of  three  hundred  of  the  noblest  of  the  Spartan  youths  (Imreis) ; 
from  this  number  five  were  annually  selected  and  employed  for  one  year,  under  the 
name  of  dyaBospyoi,  in  missions  to  other  states.  Many  dissensions  grew  out  of  the 
double  monarch]  The  royal  revenue  was  very  great.     Cf.  Millie*,  vol.  ii. 

p.  106. 

§  123.  Lycurgus  established  a  senate  of  28  men,  of  blameless  character,  and 
upwards  of  (50  years  old,  which  was  called  ytpouoJa,  or  y^ptoia'a.  The  members 
had  an  equal  right  of  voting  with  the  two  kings,  and  rendered  no  account  of  the 
manner  of  discharging  their  office. — There  were  also  five  Ephori  (J'^opoi),  who  had 
an  oversight  of  the  whole  state,  and  whose  duty  required  them  to  assert  the 
rights  of  the  people  against  the  kings.  They  were  chosen  from  among  the 
people,  without  reference  to  condition. — The  BfiStaiot  were  a  class  of  offi- 
cers, who  were  placed  over  the  hJ^oi,  between  the  ages  of  18  and  20. 

The  Ephori  enjoyed  a  power  which  was  called  foorvpawos,  and  were  not  required  to 
give  any  account  of  their  discharge  of  it;  but  they  were  appointed  only  for  one  year. 
Their  tribunal  (c<popcTov)  was  in  the  forum. — The  B£«5«juoi  were  five  in  number,  with  a 
Sixth  as  their  Trpiaffv;.  They  had  the  inspection  of  the  gymnastic  exercises,  called 
urra,  because  performed  in  a  spot  surrounded  with  plane  trees;  it  was  their  pro- 
vince to  decide  disputes  arising  at  the  gymnasia.  They  had  their  tribunal  or  place  of 
council  also  in  the  forum.  The  common  name  for  the  council-halls  of  these  and  other 
magistrates  was  dpooua, 

§  124.  The  Spartans  had  other  magistrates;  as  the  Noftofyv'kaxis,  who  saw 
that  the  laws  were  maintained  and  executed ;  the  Ap^dcwot,  to  whom  was  en- 
trusted the  oversight  of  the  women,  to  observe  their  lives  and  manners  and  direct 
their  exercises;  the  'E/A7is%u>pot,,  who  preserved  order  and  decorum  in  assemblies 
of  the  people,  and  attended  in  general  to  the  police  of  the  forum  or  market;  the 
IIv^kh,  four  in  number,  appointed  by  the  kings,  and  employed  to  consult  oracles ; 
the  npolfvoi,  who  were  also  appointed  by  the  kings,  and  had  charge  of  the  re- 
ception of  strangers;  the  npoSixoi,  who  had  the  care  of  the  young  kings  as 
tutors;  the  Ilcuoot'o^oi,  whose  office  was  to  oversee  and  manage  the  boys  put 
under  their  care  at  the  age  of  7 ;  the  'Apfioatai,  who  were  a  sort  of  sheriffs  in 
the  city  and  province;  the  no?i^ap^ot,  who  under  the  kings  superintended  the 
affairs  of  war,  and  also  attended  to  some  matters  of  police  in  the  city  ;  the 
'irtrfayptrou,  three  officers,  who  commanded  each  a  chosen  band  of  100  horsemen. 

§  125.  The  assemblies  (sxxx^tfi'ou.)  of  the  people  were  similar  to  those  at 
Athens.  In  some  of  them  only  native  citizens  of  Sparta  met;  in  others  there 
were  also  delegates  from  the  towns  and  cities  belonging  to  the  province  Laconia ; 
in  assemblies  of  the  latter  class  were  discussed  all  affairs  of  common  interest 
and  importance  to  the  whole  state.  Originally  the  kings  and  senate  had  the 
power  of  convening  the  assemblies;  it  was  afterwards  vested  in  the  Ephori, 
who  also  presided  in  them.  The  votes  were  given  by  utterance  of  voice  (,i3oj7 
xai  ov  ^(fa),  and  the  majority  decided  by  the  loudest  acclamation,  or  by  a 
subsequent  division  and  counting  of  the  two  parties. 

The  assembly  composed  only  of  the  citizens  of  Sparta  was  called  fxticpa  cKKXrja-ia,  and 
usually  met  once  every  month.  Every  citizen  capable  of  bearing  arms  might  attend, 
and,  if  above  the  age  of  thirty,  might  speak.  The  meetings  were  originally  in  the 
open  air.  but  at  a  later  period  were  held  in  an  edifice,  called  a/fiaj,  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose.— The  other  assembly  was  called  simply,  or  by  way  of  eminence,  txichiaia.  It 
consisted  (J|  the  kings,  the  senators,  the  magistrates,  and  the  deputies  of  Laconia. 

§  126.  The  assembly  also,  which  was  collected  at  the  public  and  common 
meals  and  termed  evaobtla,  <pet,8ltLa,  and  <|>i?aria,  was  designed  for  the  purpose 
of  speaking  upon  matters  of  public  importance. 

In  tins  assembly,  kings,  magistrates,  and  certain  citizens,  met  together  in  certain 
halls,  «  here  a  number  of  tables  were  set,  for  fifteen  persons  each.  No  new  member 
could  be  admitted  to  any  table  but  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  all  belonging  to  the 
same  Every  member  contributed  to  the  provisions  from  his  own  stores;  a  specified 
qnantity  ol  barley  meal  or  cakes  (/iSfai),  wine,  cheese,  and  figs,  and  a  small  sum  of 
money  tor  meat,  was  expected  from  each.  A  close  union  was  formed  between  those 
of  the  same  table.  The  regular  meal  was  termed  a?xW;  after  this  was  a  dessert  called 
irauwn  The  men  only  were  admitted;  small  children  were  allowed  to  sit  on  stools 
near  'heir  fathers  and  receive  a  half-share  without  vegetables  (d^a^uMiwra) ;  the  youtb 


P.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIliS.       LAWS    OF    CRETE.  191 

and  boys  ate  in  other  companies.  At  table  they  sat  or  reclined  on  couches  of  hard 
oak.  The  chief  dish  was  the  hlack  broth  (pcXac  s^"?).1  The  Spartans  had  also  another 
kind  of  solemn  teast,  called  icon-is,  to  which  foreigners  and  boys  were  admitted  along 
with  the  citizens.2 

1  The  reader  may  be  amused  by  the  following  passage  from  Sir  Henry  Blimnt,  who  traveled  in  Turkey,  in  1634  «  The  Turkj 
have  a  drink  called  muphe,  made  of  a  berry  as  big  as  a  small  bean,  dried  in  a  furnace  and  beat  to  powder,  of  a  sooty  color,  in 
taste  a  little  bitterish,  that  they  setheand  drink,  hot  as  may  be  endured  ;  it  is  good  at  all  hours  of  the  day,  but  especially  morning  .uid 
evening,  when  to  that  purpose  they  entertain  IhemselveB  two  or  three  hours  in  cauphe-houses,  which  in  Turkey  abound  more  than 
inns  and  ale  houses  with  us.  It  is  thought  to  be  the  old  black  broth  used  so  much  by  the  Lacedemonians.  It  drietb  ill  humours  in 
the  stomach,  comfcrteth  the  brain,  never  causeth  drunkenness,  nor  any  other  surfeits,  and  is  a  harmless  entertainment  of  good  fellow, 
ehip." *R  Vinson's  Archaeol.  Gtxc.  p.  159.— Cf.  Midler,  ii.  289. 

§  127.  Judicial  actions  were  very  summary  among  the  Spartans.  Eloquence 
found  no  place  in  them;  no  advocates  were  employed;  every  one  was  obliged 
to  plead  his  own  cause.  There  were  three  distinct  jurisdictions,  that  of  the 
kings,  the  senate,  and  the  Ephori,  each  of  which  formed  a  tribunal  for  the  deci 
sion  of  a  certain  class  of  questions.  The  most  important  questions,  and  particu- 
larly all  of  a  capital  nature,  belonged  to  the  senate.  In  minor  disputes,  the  par- 
ties were  allowed  to  choose  arbitrators  for  themselves. 

Cf.  Robinson,  bk.  ii.  cli.  xxii.— On  the  authority  of  the  Ephori,  Mllllcr,  bk.  iii.  ch.  vii. ;  and  bk.  iii.  ch.  ii  §  2,  on  the  Spartan 
Courts. 

§  128.  The  punishments  were  various  and  in  part  similar  to  those  at  Athens. 

The  most  common  mode  of  inflicting  death  was  by  strangling  or  suffocation. 

Stealing  was  punished  not  so  much  for  the  theft  committed,  as  for  the  want  of 
shrewdness  and  dexterity  betrayed  by  the  offender  in  allowing  himself  to  be 
detected. 

1.  Strangling  was  effected  by  means  of  a  rope  (,0p6x,°s,  Ppdyxoc)  •  it  was  always  done 
in  the  night  and  in  a  room1  in  the  public  prison  called  At/cue.  Death  was  also  inflicted 
by  casting  the  malefactor  into  the  pit'2  called  Kouaiiaj ;  this  was  always  done  likewise 
by  night.  Aristomenes  the  Messenian  was  cast  into  this,  but  survived  the  fall  and 
effected  an  escape,  which  was  considered  as  very  wonderful. Besides  the  punish- 
ments Zripia,  'Artjxia,  and  Kv^oiv  or  KAoidc,  mentioned  among  Athenian  penalties  (cf. 
^  113),  the  Spartans3  had  Macmy&xns,  whipping,  which  the  offender  received  as  he  was 
driven  through  the  city,  and  Kwrrjo-tc,  goading,  which  was  a  similar  punishment.  Ba- 
nishment, tf>vyh,  seems  not  to  have  been  a  regular  punishment  inflicted  by  sentence ; 
but  was  voluntary,  and  chosen  in  order  to  escape  death  or  infamy  (dri/ila). 

I  Robimon,  Arch.  Grsec.  bk.  ii.  ch.  24. 2  Cf.  Thuc.  i.  134.— Paw.  iv.  IS.  §  4.— Slrai.  viii.—  Miljord,  Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  iT. 

«ect.  4. 3  Cf.  Mllllcr,  Hist,  and  Ant.  Dor.  vol.  ii.  p.  235. 

2u.  Among  the  Spartans  also  various  rewards  and  distinctions  were  bestowed  on 
persons  of  merit,  both  while  living  and  after  death. 

3.  Among  the  distinctions  conferred  on  the  meritorious,  the  Tlpoz&pa,  first  seat  in  a 
public  assembly,  was  highly  honorable.  Much  value  was  attached  to  the  olive-crown, 
'EXairi;  oTopavos,  as  a  reward  for  bravery,  and  to  the  thongs,  BatWsc,  with  which  victors 
in  the  contests  were  bound.  But  it  was  one  of  the  highest  honors  of  the  city  to  be 
elected  into  the  number  of  the  three  hundred  constituting  the  three  chosen  bands  of 

horsemen  (§  124),  termed  Aoyahc. To  commemorate  the  dead,  statues,  cenotaphs 

(KivoTatpta),  and  other  monuments  were  erected. 

§  129.  The  legislation  of  Sparta  had  Lycurgus  chiefly  for  its  author,  and  was 
marked  by  some  strong  peculiarities.  The  form  of  government  was  distin- 
guished from  that  of  all  the  other  states  by  its  union  of  monarchical  with  aristo- 
cratical  and  democratical  traits.  There  were  in  Sparta  no  written  laws;  they 
were  transmitted  orally  from  one  generation  to  another;  on  this  account  Lycur- 
gus styled  them  jfy'tfpa*.  They  were  not  numerous,  and  were  chiefly  designed 
to  promote  bravery  and  hardihood,  and  hinder  all  luxury  and  voluptuousness 
Although  they  underwent  many  alterations  in  minor  points,  they  retained  their 
authority  through  a  period  of  above  800  years. 

Cf.  MUller,  as  before  cited,  vol.  ii.  p.  97,  235.— Xmophon,  on  the  Polity  of  the  Lacedemonians  (cf.  P.  V.  §  186).— The  works  ciler- 
\  118. 

§  130.  Next  to  the  states  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  the  island  of  Crete  presents  a 
constitution  the  most  remarkable.  It  is  here,  as  has  been  stated  (§  38),  that 
we  find  the  origin  of  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus.  During  the  republican  ;;■> 
vernment  which  succeeded  the  monarchical,  it  was  customary  to  elect  ten  offi- 
cers annually  as  chi«f  magistrates.  These  were  called  Cosmi,  xoofia,  and  were 
taken  only  from  particular  families.  Under  them  was  a  Senate,  which  wasccn- 
suited  only  on  important  questions;  it  consisted  of  28  members,  who  far  the 


1«)2  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

most  part  had  previously  held  the  office  of  Cosmi.  There  was  also  an  order  of 
knights,  who  were  required  to  keep  horses  at  their  own  expense  for  the  public 
use,  and  to  serve  in  time  of  war.  The  power  of  popular  assemblies  was  not 
great ;  they  usually  did  nothing  but  confirm  the  decrees  of  the  higher  authorities. 

CI    Ml    er,  vol   ii   [i.  99,  iH.-lKck.  Krela.    Goltmg.  1629.  3  vols.  8. 

§  131.  The  Cretan  laws  were  in  general  wise,  as  appears  from  some  traces 
of  them  found  indifferent  writers. —  Like  the  Spartans,  the  citizens  of  Crete  had 
public  meals,  which  they  called  avhptla,. — Slaves  were  treated  with  comparative 
mildness. 

1.  "  Curiosity  is  excited,"  observes  Mitford,  "by  that  system  of  laws  which,  in  an 
age  of  savage  ignorance,  violence,  and  uncertainty  among  surrounding  nations,  in- 
forced  civil   order,  and  secured  civil  freedom  to  the  Cretan   people;  which  was  not 

the  particular  model  of  the  wonderlul  polity,  so  well  known  to  us  through  the 
fame  ol  Lac<  daemon,  but  appears  to  have  been  the  general  fountain  of  Grecian  legis- 
lation and  jurisprudence;  and  which  continued  to  deserve  the  eulogies  of  tne  greatest 
sages  and  politicians,  in  the  brightest  periods  of  literature  and  philosophy." 

See  Sainle  Croix,  Des  Anciens  gouvernements  federatifs,  el  legislation  de  Crete     Par.  1776. 

2.  Three  different  classes  of  dependents  existed  in  the  island  ;  the  public  bondmen 
called  by  the  Cretans  fii'ot'a;  the  slaves  of  individual  citizens,  d^a/iKorut ;  and  the  tribu- 
tary s.  wrtiKooi.  Perhaps  there  was  no  Grecian  state  in  which  the  dependent  classes 
were  so  little  oppressed  as  in  Crete.  In  general,  every  employment  and  profession, 
with  the  exception  of  the  gymnasia  and  the  military  service,  were  permitted  to  ihem. 
— Miiller,  as  cited  §  118,  vol.  ii.  5.        . 

3.  I  he  name  d  ■iptla  is  supposed  to  have  been  given  to  the  public  meals,  because,  as 
at  Sparta,  men  alone  were  admitted  to  the  tables.  A  woman,  however,  had  the  care 
of  the  public  tables  at  Crete.  The  Cretans  were  distinguished  by  their  great  hospi- 
taii'v;   with   every  two  tables   for  citizens   there  was  one  for   foreigners. — Miiller, 

The  term  dyi\r,  was  used  to  designate  an  assembly  of  young  men,  who  lived  toge- 
ther from  their  eighteenth  year  till  the  time  of  their  marriage.  '1  hese  young  men, 
I  i  vioToi,  were  under  the  care  of  a  person  termed  dysXanjf,  who  superintended 
their  military  and  gymnastic  exercises. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Antiq. 

§  132.  In  Thebes,  the  principal  city  of  Boeotia,  a  monarchical  government 
existed  until  the  death  of  Xanthus,  and  afterwards  a  republican.  Yet  this  state 
did  not  rise  to  any  great  celebrity,  at  least  for  a  long  time;  the  cause  was  per- 
haps the  whole  national  character  of  the  Thebans.  Besides  a  proper  senate, 
there  were  in  Thebes  Boeotarchs,  Botorrip^eu,  and  Polemarchs  HoXipapzoi ;  the 
former  had  the  care  of  the  civil  affairs,  and  the  latter  of  the  military. — Bceotia 
was  divided  into  four  grand  councils,  or  senates,  whose  decrees  guided  all  the 
other  magristrates.  Merchants  and  mechanics  were  adopted  as  citizens,  but 
never  raised  to  any  magistracy.  The  exposure  of  infants  was  not  permitted, 
but  if  their  parents  were  unable  to  maintain  them,  it  was  done  by  the  state. 
Pausanias  has  recorded  in  his  description  of  Boeotia  many  remarkable  features 
of  the  later  condition  of  the  Theban  state. 

The  Reptilians  bad  a  fjrent  national  festival,  TlaixpuioiTta,  in  honnr  of  Athena  Itonia,  who  had 
a  temple  near  Coronea,  near  which  the  festival  was  held. 

Uil/wd,  ch.  v.  sect.  \.—Kiwul-Ruclidle,  Administration  de  1'Etat  Federatif  des  Bceotiens,  intbeAfcm.de  Vlmttlul,  Classe 
i'H.ft   ii  IM.  .inc.  vol.  viii.  p.  214 

§  133.  Of  the  internal  constitution  of  Corinth  but  little  is  known.  It  was 
at  first  governed  by  kings,  of  whom  the  Sisyphidae  and  Bacchiadae  were  the 
most  distinguished.  Afterwards,  when  an  aristocratical  form  was  introduced, 
one  chief  magistrate  was  chosen  yearly  called  npuraiaj.  He  was  supported  by 
.i  senate,  Tfpovcrta.  The  assembly  of  the  people  never  had  equal  authority; 
their  power  was  often  very  small.  The  city  was  once  called  Ephyra,  and  en- 
joyed  a  favorable  situation  upon  the  isthmus,  which  rendered  it  and  its  two 
harbours  so  famous  on  account  of  their  navigation  and  commerce.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Romans,  B.  C.  140,  but  was  afterwards  rebuilt  by  Caesar,  and 
bee, line  again  very  flourishing. — Syracuse  and  Corcyra  were  colonies  of  Corinth. 
The  l.,st  city  is  specially  remarkable,  from  the  fact,  that  a  dispute  between  itself 
and  Corinth  was  the  occasion  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Syracuse  was  for  a 
hn\x  time  governed  by  600  of  the  oldest  men,  called  yao^opot ;  but  afterwards 
pecame  entirely  democratical  until  it  was  subjected  to  the  Romans. 

»f  UlUUr,  at  before  cited,  vo'.  ii.  p  136. 


P.  III.  MILITARY    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER   AGES.  193 

§  134  Jrgos,  like  the  other  Grecian  states,  had  in  early  times  its  king's. 
In  later  times  it  was  governed  by  the  people  divided  into  four  tribes.  It  had 
its  senate,  and  another  body  of  magistrates  consisting  of  eighty  members,  and 
a  class  of  public  officers  called  dptwoi. 

Cf.  MUtler,  vol.  ii.  p.  W    147. 

In  the  history  of  JEtolia,  we  may  mention  as  chiefly  remarkable  the  league  or 
confederacy  between  the  cities  of  that  district.  This  confederacy  was  called 
the  Pansetulium.  It  had  at  Thermus  an  annual  assembly  or  meeting-,  in  which 
the  magistrates  were  elected,  and  also  a  president  of  the  confederacy,  who  was 
calleu  orparjjyoj,  and  was  at  the  same  time  chief  military  commander.  This 
officer  was  subject  to  the  assembly.  The  council  of  the  Apocleti  (d,toz?.rrot) 
was  a  different  body,  who  decided  questions  that  arose  in  pressing  emer- 
gencies. 

See  F.  W.  TMmann,  Darstellung  der  Griech.  Staatsverfassungen.    J.eipz.  1822.  8. 

The  cities  of  Jlchaia  also  united  themselves  in  a  league,  and  held  their  com- 
mon assemblies  twice  a  year  at  ./Egium.  In  these  originally  presided  one 
rpajijuarfi)?,  with  two  Sfpar^yot ;  and  at  a  later  period,  one  Zrpanjyoj,  besides 
whom  there  were  ten  A^tovpyoc  to  attend  to  the  public  affairs  of  the  con- 
federacy. 

Cf.  Breiterbauch,  Gescbichte  der  Achier  und  ihres  Bundes.    Leipz.  1782, 

III.  MILITARY    AFFAIRS. 

§  135.  That  warlike  spirit  which,  as  has  been  observed  (§  42),  was  a  main 
trait  in  the  national  character  of  the  early  Greeks,  was  also  conspicuous  in 
their  descendants  of  a  later  period.  This  is  true  of  the  Athenians,  and  more 
emphatically  so  of  the  Spartans,  who  were  inured  to  hardship  by  their  educa- 
tion, bound  by  their  laws  and  their  honor  to  conquer  or  die,  and  inspired  by 
their  whole  national  system  with  a  love  of  war.  These  republics  were  ac- 
cordingly the  refuge  and  protection  of  the  smaller  states  in  their  difficulties. 
The  Thebans,  likewise,  for  a  certain  period,  maintained  the  reputation  of  dis- 
tinguished valor.  Athens  and  Sparta,  however,  were  always  the  rivals  in  this 
respect;  and  although  in  the  war  with  Xerxes  they  agreed  that  Athens  should 
command  the  Grecian  fleet,  and  Sparta  the  land  forces,  yet  they  soon  again  fell 
into  dissension,  and  the  Spartans  stripped  the  Athenians,  for  a  time,  of  that 
naval  superiority,  for  which  the  situation  of  Athens  afforded  the  greatest 
advantages. 

On  Grecian  military  affairs,  see  iVast,  K'dj)het  &c.  cited  §  42. 

§  136.  The  armies  of  the  Greeks  consisted  chiefly  of  free  citizens,  who  were 
early  trained  to  arms,  and,  after  reaching  a  certain  age,  at  Athens  the  twentieth 
year,  were  subject  to  actual  service  in  war.  From  this  duty,  they  were  released 
only  by  the  approaching  weakness  of  age.  At  Athens  the  citizens  were  ex- 
empted from  military  service  at  the  age  of  forty,  except  in  cases  of  extreme 
danger.  Some  were  also  wholly  exempted  on  account  of  their  office  or  employ- 
ment. Of  those  who  were  taken  into  service,  a  written  list  or  roll  was  made 
out,  from  which  circumstance  the  levying  was  termed  xoraypa^,  or  xatdi.oyos 
The  warriors-  maintained  themselves,  and  every  free  citizen  considered  it  a 
disgrace  to  serve  for  pay  ;  for  which  the  spoils  of  victory  were,  in  some  degree, 
a  substitute.  Pericles,  however,  introduced  the  payment  of  a  stipend,  which 
was  raised,  when  necessary,  by  means  of  a  tax  on  the  commonwealth. 

At  first  foot-soldiers  received  two  oboli  a  day  ;  afterwards  four ;  whence  TcrpufiuXov 
0io;  signified  a  soldier's  life,  and  TsrpalioXifav,  to  serve  in  war.  The  pay  of  a  soldier  in 
the  cavalry,  termed  K-ar.ierrwic,  was  a  drachm  a  day  ;  a  seaman  received  the  same,  with 
an  allowance  for  a  servant. 

On  the  methods  of  raising  money  at  Athens  for  extraordinary  expenses,  see  ^  103,  104. On  the  military  regulations,  cf.  Cal- 
mer, Sur  les  loix  milttaires  desGrecs,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlv.  p.  239.— Cf.  §  42. 

§  137.  It  has  already  been  remarked  (§  43),  that  the  Grecian  soldiers  were 
of  three  classes;  footsoldiers  or  infantry,  to  rtf^ixov,  the  cavalry,  to  iq>'  irtTtov; 
and  such  as  were  borne  in  chariots,  to  ity  oxrfidt^v.  The  infantry  comprise^ 
three  kinds  ;  the  ortUtcu,  heavy  armed,  who  carried  a  complete  and  full  armor. 


194  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

and  were  distinguished  particularly  by  a  large  shield  (6rtXov) ;  the  rfeteUrtdt-, 
tanreteers,  who  "bore  light  arms,  particularly  a  small  shield  (jtixttq) ;  and  tho 
4,1*01,  light  armed,  who  had  no  shield  and  used  only  missile  weapons — The 
-war  chariots  were  not  much  used  after  the  introduction  of  cavalry. 

The  chariots,  ler d  5peiravr,<p6poi,  were  sometimes  terribly  iestructive,  being  armed  with 

sythes  wnli  which  w  hole  ranks  of  soldiers  were  sometimes  cut  down.— In  1  late  XVII.  ng.  K, 
one  of  these  chariots  is  presented,  drawn  by  two  horses  which  are  protected  uy  a  covering  of 

mail i,  may  be  worthy  of  remark  here,  that  such  chariots  were  used  by  the  ancient  Britons 

an. I  Belgians  and  are  designated  in  the  Rinnan  writers  by  the  terms  covini  and  essedce.  (Lucun, 
Phars  i  126  -  Tac.  Agric.  xxxvi.— Cms.  Bell.  Gall.  iv.  33.— Mela,  iii.  6.)  "The  comnus  was  a 
terrible  instrument  of  destruction,  being  armed  with  sharp  sythes  and  honks  for  cutting  and 

I ng  all  who  were  so  unhappy  as  to  come  within  its  reach."     R.  Henry,  History  of  Great 

Britain,  cfitst  ed.)  Lend   1771-93.  6  vols.  4. 

§  13*.  The  cavalry  of  the  Greeks  was  not  numerous,  and  consisted  only  of 
citizens  of  the  more  respectable  class,  and  such  as  were  able  (cf.  §  93)  to  maintain 
their  horses.  The  t7trf«s,  therefore,  at  Athens  as  well  as  Sparta,  held  a  high 
rank.  Those  who  wished  to  attain  this  rank  were  first  examined  in  respect 
to  their  bodily  strength  and  other  qualifications,  by  the  senate  and  a  Hipparch 
or  Phularch  (tjirfap^j,  tyVkdpx-qO  appointed  for  the  purpose.  They  were  called 
by  various  names  according  to  the  weapons  of  armor  they  used;  as,  e.  g., 
a%po}3o?u aim,  who  threw  missiles;  gopato^opoi ,  who  carried  spears  or  lances; 
irtTfoTosjorcu,  svG-toipopot,,  *o!'ro<j>opoi,  £>upfo<j>opo!,,  etc.  The  following  articles 
constituted  their  principal  armor:  a  helmet,  broad  plated  girdle,  breastplate,  a 
large  shield,  cuishes,  a  javelin  and  sword. 

The  horsemen,  as  well  as  the  infantry,  were  distinguished  into  the  heavy-armed,  iea- 
r&ppaicTot,  and  light-armed,  pn  Kard^paitroi.  The  former  not  only  were  defended  by  armor 
tin  mselves,  but  al-so  had  their  horses  protected  by  plates  of  brass  or  other  metal,  which 
were  named,  from  the  parts  oi  the  horse  covered  by  them,  Trpoperwniiia,  lrpoarepviiia,  napa- 
fuipi&ta,  Kapawkcvpiiia,  Ttapaxvinfu&ia,  etc.  The  trappings  of  the  horses  were  termed  ipaKapa  ; 
various  and  costly  ornaments,  including  collars,  bells,  and  embroidered  cloths  were 
often  used. — The  At/idxai  were  a  sort  of  dragoon,  instituted  by  Alexander,  designed  to 
serve  either  on  horseback  or  on  foot. — The  "Apipi-mroi  were  such  as  had  two  horses; 
called  also  irTraywyo!,  because  they  led  one  of  their  horses. — After  the  time  of  Alexan- 
der, elephants  were  introduced  from  the  east;  but  they  were  after  a  short  period  laid 
aside,  as  tbey  were  found  too  unmanageable  to  be  relied  upon  with  much  confidence. 
Winn  used,  they  carried  into  battle  large  towers,  containing  from  ten  to  thirty  sol- 
diers, who  could  greatly  annoy  the  enemy  with  missiles,  while  they  were  themselves 
in  comparative  safety. 

Sallicr  ami  Frtrct,  Orig.  de  I'equitatinn  dans  la  Grece,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vii.  33,  2S6.— De  Maizeroy,  La  Civalerie  Grecque 
in  the  same  Mem.  Ike.  xli.  242.— Lurcher,  L'ordre  equestre  chez  les  Grecs.  in  the  same  Mem.  &c.  xlviii.  83. 

§  139.  The  chief  articles  of  armor  used  by  the  Greeks  have  been  already 
described  (§  44,  45),  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  remark  here,  that  in  later  times 
there  were  many  changes,  as  to  the  forms  of  the  articles,  and  the  manner  of 
using  them. 

1.  The  breastplate  (3  'pal)  consisted  of  two  parts,  one  for  a  defence  for  the  back. 
the  other  for  the  breast,  united  al  the  sides  by  a  sort  of  buttons.  When  made  of  two 
continued  pieces  of  metal,  and  on  that  account  inflexible,  it  was  called  S. pa \  ardSioc] 
when  made  of  hide  and  guarded  with  hooks  or  rings,  connected  as  in  a  chain,  it  was 
called  ;  '.  i>  o-iduTdi  ;  il  guarded  with  plates  like  the  scales  of  a  fish,  it  was  called 
>-'s.  The  tijudiopaiciov  protected  only  the  front  part  of  the  body  ;  Alexander 
allowed  only  this  to  his  soldiers — Within  the  Supa}:,  and  next  to  the  skin  the  Greeks 
ore  often  a  defensive  armor  of  brass  lined  witlt  wool,  which  wrfs  termed  uirpij. 
Cf.  Horn.  II.  iv.  137,  187. 

The  Vuirax  i«  seen  in  fig.  r,  of  Plate XXII. ;  also  on  the  warrior,  fig.  7.  In  fig.  5,  the  thorax  seems  to  be  guarded  with  plates  like 
the  scale,  )f  a  firh  ;  also  in  Plate  XXXIV   6g.  b. 

.'.  The  shield  (.i<nri4-)  when  of  wood  was  made  of  the  lightest  kind,  as  willow,  beach, 
poplar,  &c.  When  made  of  hide  (aenrhhe  06stat),  there  were  usually  several  thicknesses 
covered  with  a  plate  or  plates  ol  metal.  Its  chief  parts  were  the  outer  edge  or  cir- 
cumferenci  ■«,,  irepuptpeia ;  the  boss  or  prominent  part  in  the   middle, 

^"/"''  :  the   thong  of  leather  by  which  it  was  attached  to  the  shoulders, 

rtkap  '11  ;  the  rings  by  which  it  was  held  in  the  hands,  irfywaires,  for  which  the  handle, 
Ittavov,  consisting  "I  two  small  bars  placed  crosswise,  was  afterwards  substituted.  Lit- 
tle bells  were  sometimes  hung  upon  the  shields  to  increase  the  terror  occasioned  by 
■baking  them.  Edy/w  was  the  name  of  a  covering,  designed  to  protect  the  shield  from 
injury  when  nol  in  actual  use.  the  word  also  designates  a  packsaddle.  Various  epi- 
t'le's  are  applied  to  shields;  dp<pt0p6TOs,  dvipopfiKtis,  irodnniKtis,  indicative  of  size;  hvmcXot, 


PLATE     X  X 1 1. 


196  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

■raiTort  'cat,  of  shape.  The  Tiffov  was  in  the  shape  of  a  rhombus,  and  fust  used  bj 
the  Persiaii.~:  the  6vpc6s  was  oblong  and  bent  inward;  the  Aacniov  was  composed  of 
hides  wnli  the  hail  on,  and  was  very  light;  the  Ylekrn  was  small  and  light,  and,  ac- 
cording 10  some,  shaped  like  a  half-moon. 

In  Pla  e  XXII.  are  several  forms  of  shields ;  see  fig.  3,  fig.  4,  fig.  7.  See  also  Plate  XXX.  fig.  1,  fig.  4  ;  and  Plate  XXXIII.  fig.  I, 
fig.  2. 

3.  Besides  the  offensive  weapons  which  have  already  been  named  (see  J  45,  and  Plate  XVII.), 
w  .■  may  mention  the  poniard,  called  «rapaf((j>i<Jioi',  lyxctpiitnv,  and  pd\a(na;  it  answered  the 
purpose  "i'a  knife.  In  later  ages,  the  dxtvaxtii  was  borrowed  from  the  Persians.  This  has  gene- 
rail)  been  considered  as  curved,  and  has  usually  been  translated  ctmiter ;  in  Smith's  Dictionary 
it  is  contended,  thai  it  was  straight  like  the  dagger;  the  writer  quotes  Josephus  (Jtnt.Jud.  xx. 
7-10)  as  saving  of  the  assassins  who  infested  Jndea  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  that 
"they  used  riasgers  in  size  resembling  the  Persian  acvnaces,  but  curved,  and  like  those 
u  In.  h  the  Romans  called  sicrr,  and  from  which  robbers  and  murderers  are  called  sicaiii ;''  the 
acinaets  seems  to  have  been  worn  on  the  right  side.  The  minis  or  falchion  iensis  falcatus)  was 
also  used  in  battle;  as  was  likewise  the  battle-ax,  a^ivrt,  and  the  niXcuvs.  The  Macedonians 
had  a  peculiar  kind  ctflang  spear,  called  adpiaaa  The  club  of  wood  or  iron,  Kiipvvr),  was  a  wea- 
pon of  early  times.  —  We  may  mention  among  the  offensive  weapons  the  -trvpofioXui  XiOoi,  fire- 
balls:  one  kind  (acvrdXta)  were  made  of  wood  and  armed  with  spikes  of  iron,  under  which  were 
fixed  hemp,  pitch,  and  other  combustibles;  these,  being  set  on  fire,  were  hurled  into  the  ranks 
of  the  enemy. 

In  Plate  XVII.  fig.  C,  is  the  /idxatoa ;  in  Plate  XXXIII.  fig.  4,  we  see  hanging  at  the  right  thi?jh  the  weapon  which  the  writer 
mentioned  above  considers  as  the  dfCivdKijc ;  the  same  is  seen  in  the  hand  of  Mithras,  in  the  Sup.  Piate  9 ;  cf.  also  fig.  B,  in  Plate 
XVII. 

On  the  various  articles  of  armor,  see  Foibroke's  Encyclopaedia.— S.  R.  Meyrick,  Critical  Inquiry  into  Ancient  Armor,  &c.  with  a 
Glossary  of  Names  of  the  Arms  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Lond.  1624.  3  vols.  4 ;  a  work  which  may  be  recommended  to  Ihe  student 
desirous  of  full  information  on  this  subject. 

§  140.  The  commanders  of  the  armies  were  in  early  times  the  king's  them- 
selves, although  at  the  same  time  certain  men,  eminently  brave,  were  appointed 
to  be  pokmarchs  or  generals.  Subsequently  each  tribe  chose  its  own  com- 
mander, who  was  called  atpatrjyoc.  At  Athens  it  became  customary  to  appoint 
ten,  who  had  equal  power,  and  who  held  the  chief  command  one  day  each  in 
regular  rotation,  when  they  took  the  field  together.  Over  these  was  a  pole- 
march,  whose  opinion  was  decisive  in  the  war-council,  when  there  was  an 
equal  division  among  them;  at  a  later  period,  however,  this  officer  (noxi^apxai) 
had  no  share  in  military  affairs  (§  101). — There  were  also  ten  taxiarchs, 
roijiap^oi,  subordinate  to  the  otpafrjyoL ;  their  duty  was  to  put  the  army  in  array 
for  battle,  mark  out  the  camp,  regulate  the  order  of  march,  and  in  general 
attend  to  the  preservation  of  discipline.  Subordinate  also  to  the  Slrategi  were 
the  two  generals  of  the  horse,  irtrtap^oi,,  who  had  under  them  ten  rpvXap^oi,  one 
nominated  by  each  tribe.  There  were  also  inferior  officers,  as  /o^ayoi,  ^ifa'ap- 
xoi,  txarrWap^ot.,  SfxaSap^ot,  rtf^trtaSap^ot,  the  names  being  derived  from  the 
number  of  men  commanded  by  them. 

§  Ml.  The  whole  army  was  called  orpa-fta;  the  front,  ftfrtortov  or  rtp^tos 
£iry6s ;  the  wings,  zf'para;  the  rear,  orpa  or  trj^aroj  £i>y6s.  The  smallest  divi- 
sion, consisting  of  five  men,  was  called  a  rttfxrtuc ;  a  Tio^oj  contained  from  ten 
to  a  hundred  men,  according  to  different  circumstances ;  and  a  r a£t£,  a  hundred, 
or  a  hundred  and  twenty-eight. 

The  Tiift?  was  also  called  L-aTovraoxia.  Each  division  of  this  sort  had  five  attendants, 
who  (eitraKroi)  did  not  serve  in  the  ranks ;  viz.  the  orparofrijpuf,  who  reported  ihe  officer's 
commands  to  the  soldiers;  the  o-^aoipopof,  who  conveyed  the  ensigns,  signals,  or 
watchwords;  the  cahnymiis,  a  trumpeter ;  the  itrnp^rn,  who  supplied  the  membeis  of 
the  division  with  necessaries;  and  the  Avpaydf,  whose  business  was  to  see  that  none 
of  the  number  were  left  behind. 

Sue  ii|  ihe  larger  divisions;  avvraypa,  consisting  of  two  ™£nc,  or  256  men  ;  irevra- 
Koatai,\iti,  two  uivrayitara,  or  512  men  ;  \iXiap\ia,  two  of  the  last,  or  1024  men;  Mspaficia, 
"'  'I    ';     twice    ihe  preceding,  or    2048  men;  <t>aXayyap\ia,  or  Srparrjyt'a  sometimes, 

twice  the  TeXoj,  or  4C96  men  ;  the  commander  of  the  latter  was  called  orpaTijydc. 

The  ici in  $aXay{  signifies  sometimes  a  body  of  twenty-eight  soldiers;  some- 
times  a  body  of  4000,  as  jusl  mentioned;  and  sometimes  any  number  of  troops  in 
fecial  Yd  n  issaid,  thai  a  lull  or  complete  Phalanx  contained  four  times  the  num- 
ber included  in  ihe  <paXayyap\ia,  above  named,  i.  e.  16,384  men. 

§  1  13.  \\  bile  the  term  $u-Xay%  is  often  used  in  a  general  sense  for  any  num- 
ber of  soldiers,  it  is  employed  also  to  signify  a  peculiar  order  of  arrangement 
in  a  rectangular  form,  which  gave  the  body  strength  to  resist  a  great  shock; 
the  Macedonians  wen  especially  celebrated  for  using  it  to  advantage. — The 
fa/3t&iw  was  the  same  with  the  Roman  cuneus,  an  arrangement  in  the  form  of  a 


P.  Ill       MILITARY  AFFAIRS.       THE  PHALANX.       HERALDS.       CAMPS.         197 

wedge,  in  order  to  force  a  way  more  easily  and  further  into  the  midst  ot  au 
enemj. —  Wheeling,  turning,  or  facing,  was  called  x%urA$;  to  the  right,  itti  dopu, 
the  spear  heing  in  the  right  hand  ;  to  the  left,  ix  dartioa,  the  shield  beino- 
held  in  the  left.  Turning  completely  about  was  termed  /tstfa/Joto}. — The  Greeks 
oossessed  great  skill  and  readiness  in  manoeuvres,  and  had  teachers  of  the  art, 
raxrixoi,  who  instructed  the  youth  in  the  practice. 

1.  Various  forms  were  given  to  the  </>«Xay|,  some  of  which  were  not  rectangular  ;  as 
the  tniKanTrris  </>''Xuy£,  which  presented  the  form  of  a  half-moon,  and  was  also  called 
Kvprrj  and  Kui\rj  •  pofipoadfis  <p<i\ay£,  which  was  in  the  figure  of  a  diamond.  In  the  pha- 
lanx, 5'jyoi  signified  the  ranks,  taken  according  to  its  length,  /»)?koj;  arixoi  (also  A6xo<) 
the  files  taken  according  to  its  depth,  (S.'iOog. — Another  order  of  array  for  battle  was  the 
jt\iu6iov,  brick,  a  rectangular  presenting  its  length  to  the  enemy. — The  wiipyoj,  tower, 
was  the  same  form,  with  its  width  or  the  end  of  the  rectangle  towards  the  enemy. — 
The  TrXai'aioi'  seems  to  have  been  an  exact  square  or  nearly  so. — The  KoiXcpfioXov  was  a 
figure  like  the  letter  V,  with  the  open  part  toward  the  enemy. — The  iXij  was  in  the 
form  of  an  egg,  according  to  which  the  Thessalians  usually  arranged  their  cavalry.— 
Of  the  various  terms  applied  to  manoeuvring  or  evolutions  we  add  only  the  following; 
tfcAiy/iof,  a  countermarch,  by  which  every  soldier,  one  marching  after  another,  changed 
the  front  for  the  rear,  or  one  flank  for  another;  (JiTAucriacr^o;,  an  enlarging  of  the  body, 
either  by  adding  men  or  by  extending  the  same  number  over  a  great  space. 

2.  The  term  i'Ar;,  sometimes  applied  as  above  mentioned,  to  designate  a  certain  order  of  array, 
was  generally  used  to  signify  a  body  of  cavalry  ;  a  troop  sometimes  consisting  of  64  horsemen. 
Two  such  troops  constituted  the  iiri\ap\ia,  containing  128  men;  eight  of  them  formed  the 
tirirapxin,  containing  512  men  ;  four  of  the  last  named  formed  the  TtAoj  of  the  cavalry,  including 
2048  men  ;  and  two  riXrj  made  the  'Eirirayita,  comprising  4096  men. 

3.  It  may  be  remarked  that  among  the  Lacedaemonians,  the  whole  army  was  divided  into  pdpai 
Which  contained  originally  only  4(10  men  each,  but  afterwards  a  larger  number,  and  variable. 
Each  pdpa  consisted  of  four  X6\ut.  The  Trevrr/Kooris  was  one-half  of  the  X6\oi  ;  and  one-half 
of  the  ire.vTr)Ki)OTvs  was  termed  ei/ioporia,  including  25  men;  the  latter  body  is  said  by  some  to 
have  contained  thirty-two  or  tliirty-six  men. 

The  earliest  ancient  works  which  treat  expressly  of  Grecian  tactics  are  those  of  Arr'a.  \nd  iEIian  ;  cf.  P.  V.  $  250,  §  253. 

§  143.  The  declaration  of  war  usually  began  wwh  a  demand  made  by  the 
injured  or  offended  party  through  deputies  for  reparation  or  satisfaction.  Un- 
expected hostile  invasion  was  viewed  as  unrighteous  warfare;  it  was  justified 
only  Dy  great  and  wanton  injuries.  The  most  respectable  men  were  selected 
for  the  ambassadors  and  heralds,  and  their  persons  were  regarded  as  sacred 
and  inviolable. 

1  u.  The  heralds  (icripwEs)  carried  a  staff  wound  with  two  serpents  (xripvKsiov),  and 
were  usually  charged  only  with  messages  of  peace,  while  the  ambassadors  or  deputies 
(tcpfoflzis)  were  accustomed  also  to  threaten  and  to  announce  war.  The  power  of  ambas- 
sadors was  limited  in  different  degrees  a!  different  times  (cf.  §  102). The  leagues  or 

agreements  entered  into  were  either  (1)  o-7iwrV;,  a  treaty  of  peace  or  mutual  cessation 
from  injuries,  called  also  o-w9(j/cr),  tipfivr)  •  (2)  i-mjia\ia,  a  treaty  of  mutual  defence  ;  or 
(3)  <T"iip.a\.ia,  an  alliance  both  defensive  and  offensive,  in  which  the  parties  engaged  to 
aid  each  other,  not  only  when  attacked,  but  also  when  they  themselves  commenced 
the  war.  Such  treaties  were  confirmed  by  the  most  solemn  oaths,  written  upon 
tablets  and  placed  in  public  view.  Sometimes  the  parties  exchanged  certain  tokens 
or  evidences  (a%/?oAa)  of  the  compact. 

2  a.  Before  actually  declaring  war,  it  was  customary  to  consult  an  oracle.  The  war 
was  commenced  with  sacrifices  and  vows.  Scrupulous  attention  was  also  paid  by  the 
Greeks  to  omens  and  seasons. 

3.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  was  a  fatal  sign  ;  the  Athenians  would  not  march  before 
the  seventh  day,  tirdc  c/Jrid^c,  nor  the  Lacedaemonians  until  full  moon. 

§  144.  In  addition  to  what  has  already  been  said  (§,  48)  on  the  construction 
of  camps,  it  may  be  here  remarked,  that  the  form  of  them  was  often  changed 
according  to  circumstances.  The  Lacedaemonians,  however,  always  adhered 
to  the  circular  form  in  their  camps,  as  well  as  their  cities.  The  bravest  troops 
were  usually  placed  on  the  extremities  or  wings,  and  the  weakest  in  the  centre 
or  interior.  A  particular  part  of  the  camp  was  appropriated  for  the  worship 
of  the  gods,  and  for  holding  councils  of  war  and  military  courts.  The  guards 
were  divided  into  the  day-watches,  4>va.ox(u  yj/xtpwai,  and  the  night-watches, 
rptAaxtxi,  tnjxrfp[.vat.  The  advanced  posts,  or  outer  guards,  were  called 
rtporjuAajccu.  The  nightly  round  of  visiting  the  watch  was  called  iq>o&iia,  and 
those  who  performed  it,  rffptrtokot,  and  the  guard-house,  rfsptrto^ftoi/. 

§  145.  Before  a  battle  the  soldiers  were  usually  refreshed  by  eating  ano 
drinking,  immediately  after  which  the  commanders  ordered  them  to  action.- 


198  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

When  very  near  the  point  of  engaging,  the  generals  addressed  the  army  is 
animating  speeches,  which  often  produced  great  effects.  Then  followed  the 
sacrifice^the  vow,  and  the  war-song  (rtaicw  spjSatjptos),  a  hymn  to  Mars — 
The  sinus  used  in  the  field  were  either  c^/ma,  regular  ensigns  and  standards, 
or  ovpP&M,  particular  signals,  commonly  understood  or  specially  agreed  upon 
for  the  occasion. 

1  n  The  spec  ial  signals,  avp0o\a,  were  either  audible  {tywviKa),  such  as  watchwords 
lowOii'uaTa.) :  or  visible  (opara),  such  as  nodding  the  head,  waving  the  hand,  shaking  the 
armor,  and  the  like  (>rapa<rov%ara).  The  or/pcta  or  standards  were  of  various  kinds; 
some  being  merely  a  red  or  purple  coat  upon  the  top  of  a  spear;  others  having  an 
image  of  a  bird,  animal,  or  other  object.  The  raising  of  the  standard  was  a  signal  to 
commence  battle,  and  the  lowering  of  it  to  desist.  Anciently  the  signal  lor  battls 
was  given  by  lighted  torches  being  hurled  by  the  persons  appointed  (itvp<p6pot).  Af- 
t.  rwards  il  was  done  by  blasts  of  sound,  for  which  shells  (/rdxXoi)  were  first  used,  and 
then  brazen  trumpets  ((rdXjrjyysj)  of  several  different  kinds. 

2  u.  The  Lacedaemonians  usually  advanced  to  action  by  the  sound  of  the  flute  ;  yet 
we  ,,.  agine,  that  the  marching  of  the  Greeks  was  as  regular  and  as  conform- 
able to  music,  as  the  modern.  Most  of  them  were  rather  in  the  habit  of  rushing  to 
battle  with  impetuosity  and  clamor  (dXaXay^os,  dim;). 

§  146.  The  art  of  besieging  arose  first  in  the  later  times  of  Greece,  because 
the  cities  were  not  previously  fortified  with  walls.  Nor  were  the  later  Greeks, 
especially  'he  Lacedaemonians,  very  much  in  the  habit  of  laying  regular 
sieges.  The  two  principal  points  of  proceeding  in  the  siege  of  a  city,  were 
the  construction  of  the  entrenchment  around  it,  and  the  gathering  and  use  of 
military  engines  about  it.  Connected  with  these  were  efforts  to  scale  the  walls 
of  the  city"  by  ladders  (tjttjSa'flpai,  xxlfxaxi j)  and  to  undermine  their  founda- 
tions.— An  entrenchment  around  the  city  was  called  rtfpt-ffi^t^ioj,  or  arto-m- 
Ziopbs,  and  consisted  usually  of  a  double  wall  of  stone  or  turf.  In  the  space 
between  the  walls  were  shelters  for  the  garrison  and  the,  sentinels.  Above  the 
walls  were  turrets  or  pinnacles  (frtax|sij),  and  after  every  tenth  pinnacle  a 
large  tower  was  constructed,  extending  across  from  one  wall  to  the  other.  The 
parapet  of  the  wall  was  termed  ^tipai  or  §updxt,ov. 

§  147.  Most  of  the  military  engines  of  the  Greeks  (pdyav a,  ju^cwm)  were 
of  a  comparatively  late  invention,  and  seem  to  have  been  introduced  first  about 
the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  One  of  the  principal  was  the  geXuvq,  the 
testudo  or  tortoise;  so  called  because  the  soldiers  were  covered  by  it  as  a  tor- 
toise by  its  shell. 

1  a.  The  testudo  was  of  several  kinds.  The  %tX6vri  aTpariwrdv  was  formed  by  the 
soldiers,  pressed  close  together  and  holding  their  shields  over  their  heads  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  a  compact  covering.  It  was  also  formed  of  boards,  united  and 
covered  with  metals;  this  was  either  of  a  square  f  rm,  as  the  x£^''""7  Xbmrp'ls,  which 
served  to  protect  ihe  soldiers,  while  they  were  preparing  the  ground  in  order  to  bring 
up  their  military  engines,  or  of  a  triangular  form,  as  ihe  x^:,,v  8pv%,  for  the  protection 
01  such  as  were  undermining  the  walls. — Another  instrument  for  similar  purposes  was 
called  the  ]  'i  i'j"'.  made  of  twigs  of  willow  like  the  Roman  vinea,  and  held  by  the  sol- 
diers over  the  head. 

2  m.  The  Xfojia  was  a  mound  composed  of  various  materials  and  raised  very  high, 
often  above  the  besieged  walls. — There  were  also  moveable  towers  (m<pyoi),  made  of 
wood  and  usually  placed  upon  the  y'yu ;  they  were  rolled  on  wheels  and  had  often 
several  stories,  containing  soldiers  and  engines. — rl  he  battering-ram  (*pios)  was  a  strong 
beam  with  an  iron  head  (ip0o\>i)  in  front  resembling  that  of  a  ram,  which  the  soldiers 
thrust  against  the  enemy's  walls;  it  was  often  hung  by  ropes  to  another  beam,  so  that 
it  could  he  thrust  with  greater  force,  and  sometimes  was  placed  on  wheels  and  covered 
with  a  ■,  -  vi  .  The  (rartniXrai  were  engines  for  hurling  missiles,  stones,  and  the  like 
upon  the  i  nemj  ;  those  which  discharged  arrows,  being  termed  dfu/Mcif,  and  those 
which  CBS)  sloc.es.  XiOn.l  ,\<n  or  niTpofitikoi. 

Dionysiiis  Bicullis  (xx.  48,  80)  sponks  of  the  latter  engines  as  sometimps  capable  of  throwing 
■tones  of  one  hundred  weight  (XiOo/JoXos  raXuiriaios),  and  even  of  three  hundred  weight  (mrpo- 
U6\fif  Tp.ralaVTtaioi). 

'A.  Ths  T>'-'i*<s  was  a  machine,  not  unlike  the  battering-ram,  but  of  greater  size 
'i  id  fori  e,  driven  with  ropes  and  wheels.  This  name  (eXhtoXis,  city-taker) -was  first  ap- 
ohed  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  to  a  machine  invented  by  him,  in  ihe  form  of  a  square 
tower :  each  side  being  ninety  cubits  high  and  forty-five  wide  ;  resting  on  four  wheels ; 
divided  into  nine  stories,  winch  each  contained  engines  for  throwing  spears,  stones, 
and  various  missiles;  manned  by  200  soldiers.     Cf.  Diod.  Sic.  xx.  48. — The  Tpforava 


f.  III.  MILITARY   AFFAIRS.       SIEGES.       PUNISHMENTS.  199 

were  long  irons  with  sharp  enas,  and  were  the  instruments  chiefly  used  in  earlier 
periods  for  demolishing  the  walls  of  a  city. 

§  148.  In  the  defence  of  a  besieged  city  the  following  are  the  things  most 
worthy  of  remark.  Soldiers,  armed  with  various  means  of  defending  them- 
selves and  annoying  the  enemy,  were  stationed  on  the  walls  of  the  city.  The 
greater  military  engines  were  planted  within  the  walls,  and  hurled  arrows, 
stones,  and  pieces  of  timber  upon  the  besiegers.  The  mines  of  the  besiegers 
were  opposed  by  counter-mines,  and  their  entrenchments  and  mounds  were 
undermined.  Their  various  engines  were  broken,  set  on  fire,  or  embarrassed 
in  operation  by  different  contrivances  on  the  part  of  the  besieged. 

§  149.  On  the  taking  of  a  city,  the  captors  did  not  always  treat  the  citizens 
and  the  property  in  the  same  way.  Sometimes  the  buildings  were  demolished, 
and  all  the  inhabitants  put  to  death,  or  at  least  those  in  arms,  while  the  rest 
(di^juafaoroe.,  Sopvd'kiotot)  were  reduced  to  slavery.  But  sometimes  favor  was 
shown,  and  nothing  but  the  payment  of  a  tribute  exacted.  Sometimes  new 
settlers  were  planted  in  the  conquered  city.  Whenever  the  city  was  demo- 
lished, it  was  customary  to  curse  the  spot  on  which  it  stood,  and  not  even 
cultivate  the  soil. 

§  150.  The  booty  or  spoils  on  such  a  capture,  or  after  a  battle,  consisted 
partly  in  the  military  stores,  and  partly  in  other  things,  which  were  the  pro- 
perty of  the  conquered  party.  These,  when  taken  from  the  slain,  were  termed 
rmiXa;  if  from  the  living,  xufvpa.  The  whole  (tWpa)  was  brought  to  the 
commander-in-chief,  who  first  took  a  large  portion  for  himself,  then  assigned 
rewards  to  such  as  had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  action,  and  afterwards 
distributed  the  remainder  equally  among  the  soldiers.  First  of  all,  however, 
a  portion  was  set  apart  for  the  service  of  the  gods,  which  was  called  dxpo#i,Vca. 
The  armor  of  the  conquered  was  also  often  dedicated  to  the  gods,  and  hung  up 
in  their  temples;  this  was  the  case  sometimes  even  with  the  weapons  of  the 
victors,  when  they  designed  to  terminate  their  military  career.  Thank-offer- 
ings were  also  presented,  and  trophies  (tporfaia)  erected,  which  were  likewise 
dedicated  to  the  gods;  statues  also  and  other  monuments  were  raised  to  com- 
memorate victories. 

An  inscription  (iiriypaiiiia)  was  often  attached  to  the  trophy,  or  offering  presented  to  the  god, 
or  other  monument,  containing  the  names  of  the  conquerors  and  the  conquered,  an  account  of 
the  spoils,  and  sometimes  of  the  occurrences  of  the  war.  The  trunk  of  a  tree,  especially  an 
olive,  was  often  used  for  the  purpose  of  a  trophy,  the  emblems  of  victory  being  hung  upon  it. — 
Alexander  the  Oreat,  abiding  by  a  law  of  the  Macedonians,  never  raised  a  trophy  ;  yet  he  erected 
other  monuments  of  his  successes;  among  them  were  altars  to  the  gods,  very  broad  and  lofty 
A  representation  of  the  tropaum  is  given  in  Plate  XXII.  fig.  4. 

§  151.  There  was  a  careful  regard  to  order  and  discipline  in  the  Greek 
armies,  and  various  rewards  and  punishments  were  established.  Among  the 
lewards  were  promotion  to  higher  rank,  conferring  of  garlands  or  other  distinc- 
tions, and  also  the  funeral  honors  and  the  encomiums,  which  were  bestowed 
on  the  brave  warrior.  At  Athens  public  provision  was  made  for  the  widows 
and  children  of  those  slain  in  battle,  and  also  for  those  who  were  injured  by 
wounds  (dcaWrot,).  The  children  of  such  as  valiantly  died  were  also  honored 
sometimes  with  the  first  seats  (rfpoto'pi.'cu.)  at  the  theatres. — The  severest  of  the 
punishments,  death,  was  always  inflicted  on  deserters,  duro^o^oi.  Such  as 
refused  to  serve,  aatpufivtoL,  such  as  quitted  their  ranks,  XfirfoT'dx-rcu,  and  such 
as  threw  away  their  shields,  fa^aaiti&f j,  were  subject  to  civil  degradation.  At 
Athens  they  were  not  permitted  to  enter  the  temples  or  public  assemblies,  and 
were  also  fined  in  the  court  Heliaea.  In  Sparta  they  were  exposed  to  still 
deeper  disgrace,  which  extended  even  to  their  whole  family  ;  it  was  so  great 
that  their  mothers  often  stabbed  them  at  their  first  meeting  afterwards. 

§  152.  The  Greeks  employed  various  means  for  conveying  intelligence.  They 
had  a  class  of  messengers  or  runners,  called  {ijiepoipdjioi,  who  carried  news  and  official 
commands;  they  went  lightly  armed. — A  contrivance  much  celebrated  was  the  La 
cedaenionian  owurd\>7.  This  was  a  roll  of  white  parchment  or  leather  (ify/ia,  i/iay),  wrap 
ped  round  a  black  stick,  about  four  cubits  in  length.  The  general  always  received  a 
s'ick  of  ibis  sort,  of  the  same  size  with  another  kept,  by  the  magistrates  or  govern 
ment.  When  any  command  or  intelligence  was  to  be  conveyed,  a  strip  of  parchment 
was  rolled  on  the  staff,  and  on  this  was  written  what  the  person  wished  to  communi 


200  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES 

cate  ;  the  strip  was  then  sent  to  the  general,  who  applied  it  to  his  own  stick,  and  thus 
could  read  what,  otherwise,  woidd  be  wholly  unintelligible. 

§  153.  Before  proceeding  now  to  notice  the  naval  affairs  of  the  Greeks,  we 
may  allude  to  their  method  of  passing  rivers  with  their  armies.  It  was  usually 
by  means  of  boats  (^fcuou)  or  small  vessels  joined  together  so  as  to  form  a  sort 
of  bridge  (yt$vpa),  like  that  which  the  Persians  under  the  command  of  Xerxes 
threw  over  the  Hellespont.  In  order  to  hold  these  vessels  fast,  large  baskets 
or  boxes,  filled  with  stone,  were  sunk  in  the  stream,  which  thus  answered  the 
purpose  of  anchors.  Anchors  were  also  sometimes  used.  It  was  only  in  the 
greatest  emergencies  that  they  carried  forward  with  them  these  boats,  having 
taken  them  in  pieces.  Sometimes  such  bridges  were  made  by  means  of  large 
casks  and  leathern  bottles. 

I>  iritis  is  said  to  have  thrown  a  bridge  across  thejhracian  Bosphorus  (Herod,  iv.  83,  85).  Ths.c 
of  Xer.vcs  over  the  Hellespont  was  built  between  Abydos  on  the  one  side  and  Sesios  on  the 
other  (Herod,  vii.  36). 

§  154.  The  use  of  ships  in  the  wars  of  the  Greeks  has  been  already  mention- 
ed (§  47).  Vessels  of  war  (srti'xiorfoi,  xui7ivj\y/f)  differed  in  their  structure  from 
the  other  kinds,  especially  from  ships  of  burden  (utocaofj.  tyopirjyoi)  which  were 
of  an  oval  form,  with  broader  bottoms.  They  were  usually  such  as  had  three 
benches  of  rowers,  called  tpirjpeis  {triremes,  cf.  §  304),  and  hence  this  term  is 
often  used  to  signify  merely  vessels  of  war.  Before  the  vessel  was  launched, 
it  was  purified  and  consecrated  by  the  priests.  Commonly,  each  vessel  singly, 
sometimes  a  whole  fleet,  was  committed  to  the  protection  of  a  particular  god. 
The  ensign  or  standard  (rfapaa^uov),  by  which  one  ship  .as  distinguished  from 
another,  was  placed  in  the  forepart.  Each  vessel  had  its  own  name,  which 
was  usually  taken  from  its  ensign  or  flag,  and  was  also  inscribed  on  the  prow. 

$  155.  We  will  introduce  here  some  of  the  names  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  ship  and  the  tackling.  The  Arabic  numerals  attached  to  some  ol  t lie 
terms  in  the  following  description  are  intended  to  correspond  to  those  in  fig.  A,  of  our 
Plate  XXIII.,  indicating  the  place  of  the  parts  named,  according  to  HolwtlV s  plan  of 
a  hexireme. 

1.  The  principal  parts  of  a  ship  were  three,  the  prow  ox  front,  -npi'ipa,  jitrumov;  the 
middle,  or  body,  /iwfaoiAos,  yaarpa;  and  the  stern,  Trpv/tva1,  d-ph. — The  prow  was  more 
or  less  adorned,  not  only  by  the  figures  and  images  placed  on  it,  but  by  the  colors 
painted  on  it,  from  which  were  derived  such  epithets  as  piXromipnoi,  Kvavtp(io\oi,  &c.  The 
sides  of  it  were  termed  impa  and  rrapual.  The  ordAo,-  was  a  long  plank  at  the  head  of 
the  prow,  at  the  extremity  of  which  some  of  the  principal  ornaments,  dicp6via,  dupoard- 
Aio8,  were  fixed.  The  m-ux's10  was  a  round  piece  of  wood  also  attached  to  the  prow, 
on  which  the  name  of  the  ship  was  inscribed  ;  it  was  sometimes  called  d</j0aA/^>j.  The 
XivioKos  was  the  figure  of  a  goose  upon  the  prow;  near  the  water,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  some,  but  by  others  assigned  to  a  higher  part.  The  i'p0o\oi>1^  was  the  lower 
portion  of  the  prow,  which  projected  forward,  and  in  war  gallies  was  fitted  to  strike 
into  the  ships  of  the  enemy.  Behind  this,  and  just  below  the  or6\o;,  was  the  irapdari- 
mv  or  ensign,  some  image  carved  or  painted. To  the  middle  belonged  the  follow- 
ing parts;  the  rp&ris'  or  onipri,  keel  at  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  narrow  and  sharp,  to  cut 
the  waves,  with  the  acfXrfopaTa,  wedges  or  bilgeways,  attached  to  it,  for  guarding  the 
ship's  bottom:  </m\/«j,  limber,  containing  the  bilgewater,  conveyed  out  by  the  pump, 
dvrXia;  the  «-oi'A/j,  hold  (called  also  Kvroq,  and  yaarpa),  surrounded  by  ribs  or  planks 
rising  from  the  keel,  vofius  or  tyraiAio;  the  ^uariipcj,  or  mo^'para,  rafters,  or  ropes,  on 

of  the  ship  from  prow  to  stern;  the  toXxoi  and  triwAia'  seats  for  the 
rowers  situated  on  the  sides  one  above  another;  the  rpn^ara  or  d<p6a\po\5  openings 
through  which  the  oars  were  put  out ;  the  Haxuipa,  a  skin  or  the  like,  which  lined  the 
opi  rungs;  sometimes  there  was  one  continued  opening  for  the  oars,  called  rpa^l,  a 

term  applied  also  to  the  bulwark  or  upper  part  of  it. The  stern  had  ornamental 

images,  called  dxpovia,  in  common  with  those  on  the  prow,  but  termed  distinctively, 
ap\anru'\  I',,  ihe  stem  was  also  attached  the  ixirpmh11,  the  tutela  or  safeguard  of  the 
ship.  Its  bow  was  termed  tmaeiw,  and  the  planks  composing  it,  Trtpn6vcia.  The  mid- 
dle of  the  stern  was  named,  dodvdiov.  The  decks,  iiepta,  were  covered  parts  at  the 
prow  and  siern  ;  the  $uya  were  the  rowers'  seats  in  the  middle  and  open  parts. 

2.  Some  ..I  the  principal  instruments  (aratijj)  in  navigating  vessels  may  be  mentioned 
here;  they  are  included  under  two  divisions,  the  wooden  (oxeir,  $v\iva)  and  the  hanging 
*$cs61*J  '  '" '  ■"  ,v  "  '•  l,l(|dcr,  fixed  not  directly  in  the  stern,  but  on  the  side  of 
i. .o- ship,  and  near  the  stern.  In  the  later  periods,  two  rudders  were  used,  one  being 
placed,  ii  IB  supposed,  mar  the  prow  (hence  Wit?  ri^iirp'yivoi) ;  sometimes  there  were 
(our,  one  ..ii  each  sale  of  prow  and  stern.  The  parts  of  the  rudder  were  &ajf,  <p6Ap, 
t't&yioi,  dwrtx,  *u/m£.— The  Iwh,  iympa,  anchor;  first  a  stone  bored  in  the  midrUe,  or 


PLATE     XXIII. 


<202  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

a  basket  filled  with  stones ;  afterwards  made  of  iron  with  teeth,  6S6vtss,  fastening  it  to 
the  earth:  the  largest  ol  a  ship's  anchors  was  called  hpa,  and  hence  0a\\ui>  ayievgat 
Icpav  obtained  its  proverbial  sense,  to  resort  to  the  last  refuge.  The  cables  attached  to 
the  anchors,  were  ireioyiara,  or  K.tprjXoi  ;  ropes  for  towing  were  termed  piijiara,  oXkoi; 
those  for  binding  a  vessel  to  the  shore,  vpn/ivfiota. — The  nomai  and  epa-pol,  oars,  having  a 
broad  part  covered  with  metal  (-Vm,),  and  hung  upon  pieces  of  wood  called  maK^o'i,  by 
leathern  thongs,  rpirroi. — The  'urrd;16,  mast,  fixed  in  a  hole  (/iarorJ/nj),  in  the  middle  of  the 
ship;  capable  of  being  taken  down  and  put  in  a  case  (lortxifaij) ;  having  several  parts, 

'.",  ixpiov,  t/kaKarri.  The  KipaTai,  or  Kspara18,  were  the 
crosspieces  or  yards,  fixed  to  the  mast ;  the  dK-poxipaia  were  the  extremities  of  the  yards. 
The  i'--i'i'7.  sails  (called  also  686vai,  appiva),  including  particular  ones  distinctively  named, 
as  fat'&WHuj,  mizen-sail;  ebcariov,  main-sail  (d/cartou  also  signifies  a  small  vessel,  like  a  pi- 
rate', p-sail ;  <'"A  <>r.  sprit-sail. — The eppa, Se/isAios,  ballast. — The /Mi'?,  the  lead 
for  soundin"-. — The  kovtoI,  poles  for  pushing  the  vessels  from  rocks. — The  dirofiiidpa,, 
bridges,  or  stairs,   to  pass  from   ship  to  shore,  or  from  vessel  to  vessel  (called  also 

7.111  and  dvaftadpai). — The  term  c«rAa  was  applied  to  the  rigging  generally. — The 
terms  irxpma,  k'iXoi,  and  «wr«a  are  commonly  considered  as  synonymous,  and  as  signi- 
fying the  cordage;  including  hrtrovoi,  n-drkj19,  irpoxok;,  /isaovpiai,  iTjtoTovoi20,  made  at  first 
of  leathern  thongs,  afterwards  of  flax,  hemp,  and  the  like.  But  Bockh  considers  the 
oxoivia  as  designating  the  stronger  and  heavier  ropes,  to  which  the  anchor  was  attached 
and  by  which  the  ship  was  fastened  10  the  land;  and  the  romia  as  designating  the 
lighter  ropes,  including  KoKdiia  or  ko\oi,  {panns,  kzoovxoi,  mspai,  the  rope  called  ayxowa, 

Ad'.;,,  brirovoi,  &c. The  term  fmo&para  has  generally  been  interpreted  as  signi- 
fying hoards  or  planks  covering  the  outside  of  a  ship  ;  but  it  is  shown  by  the  inscrip- 
tions found  in  the  Piraeus  and  published  by  Bockh,  that  the  wror'ip.aTa  were  ropes  which 
ran  in  a  horizontal  direction  around  the  vessel  from  the  stern  to  the  prow,  and  were 
intended  to  keep  the  fabric  together  ;  and  it  would  seem  that  such  ropes  were  taken  on 
board  when  a  vessel  sailed,  to  be  used  if  necessary  ;  the  expression  in  Acts  xxvii.  17. 
bmXfiivvvvTts  to  x\oTov,  probably  refers  to  the  act  of  putting  these  ropes  about  the  vessel. 

See  T.  D.  WooUsy,  on  Acts  xxvii.  17.  in  the  Bill.  Repot.  Sec.  Series,  vol.  viii.  p.  405. 

3  u.  In  vessels  of  war  the  front  point,  and  sometimes  the  whole  of  the  front  part, 
was  covered  with  iron.  In  early  times  these  points  or  beaks,  tp(io\a\3,  were  long  and 
high  ;  afterwards  they  were  made  short  and  low,  in  order  to  pierce  the  vessels  of  the 
enemy  below  the  water.  From  each  side  of  the  front  were  planks  or  pieces  of  wood, 
bwri&st,  jutting  out,  to  protect  the  ship  from  the  beaks  of  the  enemy.  The  war-ves- 
sels usually  had  wooden  decks  or  coverings  (/cara'/jp.iyfiara14)  on  •which  the  soldiers 
stood,  and  also  coverings  or  guards  of  hides  or  the  like,  which  were  extended  on  both 
sides  (tcpuppciypara,  irapapfopara),  to  protect  them  from  the  waves  and  from  the  enemy's 
missiles.  The  usual  sign  of  a  war-vessel  was  a  helmet,  sculptured  at  the  top  of  the 
mart. 

4.  The  beaks  are  seen  in  Plate  XXIII.  fig.  A,  13 ;  and  also  in  fig.  ft,  which  is  a  prnw  taken  from 
a  bas-relief  at  Koine,  and  which  shows  the  ensign  behind  them,  and  the  acrostulia  above  it.  In 
f\s  a.  from  an  ancient  coin,  we  have  another  prow,  which  has  a  trophy  erected  upon  it.  In  lis.  c, 
which  is  from  the  sculptures  on  the  column  of  Antonine  (cf.  P.  IV.  J  188.  2),  is  a  prow  of  another 
form.  In  fitr.  4,  we  see  a  mercAant-vessel,  managed  by  oars  or  sails;  in  fig.  5,  a  war-vessel  with 
oars  alone,  and  in  the  early  form  of  one  bank  only. 

The  names  of  'he  various  parts  of  a  ship  may  be  foun  I,  with  explanations  of  every  thing  relating  to  this  subject,  in  /  Scheffer, 
Diss  it  VarietJte  navium,  Upsal.  1654  ;  contained  also  in  T  Grammii  Thesaurus,  &c.  vol.  xi.  as  cited  §  13. — See  also,  by  the  same, 
Comment,  de  militia  n.ivali  veterum.  Ups.  1654.  4  —I.enoy,  La  marine  des  anciens  Grecs,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxviii. 
p.  542.— Polter'l  Arch  Grsc  bk.  ii   ch.  14.— Robinson's  bit.  iv.  ch.  14.— ■A.  Jal,  Archeologie  Navale.     Far.  1840  —Also  HUieell, 

»nd  Le  Roy,  as  cited  $  156. On  the  Attic  navy  especially,  A.  Jlbckh,  Urkunden  uber  das  Seewesen  des  Attiscnen  Slaales.     Berl. 

1840. 

§  15f>.  Orifjinally  the  employments  of  the  rowers  and  the  combatants  were 
not  distinct,  but  the  same  persons  performed  the  functions  of  both.  In  later 
times  there  was  a  division  into  three  classes  ;  (1)  the  rowers  or  oarsmen,  spstai, 
xcortjyXarcu,  who  were  also  distinguished  by  specific  names,  accordino*  to  the 
rank  of  their  bench,  and  their  work  and  pay  ;  (2)  the  sailors,  vavtai,  who  attend- 
ed to  all  the  other  proper  duties  of  the  ship;  (3)  the  marines,  srCi^atai,  wh'> 
were  armed  like  infantry,  only  their  armor  was  more  heavy  and  durable. 

dowers  in  the  upper  tier  of  benches,  or  the  portion  of  benches  highest  above  the 
water  («p'"'m  were  called  SpavTrai ;  those  in  the  middle,  rvyTrai  (from  <»y«) ;  those  in 
the  lower  tier  or  portion,  SaXapTTtit.     The  rowers  were  also  distinguished,  as  those 

near  the   prow,  lrpdictoirot ;    and   those  near  the  stern,  onV&wot. Of  the  sailors,  some 

had  the  care  ol  the  sails ;  others  (axoimffSrai)  went  aloft  on  the  ropes  to  look 
«Mj1  ;  others  l/uaovaSrai)  were  to  supply  the  seamen  with  whatever  was  needed. 

There  have  been  various  theories  to  explain  the  manner  in  which  the  banks  of  rowers  in  "he 
ancient  galleys  were  arranged,  in  the  different  classes  of  ships  termed  rpif,pets,  rerpfjoeic,  te;  -ft- 
pctc,  An.  trireme,  auadrireme,  quinq  nireme,  #c— The  most  common  idea  formerly  was,  that  tne 
bouchef  were  placed  one  above  another.    But  there  were  gallevs  of  seven,  twelve,  fifteen,  m.d 


P.  III.  MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       NAVAL    OFFICERS.  20<) 

sixteen  hanks  of  oars;  Ptolemy  Pliilopater  built  one  of  forty  banks.  If  the  benches  were  placed 
directly  above  each  other,  the  oars  in  the  upper  benches  must  have  been  so  long  as  in  be  wholly 
useless. — Another  solution  is,  that  the  hanks  were  ranged  iti  one  continuous  line  along  the  side 
of  the  galley  ;  in  a  trireme,  the  first  hank  being  in  her  bows,  the  second  in  her  middle  or  waist, 
the  third  in  her  stern.  But  such  an  arrangement  would  require  a  huge  length  in  the  vessel  o'' 
forty  banks,  or  even  twelve  ;  besides  which,  it  is  stated  that  the  oars  of  a  galley  were  not  all  of 
the  same  length.— It  has  been  proposed  to  solve  the  difficulty  hy  the  suggestion  that  the  galley 
received  its  denomination  from  the  number  of  men  pulling  at  the  same  oar  :  the  trireme  wnuM 
have  three  at  one  oar;  the  quinquireme,  five,  &c. — Another  suggestion  is,  that  the  banks  rose 
one  over  another  to  the  number  of  five  or  seven,  the  rowers  in  the  higher  banks  being  checkered 
in  quincunx  with  those  in  the  lower;  and  that  if  a  galley  was  said  to  be  of  any  greater  number, 
the  rating  was  only  by  the  number  of  men  employed  at  an  oar  ;  e.g.  in  the  galley  of  forty  banks 
there  would  be  Jive  tiers  with  twelve  men  at  each  oar  of  the  highest  bank,  ten  at  the  nest,  and 
so  on  until  the  lowest,  which  would  have  four  men,  to  make  forty  in  all.  The  engravings  of 
fig.  B,  in  our  Plate  XXIII.  are  two  views,  exhibiting  such  an  arrangement  ;  the  upper  one  is  a 
front  view,  and  the  lower  a  sectional  view. — Other  schemes  have  been  proposed  which  need  not 
be  mentioned.  The  latest  is  that  of  Mr.  Holwell,  of  Edinburgh,  which  is  thought  by  many  to  have 
set  the  matter  at  rest.  He  supposes  a  vessel  in  the  original  form  having  one  bank  of  ten  oars 
arranged  horizontally;  let  these  be  divided  into  two  banks  of  five  oars  each,  and  ranged  ob- 
liquely, and  they  will  require  but  about  half  as  much  length;  this  construction,  according  to 
his  conjecture,  is  the  bireme  ;  a  trireme  would  have  three  of  these  oblique  ascents  or  banks,  each 
bank  having  five  oars;  and  thus  a  vessel  might  be  built  with  any  number  of  banks  by  only 
increasing  its  length,  while  no  oar  would  be  raised  higher  above  the  water,  necessarily,  than  in 
a  bireme.  In  Plate  XX1I1.  fig.  A,  we  have  a  view  of  a  hexireme,  or  galley  of  six  banks  of  oars, 
on  his  scheme;  the  Arabic  numbers,  21,  22,  23,  designate  the  portion  of  the  banks  occupied 
respectively  by  the  three  classes  of  rowers  above  mentioned. 

See  /.  Hohixll.  Essay  on  the  War  Galleys  of  the  Anrients.  I.ond.  1826.  8. — De  Le  Roy,  sur  les  navires  employes  par  les  anciens, 
&c.  in  Ihe  Mem.  deflnstitut,  C  lasse  de  Lit.  a  Beaux  Arts,  vol.  i.  479;  ii.  141,  153. — Of  Boyd's ed.  of  Poller,  p.  526,  as  ciled  §  13. 

§  157.  Among  the  principal  instruments  employed  for  naval  battle  were  the 
following;  oopara  raiijua^a,  very  long  spears  ;  Spinavov,  a  piece  of  iron  formed 
like  a  sickle  and  fixed  to  the  top  of  a  long  pole  in  order  to  cut  the  sail-ropes  of 
the  hostile  ship;  getp  atfypd  the  grappling  iron;  aprfayss,  large  iron  hooks  at- 
tached to  the  mast  of  a  vessel  in  such  a  manner  that  being  thrown  into  the  ene- 
my's ships  they  seized  and  raised  them  up  into  the  air.  An  instrument,  called 
from  its  form  the  dolphin  (btXtpiv),  was  often  used ;  it  was  made  of  iron  or  lead, 
and  hung  to  the  mast  or  sail-yards,  and  was  thrown  with  great  violei.ee  into  an 
adverse  ship,  in  order  to  pierce  and  sink  it. — The  means  of  defence  against  these 
instruments  was  to  guard  the  ship  by  a  strong  covering  of  hides. 

§  158.  Each  fleet  had  officers  of  two  sorts,  such  as  had  care  of  what  pertained 
to  the  ships  alone,  and  such  as  had  care  of  the  marines  and  all  that  pertained 
to  warlike  action.  (I)  The  chief  officer,  or  admiral,  was  called  ravap^oj, 
sometimes  cyrcAap^oj,  or  ^rpar  17765 ;  often  there  were  several  in  equal  com- 
mand, often  there  was  but  a  single  one.  The  duration  of  his  authority 
was  decided  by  the  people,  who  abridged  it  or  prolonged  it  at  pleasure. 
Next  to  him  were  the  commanders  of  individual  ships,  rpt^pap^ot ;  the  Lace- 
tlasmonians,  however,  had  a  sort  of  vice-admiral  in  their  officer  called  aTtv- 
5to\(vi;.  (2)  Of  those,  whose  authority  was  confined  to  the  care  of  the, 
ships  and  the  duties  of  the  rowers  or  sailors,  the  principal  were  the  follow- 
ing; the  clp^t,xt)3fpi/>;r>75,  who  had  the  care  of  the  whole  fleet;  the  xvtiepv^trji, 
who  had  the  care  of  a  single  ship,  and  who  himself  kept  the  helm;  and  the 
rtpcopfvj,  or  rtpopaV/jj,  the  next  in  command,  having  the  care  of  every  thing  be- 
longing to  the  forepart  of  the  ship. 

There  were  also,  in  the  second  class,  the  following:  rpi^pavXrn,  the  musician,  whose 
notes  cheered  the  rowers  and  regulated  the  strokes  of  their  oars;  wXewjtw,  who  gave 
the  word  of  command  to  them ;  roixapX";,  who  governed  the  rowers  on  one  side ;  van. 
p'tXaKc;,  employed  in  guarding  the  s^hip  from  rocks  and  other  dangers  ;  ra/iia;,  who 
superintended  the  food ;  toxapws,  who  attended  to  the  fires ;  Xoyio-n/j,  who  kept  the 
ship's  accounts. 

§  159.  In  the  beginning  of  a  sea-fight  they  sought  first  to  lighten  the  ship  of 
all  superfluous  and  unnecessary  burdens;  and  to  render  sails,  mast,  and  every 
thing  which  was  exposed  to  the  violence  of  wind,  as  fast  and  safe  as  possible. 
Then  the  most  favorable  position  and  order  of  battle  was  selected,  according 
to  time,  place,  and  circumstances.  Sacrifices  were  next  offered  to  the  gods,  and 
the  commanders  passed  round  in  light  boats  from  ship  to  ship,  to  animate  theii 
men.  The  signal  for  the  onset  was  now  given;  usually  done  by  hanging  a 
shield,  or  flag,  from  the  mast  of  the  vessel  bearing  the  vavap^oj;  while  this  sig- 
nal was  hanging,  the  battle  went  on.     The  mode  of  attack  was  similar  to  that 


204  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

of  a  sieo-e;  the  ships  being  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  circie  or  semicircle  ;i 

letter  V. 

§  160.  After  a  victory,  they  returned  with  the  booty  and  captured  vessels. 
All  the  cities  which  were  in  alliance  with  the  victorious  party,  honored  the  suc- 
cessful general  with  crowns  and  garlands.  With  these  it  was  also  customary 
to  adorn  his  vessel.  Sometimes  the  wrecks  of  the  enemy's  ships  were  used  for 
that  purpose.  These,  as  well  as  the  better  part  of  the  spoils,  were  afterwards 
consecrated  to  the  gods;  the  rest  being  divided  among  the  men  engaged  in  the 
battle.  A  monument  was  usually  raised  to  the  victors,  and  was  sometimes 
adorned  with  the  wrecks,  especially  the  ornamental  parts  (dxpowo,  dxpwT^ptx), 
of  the  captured  ships. — The  most  common  punishments  in  the  naval  service 
were  whipping  with  cords,  and  submersion,  the  offender  being  dragged  in  the 
water  by  a  rope  even  till  drowned.  Such  as  refused  to  serve  at  sea,  o^av^d^ot, 
were,  at  Athens,  punished  with  disgrace  (ati^ua)  together  with  their  posterity'. 
Deserters,  Xiirtoiavrcu,  were  scourged,  or  had  their  hands  cut  off. 

IV.    AFFAIRS    OF    PRIVATE    LIFE. 

§  161.  In  glancing  at  the  private  life  of  the  Greeks,  we  shall  follow  the  same 
order  as  in  speaking  of  the  earlier  period  (§  51 — 60),  and  begin  with  the  subject 
of  food.  In  later  times,  when  riches  more  abounded,  the  food  was  less  simple 
than  before;  the  Lacedaemonians  maintained  longest  their  strictness  and  fru- 
gality, no  professed  cook  being  suffered  among  them.  Among  the  other  nations, 
and  especially  the  inhabitants  of  Sicily,  the  art  of  cooking  was  much  more  culti- 
vated and  practiced.  The  Athenians,  however,  lived  to  a  great  extent  moderate- 
ly, owing,  perhaps,  to  the  comparative  unfruitful ness  of  the  Attic  territory.  Wa- 
ter was  the  common  drink,  with  which  they  were  accustomed  to  mingle  wine. 
The  wine  sometimes  received  an  addition  of  myrrh  (otVoj  fiv^jivutr^,)  or  of  barley 
meal  (oTvoj  art.rj'k'pitufiivos). 

The  term  employed  to  designate  a  drinking  cup,  Kparrjp,  is  commonly  derived  from 
icepaaaodm,  to  mingle,  indicating  the  prevalent  custom  of  mixing  water  with  wine.  Pot- 
ter states,  that  no  certain  proportion  was  observed  in  forming  this  mixture.  A  very 
common  division  of  wines  was  into  the  m>\v<i>6pot  or  strong  wines,  bearing  a  large  addi- 
tion of  water,  and  oXiyo:/«fyo<,  weak  wines.  To  drink  unmixed  wine,  aKparomeXv ,  was 
described  as  synonymous  with  T.vOiarimi.iv,to  drink  like  a  Scythian. — A  common  Ho- 
meric epithet  for  wine,  is  aiOo-di ;  sometimes  ycponaios.  (Cf.  Horn.  II.  i.  462,  iv.  259.) — ■ 
The  swefl,  unfermented  juice  of  the  grape  (.mustum)  was  termed  y\cvKog.  That 
which  flowed  from  the  clusters  by  merely  their  own  pressure  was  called  Trpdx.vpa.  Un- 
fermented wine,  inspissated  by  boiling,  bore  the  name  of  "epip-a.. — There  were  various 
sorts  of  wine,  made  from  other  substances  besides  the  grape.  Among  the  Greek 
wines  from  the  grape,  the  earliest  of  which  we  have  any  distinct  account,  is  the  Ma- 
ronean,  probably  produced  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  a  black  sweet  wine  {Horn.  Od.  ix. 
249).  The  Pramnian  was  another  of  early  celebrity,  supposed  by  some  to  have  its 
name  from  a  hill  in  the  island  of  Icaria,  where  it  was  produced.  In  later  times,  the 
Lesbian,  Chian,  and  Thasian  wines  were  considered  to  possess  uncommon  excellence. 
The  wines  of  Rhodes  and  Crete,  Cnidus  and  Cyprus,  were  also  much  esteemed.  The 
Mendcan  wine,  from  Mende,  is  commended  for  a  peculiar  softness.  The  Greeks  also 
used  wines  imported  from  different  places  in  Asia  and  Egypt ;  an  excellent  kind  was 
brought  from  Byblos  in  Phoenicia;  the  Alexandrian,  from  the  vicinity  of  Alexandria 
in  Egypt,  was  highly  valued. 

Compare  §  331  b—  See  Havimon'i  History  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Wines.  Lond.  1824.  4.— This  work  is  adorned  with  several 
beautiful  illustrations  taken  from  antiques,  and  relating  to  the  use  of  wine. 

§  162.  The  Greeks  had  usually  two  meals  a  day,  viz. :  a  breakfast,  dxpdT'K5lua, 
apwrrw,  the  time  of  which  was  not  fixed,  and  a  main  meal,  htirivov,  which  was 
regularly  towards  evening.  But  they  also  partook  of  an  evening  meal,  feckwbt 
or  i ■  -rtf'picfjua,  and  an  after-dish  or  supper,  fidprtoj. 

Robinson  remarks  that  most  authors  speak  of  but  three  meals  a  day,  and  do  not 
consider  the  Sst\iv6i  as  a  separate  meal  from  the  <5t5pm>$ ;  while  others  think  that  the 
decks  had  but  two  meals  a  day,  the  Hpiarov  and  66pnos.  It  seems  certain,  that  apiarcv 
Was  finally  used  to  denote  the  dinner  (that  is.  the  meal  taken  not  far  from  the  middle 
of  the  day),  and  ieiitvov  i lie;  supper,  the  latter  being  the  principal  meal. 

"  There  was  little  variety  in  the  private  life  of  the  Athenians.  All  of  them  rose  at 
laybreak,  and  suent  a  short  time  in  the  exercise  of  devotion.     Soon  after  six  in  the 


PL  A  T  E     XXIV, 


200  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

morning,  the  judges  [dicasts)  took  their  seats  on  the  tribunal,  and  those  employed  in 
ihure    manufactures,  or  commerce,  engaged  in  their  different  occupations.     At 
day,  the  more  wealthy  citizens,  who  by  that  time  had  commonly  finished  then 
shed  themselves  with  a  short  sleep,  and  aiterwards  spent  a  few 
hours  "i  hunting  or  in  the  exercise  ol  the  palaestra,  or  in  walking  through  the  dehght- 
ful  groves  on  the  hanks  i  I  the  [lyssus  and  Cephisus:  or  more  frequently  m  discussing 
wjm  eacj,  ,„!„,,•  m  ihi  ora)  the  interests  ot  the  state,  the  conduct  of  the 

,    a„d  the  news  ol  the  day.     It  was  also  during  the  afternoon,  that  the 
i  and  itntt'a;  two  games,  the  first  of  which  resem- 
bled hazard,  and  i    backgammon  or  chess." — "  During  the  day,  the 
,  |;  od  or  only  a  slight  repast  in  private.     At  sun-set  they  sat 
ipi  r,  and  considi  ring  the  business  of  the  day  as  over,  devoted  the  evening 
,   nt,   iinl  often  continued  to  a  late  hour  in  the  night." 
§  It'.::.  In  .arly  times,  entertainments  were  given  only  in  honor  of  the  gods  on 
festival  slays;  afterwards  they  became  very  common.     They  were  of  two  sorts: 
the  iatutivti,  given   by  a  single  person,  and  the  tpavoj,  provided  at  the  expense 
of  the  party  present.  '  Entertainments  of  the  latter  kind  were  generally  the  most 
frugal,  orderly,  and  conducive  to  friendly  feeling;  such  as  were  invited  free  of 
expense,  as  poets,  singers,  <S:c.,  were  called  am^oxoi ;  the  contribution  of  each 
other  guesl  was  termed  rvutloXr,  xaraflo-Kr;. — The  marriage  feast,  ya'^os,  is  some- 
times considered  as  a  third  sort. — 'There  were  also  public  entertainments  for  a 
whole  city,  tribe,  or  fraternity,  called   avaaitta.,  navhamiai,  bsurtva  oj^osia,  typar 
.  &c.  furnished  by  contribution,  by  the  liberality  of  rich  persons,  or  by  the 
state. 

§  164.  Before  partaking  of  an  entertainment,  the  Greeks  always  washed  and 

nied.     The  hands  were  also  again  washed  (v^aaOai)  between  the  successive 

courses,  and  at  the  close  of  the  feast  (uutovltywOai) .     In  the  early  times  the 

ts  sal  at  table  (cf.  §  52);  in  later  times  they  reclined,  but  not  always.     The 

couches,  prepared  for  the  purpose,  were  more  or  less  splendid,  according  to  each 

-lie's  taste   and  condition  in  life.     Five  usually,  sometimes  more,  occupied  a 

single  ciiuch.     The  guests  took  their  places  according  to  their  proper  rank, 

ugh  often  no  exact  order  was  observed.     The  Greeks  attached  a  certain 

idi  a  'i  s  metity  to  the  table  and  the  rites  of  the  table. 

Three  couches,  k\1  *t.  were  usually  placed  round  the  table,  Tpairtla,  one  on  each 
leaving  the  fourth  side  "pen  to  the  servants;  hence  originated  the  word  tJkkXi- 
i.'ii.  i i  ii  1 1  ii  i  ii  iii  :  they  were  covered  with  tapestry,  orp&J/iara,  and  had  pillows,  -npoaKt^a- 
'  i  :.  foi  the  guests;  they  were  often  very  costly,  being  highly  ornamented  with  ivory 
and  precious  metals.  Several  persons  usually  reclining  on  the  same  couch,  the  first 
i must  part,  with  his  legp  extended  behind  the  back  of  the  second, 
whose  head  was  near  the  bosom  of  the  first.     See  §  329.  2. — The  tables  were  made 

ol    h 1.    highly  polished   ({ami,  eiffooj) ;    in    the    later  periods,   exceedingly   costly, 

adorned  with  plates  ol  silver  and  gold,  and  curiously  carved  images. 

§  165.  At  a  regular  and  principal  meal  (as  the  durtvov),  the  first  course,  rtpd- 
itofta,  buTTini-  rtpooi/uov,  consisted  generally  of  pungent  herbs  with  olives,  eggs, 
oysters,  a  mixture  of  honey  and  wine  (oirdjUfTii),  and  the  like.  Then  came 
the  chief  dish,  more  substantial  and  costly,  xr^aXr;  6«rfi<ov.  Afterwards  the 
desert.  btvtipa  rpdrff^a,  consisting  of  various  sweetmeats,  furnished  with  great 
splendor  in  times  of  luxury,  and  called  frtiOfirti'tt^ufraddprtia,  &C. 

I.    I  he  most  common  food  among  the  Greeks  is  said  to  have  been  the  p&ta,  a  kind 

ol   soft  rake   prepaied   iii  various  ways,  of   the   flour  of  barley  or  wheat.      Among  the 

thai  w<  re  i  aten,  were  mallows  (jtaXaxn),  lettuce  ($piia%),  cabbages  {paipaivi), 

nd    lentils  (</"«<-"0.     The  sausage  (<pvoKij)  was  a  favorite  article.     Fish 

in.  a  favoi ite  dish. 

'-'  "    I 'i  all  enti  rtainments  ii  was  customary  first  to  offer  some  of  the  provisions  to 

illy  to  make  an  oblation  from"  the  liquor. — On  cheerful  occasions,  the 

were  clothed  in  whue,  and  crowned  with  garlands. 

\ '  ■  ""  rlainmenta  connected  with  the  festivals  of  the  gods,  the  garlands  worn 

wen   formed  ol  the  leaf  or  flower  sacred  to  the  particular  god  honored  on  the  occa- 

Bion.      \'  "'I"  i  entertainments  they  were  composed  of  various  sorts,  according  to  the 

■''  ot  the  year,  and  the  taste  and  circumstances  of  the  parties.     The  rose,  being 

an  emblem  ol  Bilence,  was  open  plane!  above  the  table,  to  signify  that  what  was 

then  lid  be  kepi  private  ;  hence  the  phrase  ford  p66ov,  sub  rosa. 

§  166.  The  offici  rs  and  attendants  at  an  entertainment  were  as  follows:  the 
Ivftrtouvop^j,  chief  a  anager,  who  was  ei'her  the  maker  of  the  feast  (6  lcmaTiop\ 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       CONVIVIAL    ENTERTAINMENTS.  20? 

or  one  appointed  to  that  place,  called  also  tpartfcfoTtoioc-,  ap^w'ptstfiu'oj ;  the  Bam* 
JinSs,  whose  business  was  to  see  that  the  laws  and  rules  of  such  entertainments 
were  preserved,  and  who  was  sometimes  the  same  as  the  first  mentioned ;  the 
Acu-rpoj,  who  divided  and  distributed  the  food,  of  which  the  best  and  largest 
portions  were  given  to  the  most  honored  guest;  and  the 'Otvo^oot,  who  dis- 
tributed the  drink,  and  were  heralds  (xvjpvxii),  youths  (xoipot)  often  of  nobl« 
birth,  or  servants  (ooitt.oi). 

In  the  later  ages,  it  became  an  object  of  luxury  to  have  young  and  beautiful  slaves, 
to  perform  t he  last  mentioned  office ;  for  such  ones  extravagant  prices  were  paid  ;  and 
a  distinction  was  made  between  the  &6po$6poi,  who  served  the  water,  and  the  uuoyiot, 
who  poured  the  wine,  and  were  younger.  When  waiting  at  table,  they  w»;re  richly 
adorned  in  person  and  dress. 

§  1G7.  The  drinking  vessels  were  generally  large,  often  very  rich  and  costly; 
they  were  frequently  crowned  with  garlands. 

1.  The  Kpan'ip  was  the  vessel  in  which  the  wine  was  mixed  with  the  water  and  from 
which  the  cups  were  filled.  Among  the  various  cups  used  were  the  kvXiI  or  kvXiokti, 
the  (j>ta\ri,  the  piiroe,  the  Kaiixwcov,  the  K&vdapo;,  the  fora,-,  &,c.  The  KvaQoi  are  described 
as  a  sort  of  ladles  used  for  conveying  the  wine  from  the  crater  to  the  cup 

2.  It  was  customary  for  the  master  of  the  feast  to  drink  to  his  guests,  in  the  order 
of  their  rank,  drinking  himself  a  part  of  the  cup  and  sending  the  remainder  to  the  person 
qamed,  which  was  termed  irpovivuv ;  while  the  act  of  the  person,  who  received  the  cup 
and  drank  the  rest  of  its  contents,  was  termed  avTorptmivsw.  It  was  also  customary  to 
drink  to  the  honor  of  the  gods,  and  to  the  memory  of  absent  friends,  calling  them  by 
name.  Thiee  craters  were  usually  drank  to  the  gods,  each  one  to  a  particular  god; 
as  Kparfip  'Eppov ;  Kpan'ip  iid?  Samlpoc. — Sometimes  the  guests  contended  who  should 
drink  the  most ;  and  prizes  were  awarded  to  the  conquerors.  Some  melancholy  ex- 
cesses are  recorded  ;  as,  for  instance,'  the  case  of  Alexander,  who  in  this  way  lost  his 

life. Singing  (poXirij),  instrumental  music,  and  dancing. (dpxnaris),  were  accompani 

ments  of  almost  every  feast.  The  songs  were  in  early  times  chiefly  hymns  to  gods  or 
heroes;  subsequently  songs  and  dances  of  a  wanton  character  were  introduced.  The 
most  remarkable  of  the  various  songs  used  were  those  termed  cwoXia. 

Athenecvs,  L.  x  c.  9,  10.    Cf.  JElian,  Var.  Hist.  L.  ii.  c.  41.— Respecting  the  axoHa,  see  P.  V.  5  27. 

3.  After  the  music  and  dancing,  the  guests  often  were  invited  to  participate  in  various 
sports.  In  earlier  times,  the  athletic  games  were  practiced  ;  but  in  the  later  ages,  less 
violent  exercises  were  more  frequently  chosen,  among  which  playing  at  the  icorru/jfoc 
seems  to  have  been  a  favorite  amusement.  There  were  various  forms  of  this  game,  in 
all  of  which  the  chief  object  was  to  throw  wine  from  a  goblet  into  another  vessel  in  the 
most  skillful  manner. 

See  Gedoyn,  Plaisirs  de  la  table  chez  les  Grecs  ;  in  the  Mem.  Acad,  laser,  vol.  i.  p.  54.— Cf.  Land.  Quart.  Rev  vol.  xsiv.  f .  421. 
•  —  For  details  re-spectine;  the  cottabus  in  particular,  Robinson,  Arch.  Grsec.  bk.  v.  ch.  21.  p.  524  —Grnddeck.  liber  den  kcttabol 
der  Gnechcn,  in  his  Antupiartsche  Versiuhe,  Lpz.  IR00.— F.  Jacobs,  uber  den  kotlabos,  in  IVieland's  Attisches  Museum. 

On  the  whole  subject  of  Grecian  meals  and  entertainments,  set  Robinson,  Arch  Grac.  bk.  v.  ch.  17-21. — /.  Cornariits,  Oe  Con- 
Tiviis  Grjecorum,  in  Gronovius,  vol.  ix.—Athaneus,  Deipnnsophists  (cf.  P.  V.  §  123). 

On  the  affairs  of  private  life  generally,  W.  Becker,  Charicles  ;  cf.  §  13. 

4.  Frequently  there  were  entertainments  called  o-i^Too-ia  (drinkinjj-parties),  at  which 
conversation  and  discourses  were  expected  to  form  the  principal  amusement ;  although 
the  various  games  common  at  other  entertainments  were  not  excluded.  The  propound- 
ing of  riddles  (aiViy/jara  or  ypi^ot)  was  much  practiced. 

See  P.  IV.  §  69. — Esctunbach,  as  there  cited.— Becker's  Charicles. 

§  168.  The  hospitality  practiced  by  the  early  Greeks  (cf.  §  57)  remained 
customary  also  in  later  times.  The  Cretans  especially  had  the  reputation  of 
being  hospitable;  the  Athenians  were  termed  §i"k6%i vot,;  but  the  Spartans  were 
less  courteous  to  strangers.  Hospitality  was  viewed  as  a  religious  duty,  and 
several  gods  were  supposed  to  take  strangers  under  special  protection,  and  to 
avenge  all  injuries  done  to  them. 

1  u.  It  was  customary,  at  the  hospitable  meal,  first  to  present  salt  (Sti's  3Xc)  before 
the  stranger,  as  a  token  perhaps  of  permanent  friendship.  The  alliance  contracted  by 
mutual  hospitality  (Trpufci/i'a,  to  bpoTpcnrfy-)  was  as  sacred  as  that  of  consanguinity.  The 
panics  often  exchanged  tokens  of  it  (crip/faXa)  in  friendly  gifts  (£ma,  &<~>pa,  jfevura),  which 
Were  carefully  preserved  and  handed  down  to  posterity.  Officers  were  publicly  ap- 
pointed, called  irpd^evoi,  whose  duty  it  was  to  receive  all  foreigners,  coming  on  any  public 
errand,  to  provide  entertainment  and  lodging  for  them,  and  conduct  them  to  the  public 
spectacles  and  festivals. 


•.Jl)«*  GRECIAN    iXTIQUITIES. 

•2.  Inns,  however,  appear  to  have  existed  in  Greece  in  the  later  ages.     Cf.  Cic.  D« 
Divin.  11.  68. — The  It  ran  naviaxpTov  [caupona)  designated  an  inn. 

the  Ancients,  in  the  Mem.  dt  VJtcad.  da  Inscr.  vol.  iii.  p.  41.— F.  W-  Ullrich,  De  Proienia.    Bert 
l±ll.—7ML  Dig  WirttulOUKr  J.  Alien.—  Slochmann,  l)e  Popinis. 

§  169.    The  dress  of  the  Greeks  did  not  undergo  any  very  important  changes; 
-,ii  leasi  tin-  names  used  in  the  first  period  wen-  still  applied  to  the  principal  gar- 
ni, nis  in  later  times.     Their  clothing  was  more  commonly  made  of  uncolored 
white  wool,  sometimes  of  linen  and  cotton.     Of  the  colors,  which  were  given  to 
.  purple  was  the  must  esteemed. 
1  a.  Coverings  for  the  feet  (&ro  .)  were  used  very  early,  but  not  universally: 

it  various  forms.     Hats  (iriAoi,  m\ia,  m\i6ta)  were  first  introduced  ai  a  later 
i.  d  chiefly  as  a  protection  against  the  weather. 

2.  |  hi  shoes  wi  r<  tied  under  the  soles  oi  the  leet  by  thongs^,  ^Arc?;  hence  the  terms 

j.ii     ii:!  .»n  and  taking  oh"  the  shoes.     The  following  were  some 

,,i  ,|;.  |ai       and  easy  shoes,  which  came  up  to  the  ankle  ;  (the  term 

ed  to  an  appendage  of  the  Greek  chariot,  a  sort  oi  shoe  into  which 

the  driver  thrust  his  fool  to  a-sist  him  in  driving);   /SAaerai,  shoes  worn  chiefly  in  the 

I, ,,:,,.  .  common  to  men  and  women ;  ipfiarai,  shoes  used  by  comedians; 

shoes  used  by  tragedians,  buskins;  xapParivat,  coarse  shoes  worn  by  peasants; 

.  a  kind  .'I  slipper;  supposed  by  some  to  be  used  by  soldiers  particularly;   ao*gj- 

,.,*■<,;.  Spartan  shoes  of  a  red  color;  itcpaiKal,  shoes  ot  a  white  color,  generally 

worn  by  courtezans  :  nepiflapiiec,  shoes  worn  by  women  oi  rank  ;  canaXa,  shoes  anciently 

i  -.  consisting  originally  ot  a  piece  of  wood  bound  to  the  sole  ot"  the  loot. 

In  our  Plate  XXIV.  are  illustrations  of  various  forms  of  ancient  coverings  for  t lie  feet  and 

I,  gg      Si  v  nil.  marked  by  the  letter  u,  are  fr Mexican  monuments  ;  those  marked  b  and  c,  are 

said  i"  I"-  Phrygian  :  <t.  s,  and  '.  are  from  Egyptian  remains  ;  e,  g,  i,  fr,  I,  w,p,  and  q,  are  Greek 
an. I  Roman  sandals  ;  /.-  and  i  having  very  rich  ornaments  for  the  inslep  attached  to  them  ;  q  having 

sharp  lr ils  underneath  (used  by  warriors,  it  is  supposed,  so  that  an  army  marching  with 

itie in  must  make  a  confused  noise  ;  cf  Rosenmiiller,  §chol.  in  Vet.  'lest.  Isai.  ix.  5);  /,  n,  o,  are 
I ia-  urn  ;  h.j.  r.  are  Persian;  r  is  the  Turkish  slipper  made  of  morocco. 

3.  The  military  covering  for  the  head  was  the  helmet  (cf.  §  44).    The  7nAo;  seems  to 
have  been  a  sort  oi  skull-cap  of  felt,  being  of  a  conical  form  ;    varying,  however,  in 

.  !,  vai :    but  always  without  a  brim.     A  broad-brimmed  hat,  termed  Tihacoc,  was 

usi  d  by  young  men  :  it  is  seen  in  Plate  XXIV.  fig.  3.  "  Travellers  among  the  Greeks 
won  the  chlamys,  sword,  and  petasus  or  flat  hat ;  this  hat  is  someiimes  thrown  back 
on  the  shoulders  ami  retained  by  thongs  fastened  under  the  chin ;  travellers  carried  their 

v  in  tin  ir  girdles."  The  «cawria  was  similar  to  the  TThaoo;,  with  a  brim  turned 
upwards.  Women  always  wore  up. m  their  heads  coverings  or  ornaments;  some  of 
them  wen-  the  following  ■  8  fillet,  with  which  the  hair  was  tied,  forming  on  the 

forehead  a  frontal,  winch  was  often  made  oi   gold,  and  ornamented  sometimes  with 

dus  stoni  - :  « ,v  --/"'•  a  vt  il;  xpfjiep  <ov,  a  covering  winch  came  down  from  the  head 
to  the  shot  ,x"^.  a  net  inclosing  the  hair ;  pirpa,  a  sort  of  cap  or  turban.  The 

term  uirpa  is  also  applied  in  a  kind  o)  girdle  worn  by  military  men  under  the  Stopaj.  A 
form  i>i  the  fillel  used  by  women  given  to  luxury  was  termed  <TTc<pili'n  i\pri\fi.  The  oppoc 
was  a  sort  oi  necklace  an  uniaincui  much  worn,  and  often  very  cosily  (cf.  $338).  The 
womi  n  frequently  bad  also  ear-rings,  tppara,  tXutes,  ivdna,  tAAii/^a — Among  the  Athe- 
<    men  wore  in  their  hair  golden  ornaments  called  rcTTiyec. 

The  term  x6pr\  designated  the  hair  of  the  head  generally  ;  the  word  Spi'(,  the  general  term  for 
hair,  is  used  in  the  Bame  Bense  ;  but  there  were  distini  live  terms  designating  peculiar  properties 
of  the  hair,  or  peculiar  modes  of  arranging  it:  as  ttittpn,  a  head  of  hair  carefully  dressed  ;  xal-Tit 
long  flowing  hair,  like  the  mane  of  a  horse;  iror.df,lhe  hair  when  combed  and  dressed;  0<J/7», 
the  hair  in  disorder,  as  when  a  person  is  in  fear;  K6poi\,  the  hair  on  the  tup  of  the  head;  ndpvp 
he  hair  nl  women  when  drawn  up  all  round  the  head  and  fastened  in  a  how  on  the  top; 
*.     ih  \oi,  ill'-  hair  of  men  in  the  same  fashion  ;  the  Athenians  used  the  rtrri|  in  fastening  the 

bow        ''•      curl)  haii  like  wool;  icipas,  hair  combed  up  from  the  temples  so  as  to  appear  like 

tern-  ;  it  f*  I VI  of,  hair  in  ringlets,  called  also  nX6Kapuc. 

I  it.    Nexl  to  the  body,  both  men  and  women  wore  a  tunic,  an  unJer-garment  of  wool, 

.  which  extended  to  the  knee,  and  when  worn  alone,  was  trussed  up  by  a  rich 

girdle    ■  wi);    in  it  was  fastened  from  the  shoulders  by  costly  buckles  or 

claspt  I  Iver  this  garment  the  men  wore  a  mantle  or  robe,  which  was 

long  worn  by  the  re  respectable ;    while  the  lower  classes  used  a 

shorter  kind  There  was  als lother  sort  of  short  mantle,  \An/<us-,  worn  chiefly 

by  soldi)  rs.  The  women  generally  wore  over  ihe  tunic  a  robe  (Ipdrtov),  rather  short, 
and  "Mic,  eil ter  robe,  irftrXoy,  with  which  they  could  cover  also  the  head. 

5   The  \i-'t  is  represented  as  being  of  two  kinds,  the  Doric  an'd  the  Ionic.    The  Doric  cor- 
nderl  to  the  desi  rlption  above  given,  being  of  woolen  stuff,  short, and  without  sleeves.   The 

crlbed  at  long,  a ilimes  reaching  the  feet  (norb'ipnj),  made  of  linen,  with  wide 

The  Ifiririoj  or  $&po{  was  always  a  rectangular  piece  of  cloth,  exactly  or  nearly 

*iu«rej  li  "i  wool  most  commonly,  but  also  of  cotton,  and  of  flax ;  usually  all  of  one  soloi 

Uii6\n,  in),  lometimei  var'egated  (itoixtXov)  and  embroidered;  sometimes  ornamented  with  > 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS         COSTUME.       BATHING  208 

fringe.     It  was  often  used  to  spread  over  beds  and  couches;  to  cover  the  body  in  sleep;  to  form 
a  sort  of  carpet ;  to  serve  for  an  awning  or  curtain. 

Of  coverings  for  the  body,  called  in  general  co-fi/c,  eVO^/iu,  and  iipa,  there  were  many  varieties 
and  forms,  besides  those  named  above;  as,  fiairn,  iiqjOcpa,  a  shepherd's  garment,  of  skins; 
iyxipffopn,  a  cloak  used  by  shepherds  and  servants ;  iiruipis,  a  short  garment  for  females,  which 
was  thrown  over  the  shoulders  ;  e£oj//<c,  a  slave's  garment,  having  only  one  sleeve  (cf.  J  99) ; 
£0£T7pi5,a  kind  of  great  coat,  made  of  skins  of  goats;  ^atrrpov,  a  girdle  appropriate  for  women  ; 
dcp!oToi«v,  a  thin  garment  for  summer  ;  tcariavaKn,  a  slave's  robe,  bordered  at  the  bottom  witlt 
sheepskin  ;  AijtSuc,  a  garment  common  to  both  sexes,  suitable  for  warm  weather ;  erroAi,,  a  long 
robe  reaching  to  the  heels  ;  arpoifrtov,  a  kind  of  kerchief  worn  by  women  over  the  bosom  (nrr\Q6- 
i'.opoc);  Tfiiftuv,  rpiliwviav,  a  cloak  of  coarse  stuff,  worn  by  pbil  sophers  and  poor  persons; 
raivia.  a  sort  of  baud  used  by  females  and  passing  over  the  breast  ;  used  also  to  signify  an  orna- 
ment for  the  head  ;  ipntvoXns,  a  cloak  without  sleeves  for  cold  or  rainy  weather;  x^<-""S.  •>  fine 
thin  robe.  The  \piX\utv  was  an  ornament  worn,  by  women  chiefly,  upon  the  arms  and  hands  ; 
abraciiei  or  armlet  (\htoi'iv.  dptpiSea).  The  Ttpiwfii'j  was  probably  an  anklet,  an  ornamental 
ring  worn  to  decorate  the  leg  ;  frequently  represented  in  tbe  paintings  of  Greek  figures  found  at 
Pompeii;  yet  tbe  word  is  sometimes  translated  drawers,  feminalia.  The  dva^vpiSes  were  a  sort 
of  pantaloons  (braccw)  worn  bv  the  Gauls,  Sarmatians,  and  others,  both  in  Europe  and  in  Asia, 
but  not  by  the  Greeks.     Robinson's  Arch.  Gr.  p   541-546. 

Our  Plate  XXV  contains  several  engravings  illustrating  ancient  and  Oriental  female  costume. 
In  fig.  a,  which  is  Egyptian,  we  see  a  form  of  the  vail;  similar  to  it  is  the  vail  in  fig.  g,  which  h 
taken  from  tbe  French  work  L'Egypte,  &c,  and  represents  an  Egyptian  spinning;  another  form 
appears  in  fig.  d,  an  Arabian  hood  ;  in  ?/,  which  is  Syrian,  is  another  kind,  a  sort  of  muffler;  in 
w,  which  is  Egyptian,  is  one  which  floats  in  the  wind  like  a  modern  vail,  but  was  attached  to  a 
ribin  or  chain  passing  round  the  forehead  and  joined  by  a  clasp  aliove  the  eyes.  In  fig.  m,  is  a 
Grecian  lady  with  a  peculiar  head-dress,  somewhat  resembling  the  spiral  curl  of  the  mvrex  shell 
from  which  the  Tyrian  purple  was  said  to  be  obtained.  Other  head-ornaments  appear  in  fig.  h,  a 
Grecian  female,  with  the  double  flute,  dressed  for  a  festal  occasion,  and  in  fig.  i,  another  Grecian 
in  a  funeral  dress.  The  vet  above  mentioned  is  seen  in  fig.  4,  of  Plate  XXIV;  in  fig.  7,  of  the 
same  Plate  is  a  form  of  the  turban,  like  the  crescent-shaped  tiara  or  diadem  sometimes  seen  on 
representations  of  .Inno  In  these  figures  we  also  s-ee  the  tunic  fastened  to  the  shoulders  by 
cla<ns  .  in  fig.  4.  it  is  without  sleeves,  as  in  fig.  ft,  Plate  XXV.  This  figure,  h,  shows  also  the  robe 
called  peplos,  which  is  seen  also  in  fig.  k,  said  to  represent  a  Grecian  lady  in  full  costume  of  the 
olden  stvle  ;  an  outer  garment  like  the  peplos  of  the  Greeks  is  seen  likewise  in  fig  ft,  which 
represents  a  Cairo  dancer,  and  in  fig.  c,  which  shows  an  oriental  silk  robe  thrown  over  the  head 
and  arms.  In  fig.  e  and/,  we  have  two  female  Bacchantes;  their  costume,  like  that  ofthe  musi- 
cian, fig.  Ii,  appears  to  be  highly  ornamented  ;  one  holds  the  thymus  and  a  wine  cup.  probably 
the  culix  (cf  b  167.  1);  the  other  appears  to  be  playing  with  a  sort  of  castanets.  In  fig.  n,  is  a 
representation  of  an  Egyptian  princess  from  the  palace  at  Karnac  ;  it  exhibits  a  slight  under  dress 
and  a  close  robn  in  slanting  folds  open  in  front,  tbe  whole  scarcely  concealing  the  form  ;  it  may 
illustrate  t  lie  Cuan  vestments,  or  woven  wind,  ofthe  ancients.  A  nearly  transparent  robe  is  also 
seen  in  fig.  o,  which  is  an  Egyptian  priestess  holding  in  her  right  band  a  sistrum,  and  in  her  left 
some  mythological  image  probably  pertaining  to  the  worship  of  Isis. 

The  following  is  an  incidental  remark  of  Chateaubriand  respecting  the  materials  of  ancient  clothing.  "  My  host  laugl.ed  at  (Ve 
faces  thai  I  made  al  the  wine  and  honey  of  Attica  ;  bill,  as  some  compensation  for  the  disappointment,  he  desireu  vie  to  lake  nolice 
of  Ihe  dress  of  the  female  who  waited  on  us.  It  was  the  very  drapery  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  especially  in  the  h.  gonial  and  undu- 
lating folds  that  were  formed  below  the  bnsom,  and  joined  the  perpendicular  folds  which  marked  Ihe  skirl  of  the  tunic.  The  coarse 
stuff  of  which  this  woman's  diess  was  composed,  heightened  ihe  resemblance  ;  for,  to  judge  fiom  sculpture,  the  stuffs  of  the  ancienta 
were  much  thicker  than  ours.  It  would  be  impossible  to  form  the  large  sweeps  observable  in  antique  draperies  with  the  mucins 
and  silks  of  modern  frmale  atlire  ;  the  gauze  of  Cos,  and  Ihe  other  stuffs  which  the  satirists  denominated  woven  wind,  were  never 
imitated  by  the  chisel."     Travels  in  Greece.  &c.  p.  137.  (N.  V.  ed.  1814). 

Respecting  the  material  of  Ihe  vestments  of  Cos,  see  §  335. On  the  question  concerning  the  use  of  silk  among  the  Greeks,  cf. 

Anthon's  Lempriere,  under  the  word  Seres. On  the  use  of  cotton,  E.  Baines,  History  of  Cotton  Manufacture.     Lond.  1836.  8. 

(chap,  ii.) 

Respecting  the  costume  generally,  see  a  brief  account  in  North  Jtmer.  Rev.  for  July,  1838.  p.  148. — Mongez,  Sur  habillemens  del 
anciens,  (Gr.  and  Rom.)  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnstitvt,  Dlasse  a'Hut.  el  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  iv.  p.  2ll.—Fosbroke,s  Encyclop.  p.  610,  919, 
giving  some  illustrations  drawn  from  the  Hamilton  vases  —  A.  Rubeneus,  De  Re  Vestiaria  Veterum.  Ant.  1665.  4  j  also  in  Grtniitu, 
vol.  vi.— G.  Ferrano,  Del  Costume  Antico  e  Moderuo  di  tutti  i  Popoli.  Milau,  1S29.  18  vols.  fol.  exhibiting  in  vols.  v.  and  vi.  tho 
costume  of  the  Greeks.—  Bardon,  Hope,  &c.  ciled  $  197.  3. 

6.  The  Athenian  women  seem  to  have  paid  much  attention  to  the  adorning  of  their 
persons.  "  They  painted  their  eye-brows  black,  and  applied  to  their  faces  a  layer  of 
ceruse  or  white  lead,  with  deep  tints  of  rouge.  They  sprinkled  over  their  hair,  which 
was  crowned  with  flowers,  a  yellow-colored  powder."  At  the  toilet  they  used  mirrors 
(KarOTrrpa),  commonly  made  of  polished  metals;  sometimes  of  the  length  ot  a  person's 
body. 

The  Bride,  in  Plate  XXIV.  fig.  4,  holds  a  mirror  in  her  right  hand.— See  Menard,  Sur  les  miroirs  des  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  U 
PAcad.  des  Inscr.  xxiii.  140.— Cf.  Class.  Jcum.  xvi.  152.— Caytus,  Recueil  d'Anliquites,  vol.  iii.  p.  331 ;  vol.  v.  p.  173.— BoHiger, 
ifasengem.'llden,  iii.  46. 

§  170.  The  custom  of  freqvient  bathing  and  anointing  continued  to  the  latesl 
period,  and  both  were  practiced  for  pleasure  as  well  as  for  cleanliness  and  vigor 
of  body.  Public  baths  became  at  length  very  common,  even  in  *rie  cities 
which  had  not  previously  admitted  them.  They  were  furnished  with  several 
distinct  rooms  for  undressing,  for  bathing,  for  anointing,  &c,  which  were 
named  from  their  appropriate  uses. 

1.  The  public  baths  were  furnished  with  various  accomodations  for  convenience  and 
pleasure.     Among  the  separate  rooms  were  the  following :    the  omoiornptov ,  in  which 


210  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

those  who  hathed  put  off  their  clothes  ;  the  mdicawnw,  the  "  sweating  room,"  or  room 
for  taking  vapor  baths;  the  liattTiarnptov,  for  the  hot  bath;  the  Xovrpov,  ibr  the  cold  bath; 
the  akcamipiov,  the  anointing  room. 

This  account  of  the  rooms  is  according  to  Robinson,  Arch.  Grec.  p.  506. — For  a  more  full 
account  of  ancient  baths,  see  P.  IV.  $  241  b. 

2m.  The  various  ointments  used  had  different  names  according  to  the  modes  and 
materials  of  their  preparation.  To  such  an  extent  did  extravagance  go  in  this  respect, 
thai  it  was  sometimes  necessary  to  check  it  by  laws.  At  Sparta  the  selling  of  perfumed 
ointmi  nts  was  wholly  prohibited,  and  in  Athens  men  were  not  allowed  to  engage  in  it. 

3.  "Every  part  of  the  body  had  its  appropriate  unguent.  To  the  feet  and  legs  the  Greeks 
applied  /Egyptian  ointment  ;  the  oil  extracted  from  the  palm  was  thought  best  adapted  to  the 
cheeks  and  breasts;  the  .inns  were  refreshed  with  balsam-mint ;  sweet  marjoram  had  the  honor 
of  supplying  an  oil  for  I  he  eyebrows  and  hair,  as  wild  thyme  hail  fur  the  knee  and  neck. — A  nice 
distinction  divided  perfumes  into  two  kinds:  the  first  were  a  thicker  sort,  and  applied  more  as 
salves  or  wax  (xpijiara);  the  others  were  liquid,  and  poured  over  the  limhs  (dXciV/"ira).  To 
indulge  in  the  liquid  ointment  was  thought  to  evince  a  feminine  and  voluptuous  disposition  ;  but 
til-  s. iImt  and  virtuous,  ii  was  allowed,  might  use  the  thicker  sort  without  any  impeachment  of 
their  good  qualities  "  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xxiii.  263.—  Persons  called  dXtitrrat  were  employed  to 
anoint  (he  body  after  the  washing  and  the  rubbing  or  scraping  with  the  instrument  termed 
crXc j  j  ii  or  ^varaa. 

1  u.  Some  i  f  the  services  connected  with  washing  and  anointing  were  performed  by  women  ; 
in  particular  Ihey  washed  and  anointed  the  feet.  It  was  the  custom  to  kiss  the  feet  of  such  as 
were  highly  esteemed. 

In  illusT.tion  of  this  cuslom  of  kissing  the  feet,  of.  Aristophanes,  ZQnKts,  (p.  460.  ed.  Lug.  Bat.  1624),  and  in  New  Test,  Lukt 
>ii.  3P .  John  ii.  2 

§  171.  Thp  general  construction  of  Greek  houses  has  already  been  stated 
(§  56).  Perfect  as  was  the  art  of  architecture,  particularly  at  Athens,  it  was 
applied  tn  public  buildings  rather  than  private  dwellings,  which  were  mostly 
of  an  ordinary  character.  This  was  true  also  at  Thebes,  otherwise  greatly 
celebrated  for  her  superb  architecture.  Much  more  care  was  bestowed  in  orna- 
menting the  interior  apartments,  especially  the  hall  for  eating,  with  rich  furni- 
ture and  utensils,  and  with  elegant  works  of  art  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  178).  Besides, 
the  custom  of  encompassing  and  bordering  most  of  the  public  places  or  openings 
with  colonnades,  hindered  a  free  view  of  the  private  houses,  and  rendered  their 
beauty  or  splendor  superfluous.  The  artists  also  found  it  to  their  honor  and 
profit  to  construct  the  public  edifices  in  a  style  of  superior  magnificence. 

1.  The  common  term  for  the  whole  house  was  oIko^  ;  the  eating  hall  was  called 
rpiK\iutov  and  tanaropiov ;  the  sleeping  room,  koitwv. — Putter  gives  the  following  account 
ol  Grecian  houses.  "The  men  and  women  had  distinct  apartments.  The  part  in 
which  tin-  men  lodged  was  towards  the  gate,  and  called  av&piav  or  avftpuviris ;  lhat  assigned 
to  the  women,  was  termed  yiu<a<*w,  yiu'ai/ccji/i'rif,  and  was  the  most  remote  part  of  the 
house,  and  behind  the  ai\tt,  before  which  were  other  apartments  denominated  Trp6cop.o; 
and  vpoavkio  .  The  women's  chambers  were  called  rtycui  M\ap.oi,  as  being  placed  at  the 
tnji  ul  the  bouse  (cf.  §  56).  for  the  lodgings  of  the  women  were  usually  in  the  highest 
rooms  '  ".  uvrfp&jo).  Penelope  lodged  in  such  a  place,  to  which  she  ascended  by  a 
ic\ipal{Odyss.  i.  3'.10)." — The  terms  dvapadjidc,  amflaSpis,  AvoftaBpa,  and  avaflaQpov,  are  all 
used  to  designate  a  staircase,  a  flight  of  sttps,  or  stairs- — Portions  of  the  upper  story 
sometimes  projected  beyond  the  walls  of  the  lower  part,  forming  balconies  or  verandahs 
taiTrotiopara).  The  roofs  were  usually  Jlat ;  sometimes  pointed,  with  a  ridge 
and  gable.  'I  he  windows  or  openings  for  light  and  air  fSupufej)  were  commonly  in  the 
roofs  ol  the  peristyles.     The  chimney  (KmrvoioKin)  is  supposed  lo  have  been  merely  an 

opening  in  the  roof. -Although  in  general  the  private  dwellings  were  of  an  ordinary 

character,  yet  in  the  time  of  Demosthenes  there  were  some,  which  were  very  costly 
ii'id  splendid.  The  houses  of  Sparta  are  said  to  have  been  more  lofty  and  built  with 
greater  solidity  than  those  at  Athens. 

In  our  Plate  XXIV.  fig.  1,  is  a  plan  of  a  Grecian  house  as  given  by  Stuart  (Dictionary  of  Archi- 
tecture) Hi-  account  is  as  follows:  "The  Greek  house  had  no  atrium,  but  instead  of  it  Hie 
peristyle  was  approached  by  a  passage  called  thyroreum.     On  the  side  of  the  peristyle  opposite 

11 nirance  was  a  kind  of  vestibule  called  pastas;  the  apartments  on  the  right  and  fefi  of  which 

wen-  termed  -i  \  erally  thalamos  and  aviphi-thalamos,  and  beyond  them  were  the  ceci  or  halls.  In 
the  /.  >  ere  the  triclinia  in  daily  use,  and  the  apartments  of  the  domestics  ;  this  divi- 

sion o|  i  he  Pons.-  was  i  a, led  tjynar.onitis.  In  the  south  portico  of  the  greater  peristyle,  which  was 
Styled  andronitU,  were  the  ptvacotheca  and  Cyiicene  urns ;  in  the  eastern,  the  bibliotheca  ;  in  the 
western  the  exedra  ;  and  in  the  northern,  the  great  ants,  or  banqueting-room.  The  hospitalio 
consisted  of  triclinia  and  sleeping-rooms  for  strangers,  and  were  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  great 
gcus  There  were  courts  or  passages  to  tiu-se  apartments  calle.d  mesaulce.  In  the  plan  [given  in 
I  late  XXIV  \a  is  the  thyroreum;  b,  peristyle  of  the  gynteconitisf  c,  the  pastas ;  ti.the  great  acus, 
f,  stables;  /,/,  courts;  g,  <j.  L,.  porter's  cellos;  h.  It',  common  triclinia;  i,  the  thalamos ;  j.  lhe 
impAi  thilamos;  k,k,aci  or  balls;  /. /,  the  mesaula;  m,m,  the  hospitalia;  v,  the  vestibule  ;  o, 
ae  great  peristal,  ;  r,  the  bibliotheca  ;  </,  q,  the  pinacothecte ;  r,  the  Cyiicene  acus;  s,  the  eiedra.* 

2  A  door  (&vpo,  iriXn)  was  fastened  by  means  of  lock  and  key  ^XeU) ;  the  key  do- 


PLATE     XXV. 


21?  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

scribed  by   Homer  seems  to  have  been  merely  a  bolt  which  was  moved  by  a  thong 
,..;,;.,„  ,|  ,0  „  r,  Id   ,   4  12).     In  later  .in.es  keys  similar  to  the  modern  were  in  use. 
lrniture  are  named.     Although  the  house  usually  had  a  fixed  fire- 
,.„.',  s,oves  [itxipai)  or  chafing-dishes  (,«..»/,.«*«..)  were  frequently  used. 

fn  the  ro  .„,  was  the  bed,  wit,  or  X£*k  i  tins  was  often  in  the  form  of  the  sofa, 

about  six  feel  [one  and  ihree  broad  :  called  also  M  I  he  chair  (>«*),  ewer  (wtf 
and  basin  for  washing  (W-^m.).  mirror  (*u™rrpo.O  and  its  case  or  stand  (Aookto*),  clothes- 
Si  c.  are  mentioned, 
hi  Plate  XXXII  fie  6  is  a  son  of  key  formed  hv  a  bolt  and  siring;  it  was  found  at  Pompeii , 
ii,  Mate  XXIV  fie  2?  we  have  a  Grecian  metallic  key,  selected  from  a  number  given  in  M„„t- 
faueon  -Fib   5,  of  this  Plate,  shows  a  Grecian  snfo-bed,  with  a  man  in  one  corner  and  bis  w.te 

red is  behind  him.   Fig.  10,  of  the  sun,.-  Plate,  is  another  form  ol  the  Greek  sofa;  it  is  covered 

with  a  cushion,  iron,  which  an  ornamental  appendage  bangs  over  one  end  o   the  frame.     Fig.  d, 

of  Plate  \\\ll    i-  a  curious  form,  lake,,  fr an  Egyptian  n amem.— Chairs  (Egyptian]  oe 

fig.  -.  and  fig.  9,  of  Plate  XXIV.;  others  (Grecian)  in  fig.  7,  and  fig.  4.— The  lat.er,  fig  4, 
Bhows  also  a  mirr,,, .  held  by  .be  female  before  her  face. 

.  use.&c.  see  Heche's  Charicles.— Hirt'J  Geschiclite  der  Baukunst,  cited  P.  IV.  §  2«.  4. 

§  172.  The  arts  of  industry,  especially  navigation  and  commerce,  were 
highly  prosperous  in  the  flourishing  period  of  Grecian  history. 

1  u.  The  business  of   navigation    was   originally  in   the   hands  of  the  Phoenicians 
solely;  bul  afterwards  was  shared  by  the  occupants  of  Asia  Minor  and  several  of  the 
..Is.     The  lucrative  commerce  of  Egypt  was  then  chiefly  monopolized  by 
Greeks.     Athens  was  forced  to  engage  in  This  pursuit  by  the  unproductiveness  of 
her  soil;  and  although  Lycurgus  prohibited  commerce  at  Spar. a,  ye.  afterwards  even 
there  it  gradually  and  constantly  increased.     By  .he  union  with  Egypt  at  a  later  pe- 
riod. Grecian  commerce  rose  to  still  higher  success.     Besides  the  states  just  named, 
ith  and  the  islands  ^Egina  and  Rhodes  were  .he  principal  places  of  commerce; 
heir  industry  and  enterprise  contributed  very  much  to  the  wealth  and  power  of 
the  Grecian  states. 

a  was  favorably  situated  for  commerce,  being  washed  on  ibj,vc  sides  by  the 
sea.  Her  merchants  are  said.  !>esides  receiving  the  corn,  wines,  and  metals,  which 
came  from  various  places  in  the  Mediterranean,  to  have  imported  also  timber,  salted 
fish,  and  slaves  from  Thrace  and  .Macedonia;  woolen  and  other  stuff's  from  Asia  .Mi- 
nor and  Syria;  and  honey,  wax,  tar.  and  hides  from  the  cities  on  the  Black  sea 
They  likewise  exported,  not  only  different  commodi.ies  brought  from  foreign  coun- 
tries' for  the  purpose,  bul  the  products  of  Attica,  which  were  chiefly  olives  and  oil, 
and  various  articles  of  manufacture,  particularly  arms  and  domestic  utensils. 

Eartlielcmy'i  Anacharsis,  eh.  Ivi  — /).  II  W.-ni'ufVi  eeonraph.  urn.  hislor.  Nachrichten  die  Colonien  der  Griechen  bet-effend 
Altera,  1808.  B,— RotlmU  History  nf  the  Arts  ami  Sciences  r.f  the  Ancients.— Benedict,  Geschichte  der  SchiffTahrl  und  des  Handel, 

der  Alien. Fnr  an  account  of  the  routes  by  «  hich  'lie  productions  of  the  east  were  conveyed  through  Btbylon  to  'he  countries  of 

'h    M    ii'erranean.  see  Hteren  on  the  Commerce  of  Ancient  Babylon,  as  translated  by  F.  M.  Hubbard,  in  the  Bibl.  Rtpos.  vol.  vii. 
n.  361  ss. 

'.',.  It  is  evident  from  the  poems  of  Hesiod  (cf.  P.  V.  %  51),  that  agriculture  was  at 
an  early  period  a  subject  of  practical  interest  among  the  Greeks.  Yet  the  art  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  carried  to  very  great  perfection  in  any  of  the  s.ates.  (Cf.  §  58. > 

The  plow  {apoTpo  )  of  the  Greeks  is  said  to  have  been  of  two  kinds  (<5w  ei5n);  the 

ine   kind,    compi  I;    the   other,  simple  (dvrfryvov).      (Cf.    Hen.  Works   and 

Days,  v.  I'-'.  136.)  The  principal  parts  of  the  composite  were  the  following;  the 
beam;  the  former  term  is  also  put  for  the  yoke,  or  the  string  or  thong 
yoke  with  the  beam;  the  vwtc  or  w»;,  plowshare,  whose  extreme 
poinl  was  :  it  was  attached  to  a  piece  of  wood  called  HXv^a,  and  connected 

with  a  piece  termed  y»>is ;  the  exirXn,  handle. 

\  specimen  of  the  simple  may  be  seen  in  our  Plate  XXXII.  fi?.  6,  which  represents  a  Syrian 
plow,  with  a  small  metallic  blade  or  share,  furnishing  an  illustration  of  the  metaphor  of  the  pro« 
phet  i. Mir  nil  iv  .'.'.  other  forms  are  seen  in  fig  iii.;  one  of  the  engravings  shows  a  siiicle  bullock 
Ar:\\  ing  the  plow,  which  is  held  in  one  hand  of  the  laborer,  while  with  the  other  he  guides  the 
animal  by  a  rein. 

-  •    Honga  Sui  le>  instrument  d'aericuMure  des  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  de  rhulitut,  C.asse  cVHist.  et  Lit.Anc.  vol.  ii.  p  616; 
Dd  IBIS),  p.  I.  with  engraving!  -Cf.  R  ugier,  as  cited  5  13.5. 

1  The  soil  c  f  nVtlicn  was  more  favorable  to  the  production  of  the  grape  (/?drpuc\  olive  (t'Xntoj), 
Mid  fig  (tV"*),  than  of  grain  (ffiroc);  ami  il  was  necessary  to  import  the  latter;  it  has  been 
eitimated  thai  one-third  of  the  quantify  annually  consumed  was  imported.  The  export  a  lion  of 
'"in  w.i  i  :/t  Mm  i-<I  The  sale  of  it  was  under' the  supervision  of  officers  called  o-|  ToQvhaKC  s. 
If  corndealeri  (m  roirioXat)  combined  to  raise  thf  price,  they  were  liable  to  capital   punishment. 

II  order  lo  a  .  »  scarcity  of  corn  (oiToieia),  public  granaries  (o-itWoVui)  were  kept,  under  the 

l:re.  lion    '  •  a'  ■ ">. ynrs  (atTiavai)  and  receivers  (.dmiScKrai) . 

I  ■,: .  m,,  [list.  ,le  I'Asrlc.  des  Grecs.  Par.  1830.  2  vols.  8. 

$  17?.   \\<-n  ;t  may  be  proper  to  o-jve  a  brief  account  of  the  moneys,  weights, 
rt.nl   me»9  ii  -  nf  the  Greeks,     In  early  times,  traffic  was  effected  only  hv  ex- 
's, or  barter,  the  inconvenience  of  which  must  soon  be  felt-  jinde 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       MONEY.       COINS.  213 

metals  were  next  employed,  in  order  to  render  an  equivalent  for  what  was  pur- 
chased, and  were  weighed  for  the  purpose.  Afterwards  their  weight  and  value 
were  indicated  by  signs,  marked  or  impressed  upon  them.  At  length,  regular 
coins  were  stamped,  but  the  exact  time  of  their  first  appearance  cannot  be  decided 
(cf.  P.  IV.  §  94,  95).  It  is  known,  however,  that  in  the  time  of  Solon,  B.  C. 
about  600,  they  were  in  common  use  in  Greece.  The  metals  used  in  making 
money-coins  were  gold,  silver,  brass,  copper,  and  iron.  The  oldest  coins  were 
impressed  only  on  one  side.  The  impressions  were  various,  both  as  to  the 
objects  represented  and  as  to  the  art  and  skill  therein  exhibited.  The  Attic 
coins  were  stamped  with  an  image  of  Minerva,  and  of  the  owl,  her  sacred  bird. 

1m.  The  general  terms  used  to  designate  metals  as  a  circulating  medium  were 
these:  vaynafia,  any  legitimate  coin  ;  xpnp-a,  money  in  the  loose  sense  ;  and  Keppa,  small 
coin  or  change.  Besides  these  there  were  numberless  specific  names,  derived  lrom 
the  weight  of  the  coins,  the  place  where  they  were  struck,  or  the  image  upon  their 
face.  There  were  also  terms,  which  expressed  large  sums  or  amounts,  but  were  not 
names  of  actual  coins;  as  e.  g.  the  pwa  or  pvea,  and  the  rakavTov,  The  former  (jtva)  de- 
signated at  Athens  the  sum  of  100  drachms;  at  JEgina,  the  sum  of  160;  the  term 
was  however  also  used  to  signify  merely  the  golden  trrariip.  The  latter  (rdXavrov)  was 
usually  the  sum  of  6000  drachms,  but  had  different  values  in  different  places;  a  talent 
of  gold  in  Attica  was  equivalent  to  ten  talents  of  silver. 

2  u.  Of  the  actual  and  circulating  coins  the  Xerrfo  was  the  smallest.  Seven  of  this 
name  were  equal  to  the  xaXmvc,  and  eight  of  the  latter  to  the  60o\6c.  This  last  varied, 
however,  in  value,  according  to  the  place  where  it  was  coined.  Six  60o\6t  were  equi- 
valent to  the  SpaKp>i,  which  had  its  name  from  the  weight,  but  was  of  different  values 
in  different  places.  The  names  of  the  coins  hiiuofioXtov,  6ua06\u>v  or  6i60o\ov,  rpiSffoXov. 
&c,  and  V"'/'"> /""'.  didpax/tov,  &c,  are  easily  understood.  Four  ipa\pai  were  equal  >o 
the  arart'ip  in  silver,  a  coin,  which  was  also  called  rerpdfpcOQioi,  and  seems  to  have  been 
the  one  most  generally  in  use  among  the  Greeks.  The  ararip  in  gold  was  equal  in 
value  to  20  dpax/iai,  in  weight  to  2,  and  was  sometimes  called  6i&pa\jiog,  but  was  most 
generally  termed  \pvaovc.  It  received  likewise  other  names  from  the  places  where, 
or  the  kings  under  whom,  it  was  struck;  as  e.  g.  Staler  Daricus,  Stater  <  rcesi,  &c. 

3.  Among  the  coins,  named  from  the  image  upon  them,  were  the  0ovs,  bearing  the  figure  of  an 
ox;  the  Kooii,  having  a  representation  of  Pallas,  the  maid;  yAaOJ,  with  an  owl  for  its  device, 
another  name  for  the  tetradrachma. 

In  Tlate  XL.  are  several  specimens  of  Greek  coins,  taken  from  Montf at/con's  Antiquity  Ex- 
plained, and  from  Calmet's  Dictionary.  Fig  1  is  a  coin  of  Thebes;  fig.  2,  of  Argos ;  3,  of  jEgina ; 
4,  and  also  a,  d.  and  r,  are  Macedonian  coins  ;  5,  and  also  q.c,  f,  and  p,  are  Athenian  ;  6  is  a  coin 
nf  ThespUe  ;  7  is  an  jEtolian.  Fig.  5  is  an  Attic  Utrudrachm,  with  .Minerva's  head  on  the  .diverse, 
and  on  the  reverse  an  owl  standing  on  a  prostrate  vase,  ihe  dptpopevs  (amphora)  or  Sldrn  {diota), 
with  the  inscription  A6E  ,  the  whole  encon  passed  with  an  olive  crown.  Fig  c  is  the  reverse 
of  a  didrachm,  shown  g  an  augur's  wand  and  a  sacrificial  vase.  Fig.  /  is  the  drachm,  bearing  a 
sort  of  iripoci ;  fig.  c  is  another,  which  has  the  head  of  a  Vulcan,  and  on  the  reverse  are  two 
lighted  torches  ;  on  b,  Apollo  appears  in  company  with  the  owl. — Cf.  P.  IV.  $  93. — For  a  tabular 
view  of  the  chief  coins  and  their  relative  value,  see  our  Plate  XXVi. 

§  174  it.  Various  changes  successively  took  place  in  the  denomination  of  Greek 
coins.  There  were  changes  also  in  the  worth  of  these  coin's,  both  as  to  their  actual 
contents  and  their  relative  value.  Sometimes  it  was  necessary  to  coin  tin  and  iron  for 
money.  The  Spartans  were  required  by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  to  use  tin  and  iron, 
and  did  not  depart  from  the  custom  until  a  late  period.  The  common  ratio  between 
gold  and  silver  was  as  one  to  ten,  but  it  was  sometimes  above  ;  as  one  to  twelve  and  a 
half.  There  are  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  comparing  Grecian  money  with  mo- 
dern, and  thus  obtaining  a  settled  idea  of  the  value  of  the  former.  The  cpaxpi)  equal- 
led about  9d  sterling. 

I.  The  mint  at  Athens,  or  place  where  money  was  coined,  was  called  lipyvpoKoirtTov ;  here 
vere  kept  the  standard  weights  for  the  various  coins.— Many  specimens  of  the  silver  orarfia  or 
rtrpi^uaxpLV  are  still  preserved  in  collections.  Leironne,  having  accurately  examined  live  hundred 
)f  them,  and  arranged  them  according  lo  the  centuries  in  which  they  were  struck,  deduces  the 
tiean  weight  of  the  old  Attic  <5p«x/<ij,  coined  B.  C.  two  centuries  and  more  ;  and  the  value,  ss 
<hus  derived,  is  slated  at  17  cents  5.93  mills  of  our  currency.  The  later  Spaxufl  is  staled  at  16 cents 
6.92  mills. 

2.  See  Conner's  Essay  on  the  Measures,  Weights,  and  Moneys  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  Anthon's  ed.  of  Lemffi  icrt. —  G  Grosit, 
Metrol.  Tafeln  lller  die  lit.  Masse,  kc.  Rnms  und  Griechenlands.  (by  A.  G.  Kastner  )  Brauns.  1792  S  —  F.  C/i.  MalthiS  Ueber- 
sirhf  ties  mm.  und  griech.  Mass  Gewichts-  trnd  Munz-Wesens.  Frankf.  1^09.  4. — J.  F.  IVurm,  De  ponderum,  etc.  rationiliusapud 
Rornauos  et  Graecos.     Lips.  1821.  8  — Hussey,  Ancient  Money,  Weights,  kc.  cited  ^  274.  2. — Bdekh,  (Jeber  M  tnzen,  M  *e,  and 

Geuichte  des  Allerthums.     Lpz.  1838.  8.— Eckel,  as  cited  P.  IV.  $  99.  1 On  the  whole  subje-    of  Greek  Coins  and  Melals.  trt 

P.  IV.  ^  93-99. 

§  175.  In  connection  with  the  account  of  Grecian  money,  it  is  proper  to  speak  of 
their  systems  of  notation,  or  of  denoting  numbers.  The  more  ancient  method  was 
route  simple.  Six  letters  were  used  for  the  purpose,  viz.  for  one,  I,  perhaps  from  la 
(or  Mt'a;  {ox  Jive,  II,  from  nierc;  for  ten,  A,  from  Aj/ca;  for  a  hundred.  H    lrom  H«a- 


211  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

t6v  {Ikutov)',  for  a  thousand,  X,  from  XAta;  and  for  ten  thousand,  M,  from  Mvpia.  AU 
numbers  were  expressed  by  combinations  of  these  letters;  each  combination  signify- 
ing the  sum  of  the  numbers  designated  by  the  letters  separately;  e.g.  nil  I  repre- 
I  i  ight  :  AIII,  sixlei  n  :  A  4,  twenty,  &c.  Sometimes  they  were  combined  so  as 
instead  ol  the  sum,  of  the  separate  letters;  in  such  case,  one 
ot  the  lem  rs  was  made  large,  and  the  other  was  written  within  it  of  a  smaller  size.  • 
for  ,  xamp  ,  .  |  |  ig  a  M  with  a  -i  in  its  bosom)  signified  10x5.  i-  e.  50:  so  h 

II  with  an  H  placed  within  it  signified  100X5,  or  500;  and  a  A  having  M  within  it, 
0,000X10,  or  100,000:  this  form  of  combination  was  chiefly  confined  to 
numbers  involving  5  as  a  factor  ;  such  numbers  were  expressed  by  using  a  large  II  and 
writing  the  letter  for  the  other  factor  in  iis  bosom.  This  was  the  old  Attic  system, 
and  is  found  on  inscriptions  ;  it  is  seen  in  the  Chronicon  Parium  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  91.  4). 

But  this  method  was  superseded  by  another;  in  which  all  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 

bei  were  employed,  and  also  three  signs  in  addition,  viz.  Bay,  Konra,  and  Sa^n-r,  men- 

i  in  P.  I  V.  §  46.  2.     By  this  system,  the  first  eight  letters,  from  Alpha  to  T/uta, 

■  ^sed  the  units  respectively  from  1  to  9,  Bav  being  inserted  alter  Epsilon,  to  sig- 

nify  6 ;  the  si  cond  eight,  from  Iota  to  J'i,  expressing  the  tens  ;  the  last  (II)  signifying 

i    k  —  >  being  used  for  90;  the  next  eight,  from  Rho  to  Omega,  expressed  the 

hum  I  for  800,  and  Sa/nrt  being  used  lor  900.     The  letters,  when  thus 

used  to  designate  numbers,  were  usually  marked  with  a  stroke  above ;  thus,  i,  10; 

-'.'.     In  order  to  express  thousands,  the  eight  first  letters  with  Bav  were 

again  used,  but  with  a  stroke  beneath  ;  thus,  ,<5,  4,000;    r,  6,000;    kv\S',  20,432. 

:  '/uon'j  Bullman,  §  2.—Bou:lkt,  Diet.  Class.  (Tableaux,  &c.  N.  34.) 

§  176.  The  use  of  weights  was  of  early  origin  among  the  Greeks,  as  else- 
win  re.  Grecian  weights  had  the  same  names  with  their  coins  of  money,  a 
circumstance  which  seems  clearly  to  point  back  to  the  custom  of  weighing 
uncoined  gold  and  silver  for  purposes  of  exchange.  The  proportions  of  the 
weights  were  different  in  different  applications  of  them  ;  as,  e.  g.  those  of  com- 
mon merchandise  did  not  in  all  respects  correspond  with  those  of  the  apothecary. 
The  63o?.oj  is  said  to  have  been  the  smallest  weight  used,  except  by  apothecaries 
or  physicians,  who  used  a  weight,  termed  xfpa'rioy,  about  one-fourth  of  the 
..  and  another,  nirupvov,  only  one-fourth  of  that. 

Cf.  L.  Pxtui,  l)e  Mensnris  e'  Ponderibus  Rom.  et  Gracis.     Venal.  1573.  [al.—  lVwm,  Hussey,  &c  as  died  §  174.  2.— See  the 
tabular  view  given  in  I'Ule  XXV  a. 

§  177.   In  speaking  of  the  Greek  measures,  we  may  notice  them  as  divided 
into  measures  of  length,  of  surface,  and  of  capacity. 

1  a.  The  names  of  the  measures  of  length  were  taken,  as  was  the  case  in  most  o. 

the   ancient    nations,    from    members  of  the   human   body;  e.g.  oaiervXos,  a  finger's 

in,  hand's  width,  the  distance  from  the  extremity  of  the  thumb 

to  thai  ol  the  little  finger;  ~»\.  a  loot.     The  Herculean  or  Olympic  foot  was  longer. 

The  -  y  f,  a  cubit,  was  the  distance  from   the  elbow  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle 

i  fathom,  was  the  distance  across  the  breast,  between  the  extremities 

hands,  the  arms  being  extended  (dpsyw)  in  a  horizontal  line. 

2.   ( )l  measures  including  length  and  breadth,  or  measures  of  surface,  the  principal 

the  -'i  j,  the  fyo-ipa,  and  the  n-Aeflpw.     The  to%  was  a  square  with  each  side  ono 

a  square  with  each  side  50  ir6&e$ ;  and  the  nKfflpov,  a  square  with  a  side 

ot  ]i><  ~  i'  , - ;    so  thai  2,500  noki  made  an  apoya  and  4  apo'ipai  a  rrXWpov. — The  term  inzapriov 

seems  to  have  been  used  to  designate  a  measuring  line. 

3m.   Measures  of  capacity  had  mostly  the  same  names,  whether  applied  to  liquids  or 

gs  dry.     The  largest  liquid  measure  was  ptTprjrns,  equal  to  about  8  gallons,  and 

and  dptpopevs.  The  smallest  measure  was  the  Ko\\iapiov, 

lining  less  than  a  hundredth  part  of  a  pint,  and  so  called  from  K6\\og  or  Ko\\ioj,  a 

hell.     The  {earns  contained  about  a  pint,  and  was  equal  to  twice  the  measure 

termi  Bi  tween  the  wrBAij( half  pint)  and  the  Ko\\iapioi/,  six  intervening  measures 

«re  named      The   measure  next  larger  than  the  g&mK  (pint)  was  the  xoiis,  containing 

upwards  ol  two  quarts. 

'  '  M  '  "'  '"i  <>  said  to  have  been  applied  hy  ancient  physicians  to  the  same  use  as  modern 
er.i.l  i  ited  glasses  at  apothecaries,  being  made  ot"  horn,  and  divided  on  the  outside  hy  lines,  so 
that  i  ertain  nuns  ofthe  measure  corresponded  to  certain  denominations  of  weight.  The  largest 
l-  '  '"'  ipplied  to  iIiiiil's  dry  was  the  ptSipvog,  which  contained  somewhat  more  than  a  iuishel 
fourth,  and  received  different  names  in  different  regions.  The  xoti/t? was  a  little  less  than 
i  quart)  tern  eight  of  winch  were  contained  in  the  p,iiilivnc.  The  5  Jdif,  equivalent  to  the 
■  a  lined  four  \»cn«(,  .Must  of  the  other  measures  were  of  the  same  names  as 
the  lii|ind  measures. 

rj  into  the  vat,-  ,,i  Ancient  Mi  isuret,  Attic,  Roman,  and  Jewish.    I.ond.  1721.  S.—K6ckh,  lVurm,&c  cited 
in  Platte  XXV  a. 

S  178.  The  social  pleasures  and  amusements  of  the  Greeks  were  verv  nu- 


PLATE    XXV  a. 


GRECIAN 

MONEYS,  1WEASCRES,  AND  WEIGHTS. 

The  estimated  value  in  our  denominations 
is  given  according  to  the  Tables  of  A.  B. 
Conger,  which  are  based  on  the  Treatise  of 
fVvrm,  &c  the  Tables  of  Bouillet. 


Moneys. 

1.  Below  the  Drachm. 

\tiri6v     ....... 

7    I  XaAKotSj 

14  |    2    |  AtxaXxov 

28  |   4    I    2    I  ■Hfuo/36\iov 

:    |  'O/Jo.vd; 

1    I    2     |  AidfSoXov    - 


Dolls  cts.  i 
0  00 


56  |    8 
1 12  |  16 


224  |  32  |    16  |    S    |    4    I    2    |  TtrooflMov  -        .   II    7.2 


336  |  48  |  24  I   12  |    6    |    3    |TJ]  Apa%/iij    •     •  17  6.9 


2.  Above  the  Drachm. 


Ap".Y/"i  •       • 

2     |  Atdpaxpov 
4     |     2     |  Tit 9dlf aX liov 


20 

10 

5     \XPvaov 

100 

50 

25    |    5    |  M 

6000 

3000 

1500  |  300  |  60 

60000  30000  15000  3000  600    10 


Dolls,  els.  m. 

0   17  5.9 

.  •  35  1.8 

.       .    70  3.7 

3  51   8.6 

•     17  59  3.2 

1055  59  3.2 

■  10555  93  2.6 


Measures  of  Capacity. 

1.  For  Liquids. 


KoxMdpiov    • 
2    I  Xijftq  -        - 
2.5  1 1.25  |  Mf<TTpov 

Kdyxs) 


5    I  2-5  | 

0  |    5    |    4    |  2  |  Kva9o$ 


15  [7.5  |    6    |  3  1 1.5  |  'OivPaQov   . 
30  |   15  |  12  |  6  1  3  |  2  |  TiTapTov  - 
60  |  30  |  24  |  12  [  6  |  4  |  2  |  Ko TtiA t) 
120  |  60   |  4-  |2t  1  12  |  S  |  4   I  2  |  s.taT-q'j 
720 1  360  [  288  1 144|  72  |  4S  |  24  1 12|  6  |  X. 
4320l2160|l728|!-64i432l2>s|lj4|72|36|  6  \AuZtt) 


Gal.  qt.  pis. 

0    0  0.007  I 

.  0.015  ! 

•  0.019  ' 

•  0.039 

•  0.079 

•  0. 1  IS 

•  0.237 

•  0.475 

•  0.950  I! 
2  1.704  || 
I  0  229  ', 


The  Alton?  doubled  formed  the  neit  and  largest 
measure,  Msrp^T?;s 


2.  For  Things  Dry 


Ko^Atdptov 
10    |  Ktuios  ■ 


15    |  1.5  |  'Olff/3a0cn> 

KotvXtj  • 
2  |  Eter?js 


60    I 


uu 


240  |  24  |  16  |  4  I  2  1  Xoii'if 


960  |  9b   |64  I  16  |g|4  |  'H> 


1920  I  192  ( I2S[  32  J 16]  8  |2  |  "Ektos 


Bu.  ph.  qt 

0    0   0 


384H  I  384  ]2?6|  64  1 32  [  1 6 1  4  J2  1  Tptro; 
H52<i|ll52|76S|l92J96|48|  121  6  |  3  |  Mtftpi 


pts. 

0.007 
0.079 
0.118 
0.475 
0.950 
1.901 
1.606 
1.213 
0.126 
1.279 


Measures  of  Length. 

1.  Small  Measures. 

AdKTV\0C  ....... 

KdwSuAo; 

Habaia-Trj,  or  Aftpov      .       .        .       . 
2    |  Ai^as,  or  'H/uirdiftov 


5.i 


2.5  |  1.25     AixdS     • 
2.75  1 1. 375 1 1.01  |  'OpMdwpov 


3    |    1.5  1  1.2  |  l.6a  |  Z mea/tr) 


4    |     2     |  1.6  |  1.45  |  1.3  |  no5? 


4.5    2  25  I  1.8  I  l.63|  1.5  1 1.125]  Ylvy/n} 


5    I   2.5  |   2    |  lj'l  1  1  6  |  1.25  !  1.1  |  ritfyajv 


6    |     3     |  2.4  12.18  |    2    |  1.5   |l.3|l.2j  n^t/J 


rt 

In. 

0 

0.7, 

. 

1.51 

. 

3.03 

• 

6.06 

. 

7.68 

• 

8.34 

. 

B.10 

1 

0.13 

1 

1.65 

I 

3.17 

1 

6  JO 

2.  Great  Measures. 


noes 


40  1 16.6  |  10  |  1.8  |  nx^pov      • 

TLrditov    - 


4S0  |  200  |  120  1  20  |  12  |  2  |  AfavAo; 


960  |  400    240  |  40  |  24  |  4  I  2  I  'Iirirtiedv    • 


7200 1 2880  [1200 1  720  |  120  |  72  |  12  |  6  |  3  |  ArfAtyo; 


Miles,  yds.  ft. 

0  000  1.01 

•  •  2.52 

•  2  6.06 

•  3  1.11 

•  20  0.68 

•  33  2.14 

•  202  0  87 

•  404  1.75 
809  0.50 
667  1.51 


Measures  of  Surface. 


Iloii;    - 

36    1  'EgairiSo'ijs    • 
100    |  2.7    |  "AKaiva 


833.3  |23.'l4>l  8.3  |  -H>(e«TOS 
1666  61  46  3  |  16.6  I  2  \"F.KToq  ■ 


PdUl 

0 

sq.ft. 

001.02 

• 

36.82 

• 

102.30 

.    3 

35.79 

6 

71.58 

•    9 

107.37 

2500  |  69.4  |    25    |  3  |l.s|  "Apotipa 

101.00  1 277.7  |  100  |  12  |  6  |  4     ILViSpov  37     157.26 


Weights. 

1.  Below  the  Drachm. 

(Troy  Weight.) 
Dwts.  grs. 

AtTSTov o    00.20 

7  I  X«ActSc 

28  |  4  |  •HiuofidXlov    ■ 

56  1 1  8  1  2  |  'OftoAd; 

112  I  16  |  4  |  2  |  Aio/JdAov  • 


336|  48  |  12  |  6 


1.40 

5.61 
1 1 .22 

22  44 

19,33 


2.  Above  the  Drachm. 


Apaxiif) 
2     I  A(6oaxp.ov 
100  |  50  |  Mbo     ■ 


000  1 3000 1  60  |  TdXavTov 
lOCOolaOOol  lOollf !  ToAovtow 


(Troy  Weight.) 

Lbs.  oz.  dwts.  grs. 

00  00      2    19.33 

•      •  .      5    14.66 

1  2      0     13.48 

70  1     13    17.20 

116  19    16      4.82 


215 


21(5  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

merous.  and  in  the  belter  portion  of  their  history,  various,  refined,  and  tasteful 
Music  and  dancing  wire  among  the  most  prominent,  and  were  almost  a  neces* 
.-.try  accompaniment  of  public  and  private  festivals,  entertainments,  and  social 
meetings.  In  this  custom  there  was  a  regard  not  merely  to  immediate  gratifi- 
cation, but  also  to  the  promotion  of  the  general  culture.  Song  and  musical 
impaniment  were  almost  inseparable;  at  least  instrumental  music  was 
scire.  |\  ever  practiced  without  vocal.  There  were  several  kinds  of  exercise, 
which  it  was  common  to  connect  with  the  entertainments  of  the  banquet,  and 
various  social  games  or  plays  (cf.  §  167). 

There  was  an  amusement  in  which  dancing  and  playing  with  a  ball  {<r<paipa)  were 
connected  together1.     The  game  at  ball  was  a  favorite  amusement,  and  was  ranked 

a ng  the  gymnastic  exercises;    five  different  modes  are  named:    oipavia,   iiricKvpog, 

ifij.  There  was  a  sort  of  dancing  in  which  the  dancers  or  tumblers2 
--vrijpr,-)  flung  themselves  on  then  heads  and  alighted  again  on  their  feet,  and  made 
Bomersets aver  knives  and  swords. — A  favorite  dance  is  st ill  preserved3  in  Greece,  called 
Romaica. 

*  Burette,  Spheristique  des  Anciens,  in  the  Hist,  tit  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  Vol.  i.  p.  153. 2  See  Paciaudius,  as  cited  §  S8.  2.— 

.  he. 3  Loud.  Quart.  Rev   xxiii.  350. 

Set  Jttirittt,  De  la  danse  <!es  Anciens,  in  the  Hist,  dc  VAcad.  des  hiscr.  i.  93. — /.  Meursius,  De  Saltationibus  Veterum,  contained 
in  vo  1  mi  of  Qrcmovius,  as  cited  §  13.— Jul.  Cms.  Eulaigcri  de  ludis  privatisac  domestieis  veterum  liber  unions.  Ludg.  1627.  9 
This  is  given  also  in  the  C'fau.  Juurn.  vol.  v.— (In  various  Doric  dances,  cf.  Milller,  Hist,  and  Aniiq.  of  Doric  Race,  bk.  i.  ch.  vi. 

§  179.  Under  the  Archaeology  of  Greek  literature  notice  is  taken  fcf.  P.  IV.  §  63,  §  65, 
of  the  great  importance  and  comprehensive  meaning  of  music  (ponatKo)  in  the  system  of 
education  among  ihe  <  •  r»  eks.  Here  we  introduce  some  remarks  on  musical  sounds  and 
instruments.  To  denote  what  is  now  called  the  Science  of  Music  ihe  Greeks  used  the 
term  'Apjm  ""?•  The  subject  was  divided  into  several  parts  ;  stated  by  some  as  follows  : 
1.  of  sounds  (~r/-t  i/iOoyyoj.') ;  2.  oi  intervals  (ispi  haoTripa-oji') ;  3.  of  systems  (ftpi  avarripaTwv) ; 
4.  of  hi  ii,   :.  :    5.  oi  modes  (wcpi  rovtov  or  vapwv);    6.  of  transition  or  mutation 

(-cpl  fteraffoKils) ;  7.  oi  composition  (jrtpi  pt&tmotiac,). — "  The  notes  or  sounds  of  the  voice  were 
si  ven,  each  of  which  was  attributed  to  some  particular  planet :    1.  vklxto,  to  the  Moon  ; 

if  -arr),  to  Jupiter  ;  3.  \i\avoq,  to  Mercury  ;  4.  porn,  to  the  Sun  ;  5.  irapaphri ,  to  Mars; 
6.  rptrtj,  to  Venus;  and  7.  vfinn,  to  Saturn.  Some,  however,  take  them  in  a  contrary 
order,  and  ascribe  (mart)  to  Saturn,  and  vmn  to  ihe  Moon. — The  tone  or  mode,  which 
the  musicians  used  in  raising  or  depressing  the  sound  was  called  n6pog ;  and  they  were 
called  i  <  .  as  being  laws-  or  models  by  which  they  sang  or  played.  There  were  four 
principal  v6ptn  or  modes;  the  Phrygian,  the  Lydian.  the  Doric,  and  the  Ionic.  To  these 
some  add  a  fifth,  which  they  call  'he  iEolic,  but  which  is  nor  mentioned  by  ancient 
authors.    The  Phrygian  mode  was  religious  ;  the  Lydian,  plaintive ;  the  Doric,  mariial ; 

i  mic,  gaj  and  cheerful ;  and  the  iEolic,  simple.  The  mode  used  in  exciting  soldiers 

tn  battle  was  called  "Opdio;. Afterwards,  the  term  vopoi  began  to  be  applied  to  the 

hymns  which  were  sung  in  those  modes." 

urn,  Arch.  Grsec.  bk.  v.  ch.  xxiii.— For  a  fuller  account  of  the  science,  see  Smith,  Diet,  of  Ant.  p.  624.— Drieberg,  Musi 
A  iv  iim  tuften  der  Griechen.— Also,  ISuretle,  Chabanon,  &c.  as  cited  P  IV.  §  63  —Meibomius,  Collection  of  ancient  writers 
led  P.  V  5  208.  1. 

180.  "  The  music  of  the  Greeks  was  either  vocal  or  instrumental.  The  music  of 
those  who  only  played  on  instruments  was  called  po-aixh  t/ziXij;  that  of  those  who  also 
sang  in  the  instrument,  porcw<o  psra  peXcoSta;.  The  musical  instruments  were  divided  into 
trrcL,  wind  instruments,  and  irrara  or  i'£i>/)6<5sra,  stringed  instruments.  The  lyre,  the 
flute,  and  the  |>i|ie,  were  the  three  principal  instruments  ;  but  there  were  several  others. 
— ( M  the  instruments  to  which  chords  or  strings  were  applied,  the  most  famous  was 
tin  lyre,  which  was  called  in  Greek  KiBdpa  and  tb6ppuy$,  though  some  affect  a  distinctit 
between  the  harp  and  ihe  lyre.  At  first,  the  strings  were  made  of  linen  thread,  ai.u 
afterwards  oi  the  intestines  oi  sheep.  Anciently,  the  chords  or  strings  were  three  in 
number,  whence  such  lyre  was  railed  rpixopios;  and  the  lyre  wilh  three  strings  is  said 
bj  -"""  to  have  been  invented  in  Asia,  a  city  ofLydia,  whence  it  was  sometimes  de- 
nominaied  daias.  Afterwards,  ii  was  rendered  more  perfect  by  having  seven  strings, 
and  hence  was  called brraxopdos,  brratpOoyyos,  and  c7m<yA<oo-o-uc.  They  struck  the  strings 
sometimes  with  a  bow,  ami  sometimes  only  with  the  fingers  ;  and  to  play  on  this  instru- 
ment was  called  in  Greek  kSoi  i  tiv,  Kpoiciv  irX^rpoj,  or  61  iceiv,  (WmXioic  Kpoieiv,  and  ipdXXsiv. 
,'  "  lrilM  '"  play  well  on  the  lyre,  an  apprenticeship  of  three  years  was  necessary.  This 
instrument  was  invented  in  Arcadia,  which  abounded  with  tortoises,  of  the  shell  of 
which  the  lyre  was  made. — 'I  he  flute,  aiXdc,  was  a  celebrated  instrument.  It  was  used 
in  tin  sacrifices  ol  the  gods,  at  festivals,  games,  entertainments,  and  funerals.  Minerva 
said  to  have  invented  the  straight,  and  Pan  the  oblique  flute  (7rXayia»Aoc).  Flutes  were 
made  ol  the  bones  ol  stags  or  lawns,  and  hence  called  vePpeiot  ut'Xin,  and  the  inven- 

'" f  making  them  ol  these  materials  is  ascribed  to  the  Thebans.     They  were  also 

IM/"I'   ol  ihe  I ie  of  asses,  and  of  elephants;    and  likewise  of  reed,  box',  and  loins. 

1  '■•   BcwMians  i  xcelli  d  all  the  other  Greeks  in  playing  on  this  instrument. — '1  he  pipe 


If    III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       MUSICAL    INSTRUMENTS.  2H 

was  called  ovpiyl,  and  differed  in  sound  from  the  flute.  The  tone  of  the  pipe  was  sharp 
and  shrill,  and  hence  its  sounds  were  called  \nrra\iai.  On  the  contrary,  the  sound  of 
the  flute  was  grave,  full,  and  mellow  ;  and  hence  the  flute  was  denominated  ^apippoiioc" 
Besides  the  instruments  already  named,  we  may  mention  the  following,  arranged  under  the 
heads  "(stringed  instruments,  wind  instruments,  and  instruments  of  percussion. 

1.  Stringed  instruments:  va,8\a,  a  sort  of  lute  or  lyre,  said  to  have  twelve  strings 
{h'i&tKa  <p86yyovS) ;  irriKri;,  another  variety  of  the  lyre,  used  by  the  Lydians ;  payaSi;,  a  Iflte 
with  twenty  strings;  aoicapov,  said  to  be  of  a  square  form  and  similar  to  the  ipiOina; 
Kivipa,  an  Asiatic  lute  often  said  to  be  of  a  melancholy  tone,  but  perhaps  without  foun- 
dation ;  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  strings  were  drawn  over  a  sounding  board,  and 
in  playing  were  struck  with  a  plectrum  (irXriKTpov),  like  a  modern  violin  ;  o-a[tf3vKn,  sambuca 
(cf.  Persius,  Sat.  v.  25),  sackbut(cL  Dan.  iii.  5),  a  harp  of  a  triangular  form,  with  four 
strings  of  acute  sound,  used  in  chanting  iambics  ;  rpiywvov,  a  triangle  with  several  strings 
ot  unequal  length  ;  xpaXrijpiov,  said  to  be  like  the  payafi;,  and  also  used  for  any  variety 
ol  the  lyre  ;  ipiOipa,  a  Libyan  instrument  of  a  square  form. 

In  Plate  XXVI  are  given  various  forms  of  stringed  instruments.  Fig.  1.  is  a  triangular  form 
of  the  harp  or  lyre,  hy  some  considered  as  the  sambuca,  by  others  as  the  trigonon.  Fig.  C  pre- 
sents a  similar  form  ;  this  is  taken  from  a  representation  of  a  religious  festival  found  at  Hercu 
laneum  (cf.  Land.  Quart.  Rev.  xviii.  87) ;  it  shows  a  Cupid  dancing  and  playing.  Fig.  10  is  by 
gome  called  the  sambuca ;  having  four  strings  apparently  over  a  sounding  board.  Fig.  w  is  an 
old  form  of  the  lyre  with  three  strings.  Fig.  11  is  another,  given  in  Ca/met  as  "  Timotheus's 
harp  with  nine  strings."  Fig.  4  is  the  asearon  as  given  by  JHontfaucon.  Fig.  2  is  a  form  of  the 
lyre  found  on  Egyptian  monuments}  fig.  e  shows  the  mode  of  playing  upon  it.  (For  the  Thes- 
pian lyre,  see  Plate  XL.  fig.  6.)— In  fig.  6,  we  have  the  kinura  or  violin,  from  Montfaucon.  In  fig.  7 
is  a  similar  instrument  from  Niebuhr,  in  a  side  view;  a  front  view  of  it  is  given  in  fis.  8,  having 
five  strings  of  metal  wire.  Fig.  3  and  fig.  5,  also  from  Niebuhr,  are  given  in  Calmet,  as  othel 
forms  of  the  kinura  or  kinnor,  which  have  been  noticed  by  travelers  in  the  east.  A  harp  con- 
sisting of  seventy-two  strings  or  wires  is  said  to  be  used  in  Kurdistan  (cf.  A.  Grant,  p.  57,  as 
cited  P.  I.  }  154  b).  Fig.  9  is  taken  from  a  sculpture  at  Thebes  in  Egypt,  and  seems  to  be  the 
same  instrument  with  three  strings;  it  has  been  supposed  to  represent  the  Hebrew  shalishim 
played  on  by  females  in  David's  time  (1  Sam.  xviii.  6).  In  fig.  /  is  seen  a  Persian  violin  and 
fiddler. 

2.  Wind  instruments:^";'"?,  a  kind  of  flute  of  Phrygian  invention,  usually  made  oi 
boxwood  ;  yiyyp*  or  yiyypia,  a  Phoenician  pipe  (cf.  §  77.  2),  short,  of  a  plaintive  note, 
u6vau\o;t  a  flute  used  especially  at  nuptial  festivals;  uo-kukAoj,  a  sort  of  bagpipe.  It  may 
be  remarked,  that  there  was  a  great  variety  of  these  instruments  belonging  to  the  clasa 
of  pipes  or  flutes.  The  o-ipiyl,  which  is  called  also  the  pipe  of  Pan,  is  of  great  antiquity  ■ 
some  suppose  it  to  be  the  instrument  mentioned  by  Moses  (Gen.  iv.  21,  cf.  Compre 
hensive  Commentary)  by  the  name  of  ugabh.  It  is  still  found  in  the  east,  in  Turkey  and 
Syria  ;  with  the  number  of  its  reeds  varying,  it  is  said,  from  five  to  tioenty-five.  A 
double  flute  is  often  mentioned,  called  also  the  right  and  left  (cf.  $  238) ;  the  right  one,  or 
that  held  in  the  right  hand,  is  represented  as  shorter  and  having  a  higher  tone  than  the 
left;  and  both  as  blown  by  the  performer  at  the  same  time.  The  male  flute-player 
was  termed  av\rirfis;  the  female,  avXrirpia,  or  otJXrjrpty. — There  were  several  varieties 
likewise  of  the  o-aXn-iyf,  or  trumpet ;  as.  Klpa;,  a  Phrygian  trumpet,  or  flute  crooked  like 
a  horn;  Kcparwh,  a  trumpet  of  similar  form,  probably  less  crooked. — There  seems  also 
to  have  been,  in  the  later  times  at  least,  a  variety  of  musical  instruments  of  the  kind 
termed  vSpavhc',  or  water-organ ;  the  shape  of  an  ancient  organ  is  exhibited  partly  at 
least  in  a  poem,  by  Optatianus  (cf.  P.  V.  §  341),  describing  the  instrument  in  verses  so 
constructed  as  to  resemble  its  form. 

In  Plate  XXVI.  we  have  also  represented  a  number  of  wind  instruments.  Fig.  s  is  the  pipe 
with  seven  reeds  Fig.  y  is  the  single  flute  as  given  by  Pfeiffer,  from  Niebuhr.  In  fig.  a  we  see 
a  musician  blowing  the  double  flute  ;  it  is  taken  from  a  representation  found  at  Pompeii  (cf  Pom- 
peii, p  260,  as  cited  P.  IV.  }  226.  1)  Fig.  ii.  presents  also,  as  has  been  supposed,  the  double 
flute  ;  it  is  from  a  representation  found  at  Herculaneum  ;  the  two  parts  seem  to  be  of  equal 
length.  (The  same  appears  to  be  the  case  in  the  views  given  Plate  XX  V.  fig.  h  and  i.) — Fig.  v  it 
the  kerns  or  horn,  a  form  of  the  trumpet.  Fis.  t  is  another  form,  straight;  by  some  supposed  to 
represent  the  silver  trumpets  used  for  assembling  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  (cf.  Num.  x.  2). 
Fig.  B  shows  a  form  of  the  Roman  c.omu.  Fig.  i  represents  a  performer  upon  a  sort  of  flute  ;  it 
is  from  an  Egyptian  monument.  Fig.  A  is  taken  from  an  ancient  altar  on  which  is  sculptured 
the  funeral  pomp  of  Hector ;  the  figure  here  given  leads  the  procession  ;  it  is  a  woman  blowing 
a  long  flute  with  its  extreme  end  fashioned  like  that  of  the  trumpet;  a  funeral  pipe,  used  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  threne  or  funeral  song  (cf.  Matt.  xi.  17).  See  Oaland,  as  cited  t>  282.  2. — 
A  description  of  the  hydruulis  is  given  in  a  treatise  of  the  mathematician  Heron  icf.  Thevenot,  Vet 
Math  Op.,  cited  P.  V.  t)  'J08«.  1);  a  drawing,  designed  after  this  description,  is  found  in  Furkcl'j 
Oeschichte  (cited  P.  IV.  {  63).     Cf.  Nov.  Comm.  Sue.  Keg.  Oblting.  vol.  ii. 

3.  Instruments  oi  percussion:  some  instruments  of  this  class  were  also  used  ;  rvuTravoi, 
a  sort  of  kettle-drum,  flat  on  one  side  and  convex  on  the  other,  formed  of  wood  with 
leather  drawn  over  it ;  sometimes  flat  on  both  sides,  consisting  ot  a  short  hollow  cylinder 
with  leather  or  skin  drawn  over  both  ends ;  bea;en  with  the  hand,  or  with  a  stick  ,  much 
used  at  the  festivals  of  Cybele  and  of  Bacchus;  x:y/3a\a,  cynibals  which  were  of  metal 
{XaXk-a) ;  in  the  shape  of  two  half  globes  ;  usually  large  and  broad  ;  sometimes  smaller, 
bo  that  two  (perhaps  those  termed  xpovuara)  were  held  in  each  hand  of  the  player,  and 
»uch  as  are  used  by  oriental  dancing-women.     The  Kuiiw  was  merely  a  little  bell ;  tho 


218  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

forms  and  uses  of  bells  were  various.  The  Kp6ra\ou  is  described  by  some  as  a  sort  of 
|lt,||  ,,  ■•  made  of  a  reed  split  in  two  and  so  fitted  as  to  emit 

"  The  atiorpov,  sistrum,  was  properly  an  Egyptian  instrument. 
used  in  the  worship  ol  [sis;  il  consisted  of  an  oval  frame,  with  several  bars  of  metal, 
which  passed  through  it  transversely,  and  being  loose  gave  sounds  when  the  instrument 
was  Bhaken  m  the  hand.  A  peculiar  instrument  was  formed  by  placing  metallic  rings 
popis  to  movl  freely  upon  a  metallic  rod,  which  was  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  circle, 
Bometimes  oi  a  triangh . 

Bevernl  instruments  of  percussion  are  exhibited  in  Plate  XXVT.    Fig.  iii.  is  the  tympanum  or 

drum  ;   in  fig,  A  are  the  large  cymbals,  and  in  rig.  i,  the  smaller,  called  castanets.     Fig.  o,  different 

l  of  the  simple  bell.     Fig.  iv.  shows  the  triangle  uith  rings;  by  it  is  a  stick  with  a  knob  at 

lb.'  .rid,  used  perhaps  111  striking  the  riii(is.     Fig.  d  presents  the  Persian  drum,  with  the  hands 

Tit'the  drummer.   Fig.  e  is  a  Turkish  female  playing  on  a  dulcimer  (cf.  Dun.  iii.  10).— In  Plate  XI. V. 

senting  a  sacrifice  to  Priapns.  we  see  two  women  playing  on  the  tympanum.   In  Plate  XXV. 

i  bante  is  playing  with  either  the  crotala  or  the  small  cymbals.     The  sistrum  is  seen 

plate  j  also  in  the  paw  of  the  Sphinx,  Plate  VIII. 

On  Ihc  musical  instrument!  of  the  ancients,  cf.  Montfauccm,  as  cited  P  II.  §l£  2.  (d),  vol.  iii.  p.  342,  and  Supplem.  vol.  iii.  p.  185. 

—Calmtt,  Dictionary,  Ac.  vol.  iii.  p.  337.  ed.  Chariest.  1818.— FosbroWi  Encyclop.  cited  §  13.  p.  704  —  F.  A.  Lanipe,  De  Cymbalii 

Veterum.     Traj.  ad  Mien.  1703    12. ;  also  in  Ugolinus,  cited  5  197.  l.—Pfaffer,  on  the  Music  of  the  Hebrews,  translated  by  0.  A. 

Taylor,  in  the  Btbl.  Rtpotil.  and  Quart.  Obscrv.  vol.  vi.  p.  357.  (with  a  plate )— Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie,  Article  InUramentah 

Uutik—J.  HawXint,  History  of  Music.    Lond.  1776.  5  vols.  4. 

§  181.  The  restraint  imposed  upon  the  female  sex  among-  the  Greeks  has 
already  been  mentioned  (cf.  §  59).  This  state  of  subjection  and  degradation 
continued  even  in  the  most  flourishing  times.  Unmarried  females  were  very 
narrowly  watched.  Their  apartment  in  the  house  (rtap^fi'Uiv)  was  commonly 
kept  closed  and  fastened.  The  married  women  were  at  liberty  only  to  go  as 
far  as  the  door  of  the  court  or  yard.  Mothers  were  allowed  a  little  more  freedom. 
In  general,  women  were  allowed  to  appear  in  public  but  seldom,  and  then  not 
without  wearing  a  veil  (xdxvrttpov). 

1  u-  In  Sparta,  however,  only  married  women  were  required  to  wear  veils ;    the  un 

married  mighl  appear  without  them.     The  sex  enjoyed  generally  far  more  liberty  at 

Sparta  than  at  Athens.  Lycurgus  hoped  by  removing  restraints  to  promote  an  innocent 

iarity  ol  intercourse.     But  this  freedom,  however  virtuous  it  might  be  at  first,  at 

length  degenerated  into  licentiousness. 

B  slate  of  female  society  in  Greece,  see  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xxii.  163. — Bill.  Repos.  vol.  ii.  p.  478. — Social  Conditio!)  of 
the  ancient  Greeks.  0*f.  IS32.— A.  Walker,  Woman  physiologically  considered  as  to  Mind,  Morals,  &c.  Lond.  1839.  8.—  W.Alex 
under,  History  of  Women.     Lond.  1782.  2  vols.  8.— Lenz,  as  cited  §  59.— 0.  Bernhardy,  Grundriss  der  Griech.  Lit.  p.  36. 

2.  The  employments  of  the  women  continued  generally  the  same  as  in  the  earlier 
ages.  I'hey  practiced  weaving,  with  the  loom  («<rr(Jc)  and  shuttle  (wpWc);    the 

loom  was  upright;  two  perpendicular  beams  ([o-roro&c  or  /ctAtoVrec)  supporting  a  cross- 
In  am.  troin  which  the  threads  constituting  the  warp  {art'ipiov)  were  hung;  the  woof  was 
termed  *-pov>'/;  also  tyvtpij  and  jioSavn.  They  also  employed  the  needle  ((iffo-rpa,  pa<pic)  in 
making  garmi  nts,  -and  various  furniture  for  household  use.  Embroidery  {tpyov  (ppiytoiv 
or  'ly  ]  ■"  ■  •  .  opus  Phrygium)  was  an  art  much  cultivated,  being  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant pari  ol  the  general  art  of  variegating  in  colors  (iroiKiXia),  which  was  effected  also 
by  painting  and  dyeing,  and  by  weaving.  Curtains  (mpouripaTa,  a  term  applied  to  a  gar- 
ment or  any  article  ol  cloth  fastened  by  a.mp6vn  or  brooch),  and  other  articles,  richly 
embroidered  (jroXwcwrra),  were  wrought  for  private  dwellings  and  for  the  temples  (cf.  $  28), 

A  -I -1  '-i>'  1 1 1  WOI  apcitry  was  commenced  at  Paris  in  1837,  to  be  completed  in  4  vols.  fol.  wilh  cuts  and  engravings.— 

-  I  unteuoj  Witton,  The  Art  ol  Needle-work  from  the  earliest  Ages ;  with  Notices  of  the  Ancient  Historical  Tapestries.  3d  ed. 
Lond.  1841.  12—  Cf.  Uu  Lambert,  Hand-book  of  Needle-work  ;  with  illustrations.    N.  YoA,  1842. 

^  1R2.  The  marriage  state  was  much  respected  among  the  Greeks,  and  was 
promoted  and  guarded  by  the  laws.  In  Sparta  particularly,  certain  penalties 
were  inflicted  upon  such  as  remained  unmarried  after  a  certain  age.  At  Athens 
also,  al!  who  wished  to  be  commanders  or  orators,  or  to  hold  any  public  office, 
were  required  to  have  a  family  and  own  a  real  estate.  Polygamy  on  the  othei 
hand  was  not  permitted,  although  exceptions  were  made  in  some  special  cases. 
The  age  at  which  marriage  (yajtoj)  should  be  allowed  was  also  prescribed,  a 
nger  age  being  grahted  to  females  than  to  males;  the  latter,  at  Athens,  were 

forbidden  i any  until   tiny  were  thirty-five.     At  Sparta  the  usual  age  fot 

men  to  marry  was  thirty,  and  for  women  twenty.  Marriage  between  parties 
■  t  near  consanguinity  was  not  allowed,  or  at  least  was  generally  viewed  as  im- 
proper and  Bcandalous.  The  Athenians,  however,  were  allowed  to  marry  sisters 
by  tin  san..  father  (oportottpiovf),  although  not  those  by  the  same  mother  (ojho- 
wjtptovj).  in  most  of  the  states,  a  citizen  could  marry  only  the  daughter  of  a 
••Hizen  ;  yet  there  wv.s  Bometimes  an  exception. 


PLATE     XXVI. 


220  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

1.  Adultery  was  punished,  and  in  some  cases  with  severity.     Although  polygamy 
was  not  generally  allowed,  concubinage  was  permitted  without  restraint.     Concubines 
were  usually  captives  or  purchased  slaves.     Prostitution  was  exceedingly 
common,  and  favored  even  by  the  whole  system  of  religious  worship.     In  Athens  the 
.  .  smenand  philosophers  openly  associated  with  females  of  dissolute 
The  city  oi  Corinth  was  still  more  famous  for  licentiousness.     One 
i>l  the  most  odious  forms  of  licentiousness  among  the  Greeks  was  the  xaihpanria ;  how- 
from  impurity  might  have  been  originally  the  relation  and  the  habits  of  inter- 
Sparta  and  lit  Crete  between  the  boys  loved  (k\swo\  or  dirai)  and  their  lovers 
r  .  -  mi-  excellent  qualities  might  have  belonged  to  the  Theban  sacred 

said  to  have  been  a  body  of  300  composed  of  lovers  and  their  beloved, 
-  true  that  the  hateful  debauchery  commonly  obsignated  by  this  term 
-  vely  practiced. 

,i  prevalence  of  sensuality  among  the  Greeks,  cf.  Bill.  Repot,  vol.  ii.  p.  441.— On  paederasty,  cf.  Berhardy,  Grcndrisa 
)er  Griech   Lit.  p  43.— MUlltr,  Hist,  and  Ant.  of  Dorians,  bk.  iv.  eh.  6.— Boyd's  Potter,  p.  600. 

2l.  When  a  virgin  was  sought  in  marriage,  it  was  necessary  first  to  consult  the 
parents,  and  if  they  were  not  living,  the  brother  or  guardian  (fTn'rporac).  The  betrothing 
w  i-  usually  made  in  a  formal  manner  by  the  father.  The  parties  pledged  to  each  other 
mutual  fidelity,  by  kissing  or  by  joining  right  hands.  The  bridegroom  also  bestowed 
on  the  bride  a  present  as  a  pledge  of  his  honor,  called  appa,  appaffiiv,  pivrjo-rpov.  The  giving 
of  a  dowry  (-fiolt,  (pcpvfj)  w'nh  the  bride  was  a  custom  in  Greece  generally.  At  Athens 
it  was  a  legal  .and  indispensable  requisite,  although  the  dowry  was  but  small.  In  Sparta, 
<r.  Lycurgus  nearly  abolished  the  custom.  In  the  settlement  of  the  dowry,  and 
the  stipulations  connected  with  it,  witnesses  were  called  in,  and  the  husband  delivered 
an  acknowledgment  or  receipt  (7rpo«&>a),  when  he  took  the  stipulated  gifts.  At  Athens 
it  was  customary  before  the  actual  marriage,  to  present  the  bride  before  Diana  with 
offerings  and  prayers;  this  ceremony  was  called  dpureia,  and  was  designed  to  appease 
-.  who  was  supposed  to  be  averse  to  marriage.  There  were  other  divinities, 
m  i  i  and  female,  who  were  imagined  to  preside  over  marriage,  and  were  therefore 
called  yafiiiXioi  Scoi,  to  whom  it  was  necessary  to  offer  sacrifices  on  entering  into  the 
marriage  contract. 

:  a-   At  the  nuptials  the  betrothed  pair,  as  well  as  the  place  of  the  festivity,  were 
ted  with  garlands  and  flowers.     Towards  the  evening  the  bride  was  conducted  to 

the  h sol  th   bridegroom  (oIkov  ayco-Bm)  either  on  foot  or  in  a  carriage  (%<")•     The 

bridesman,  who  attended  her  on  this  occasion,  was  called  Tnipox<>s  or  vapavKpipog.     A  pro- 

in  went   before  her,  bearing  lighted  torches,  and   accompanied  with  music  and 

_r.   'Alien  the  newly  married  couple  entered  the  house,  it  wascustomary  to  place 

ir  upon  their  heads  figs  and  other  varieties  of  fruit.     The  parties  then  sat  down  to 

nquet,  which  was,  as  well  as  the  nuptial  ceremonies  together,  termed  yapos,  and 

"tended  with  music  and  dancing.    The  songs  were  called  &peraio(,  or  v/itvcs.    After 

the  dancing,  the  pair  were  conducted  with  torches  to  the  bridal  chamber  (SaXa/wc),  which. 

:'-  v-'"  as  the  nuptial  bed  (\\<>,-.  Xorrpov),  was  usually  highly  decorated  (rao-rdc) for  the 

on.     'I  he   young  men  and   maids  remained  without,    dancing  and   singing  the 

'  '"-'^'-  win!,    a  friend  of  the  bridegroom  stood   by  as  keeper  of  the  door 

This  company  returned  to  the  door  in   the  morning,  and  sung  what   was 

the  eirt8a\&ittov  iycprtKdv.     The  nuptial  solemnities  occupied  several  days;   one  of 

the  days  was  called  nraoXia;  another  diriv\ta. 

I  lively  description  of  an  Athenian  marriage  in  BarlhtUmy,s  Anacharsis,  ch.  Ixivii. On  the  marriage  customs  of  Sparta 

cf.  MlllUr,  hk.  iv  ch.  iv. 

1.  Children  were  discriminated  as  yvfjaiot,  lawfully  begotten  ;  v69oi,  born  of  harlots  or 

.adopted.     The   paternal  authority  over  the  son  ceased,  at  Athens, 

i  had  completed  his  nineteenth  vear.     It  was  an  ancient  custom  for  legi- 

|o  divide  then-  lather's  estate  by  lot,  all  having  equal  share,  without  respect 

ol  birth;  allowing  a  small  pittance  to  such  as  were  unlawfully  begotten.  The 

olve  the  legal  connection  between  himself  and  his  son,  and  thus  dis- 

m     ■   a  form  ol  proceeding  termed  dmKfjpvfc.   If  there  were  no  legitimate  sons, 

i  the  lather  fell  to  the  daughters,  who  in  such  a  case  were  termed  nriVXijpoc; 

n  latives  mighl  claim  them  in  marriage.     When  there  were  no  lineal 

")  to  inherit  the  property,  it  fell  by  law  to  the  collateral  relations 

firsl  to  descendants  of  the  same  father  with  the  deceased,  to  brothers  and 

-•hers;  next  to  descendants  of  the  same  grandfather  with  the  deceased, 

dim  ol  cousins,  the  issue  of  males  in  every  case  taking  precedence 

issue  ol  I,-.,, ale-;   a  firsl  cousin  was  termed  divide;  a  first  cousin's  son,  dved>iadovS. 

i  said  to  receive  his  inheritance  (*Xfjpof)  either  by  right  of  descent 

t«  or  by  ngh<  ol  consanguinity  (frvyyema).   A  male  heir  by  right  of  descent  might 

■•"'  immediately  ;  or,  if  any  one  hindered  him.  might  bring  against  that  one 

1     rsons  who  had  no  lawful  issue  were  allowed  to 

<  horn  they  pleased  ;  but  at  Alliens  foreigners  although  adopted  by  citizens  could 

M  take  an  inheritance,  unless  they  had  received  the  freedom  of  the  city  .—Free  citizens 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       FUNERAL    RITES.  221 

were  permitted  to  dispose  of  their  property  by  will  {iiadnKn),  after  the  time  of  Solon; 
but  there  were  certain  conditions  to  be  regarded.  Wills  were  signed  and  sealed  belorn 
witnesses,  and  put  into  the  hands  of  trustees  (em/ieXf/rat)  who  were  to  execute  them. 

Poller,  Arch.  Grsec.  bk.  iv.  ch.  iv .—Blanchard,  On  Laivs  respecting  Adoption,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  %i\.  68 On  the 

subject  of  inheritances,  see  Sir  IV.  Jouts,  in  his  Trans!,  of  Isa:u.s  (cf.  P.  V.  §  104.  3.;— Bunsen,  De  Jure  hered.  Athen.— SchBman, 
Ant  Jur.  Pub!.  Graec- 

§  183.  Something  should  be  said  of  the  Greek  customs  in  later  times  in 
reference  to  funerals  and  burials.  Funeral  obsequies  were  considered  as  a 
sacred  duty  to  the  departed,  and  were  therefore  termed  cHxtua,  wSiujua,  oaia. 
They  were  denied  only  to  notorious  criminals,  traitors,  and  suicides,  especially 
such  as  destroyed  themselves  to  escape  punishment,  spendthrifts,  and  the  like, 
whose  remains,  if  they  happened  to  obtain  burial,  were  even  disinterred. 

§  184  t.  Some  of  the  customs  connected  with  the  burial  of  the  dead  have  already 
$  30,  31)  been  mentioned.  In  later  times  it  was  common  to  wrap  the  corpse  in  a  costly 
robe,  the  color  oi  which  was  generally  white  ;  and  deck  it  with  green  boughs  and  gar- 
lands of  flowers.  The  body  was  then  laid  out  to  view  (irpoTidecOai)  in  the  entrance  of 
the  house,  on  the  ground,  or  on  a  bed  (*cXii'ij)  or  a  bier  (feperpov),  where  it  remained  a< 
least  one  day,  with  the  feet  towards  the  gate.  It  was  while  here  constantly  watched 
A  vase  of  lustral  water  {dp&aviov)  stood  by,  to  purify  such  as  touched  the  corpse.  Shortly 
before  it  was  removed  for  burial,  a  piece  of  money,  usually  an  6f3o\6c,  was  placed  in  the 
mouth,  as  the  fare  {Za.v6.Kn,  vopQu.iov  t  due  to  Charon  for  ferrying  the  departed  over  the 
Styx.  A  cake  made  of  flour  and  honey  (u.t\\iTTOora)  was  also  put  in  the  mouth,  to  ap- 
pease the  dog  Cerberus,  supposed  to  guard  the  entrance  into  Hades  ('A&ns). 

On  the  meaning  of  the  term  Hades,  and  the  opinions  of  the  ancients  respecting  the  state  of  the  soul  after  death,  see  P.  II.  §  32. 

As  a  burial  soon  after  death  was  supposed  to  be  pleasing  lo  the  deceased  (cf.  Horn.  II  xxiii.  71) 
the  Greeks  usually  kept  the  corpse  only  until  the  third  day.  It  does  not  appear  that  they  ever 
adopted  the  Egyptian  custom  of  embalming  the  dead. 

Respecting  the  custom  of  embalming,  see  De  Caylus,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  ixiii.  119.—/.  C.  ir'arren,  Description  of  an  Egrp 
tian  Mummy.  Bost.  1S24.  8.— Granville,  On  Egyptian  Mummies  j  in  the  Philos.  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Soc.  for  the  year  1825. 
p.  269.— T.  J.  Petngren,  History  of  Egyptian  Mummies.    Loud.  1834.  4. 

§  185  t.  The  funeral  itself  was  termed  htico^u%,  or  iippopa,  the  carrying  forth  of  the 
corpse,  which  at  Athens  was  performed  before  sunrise,  but  elsewhere  in  the  day  time. 
In  Creece,  Generally,  young  persons  were  buried  at  break  of  day  or  early  morning 
twilight.  The  corpse  was  placed  on  a  bier,  or  if  the  deceased  had  been  a  warrior,  on 
a  large  shield,  and  the  bearers  (vzKpoQairTai)  carried  it  on  their  shoulders  (<W  <p^Cm')-  fol 
lowed  by  the  friends  and  relatives  of  both  sexes.  The  procession  was  commonly  on 
horseback,  or  in  carriages;  it  was  a  token  of  higher  respect  when  all  went  on  foot. — 
Sorrow  for  the  deceased  was  manifested  by  solitary  retirement,  fasting,  and  silence,  by 
wearing  black  and  sordid  garments,  by  covering  the  head  with  ashes,  and  plucking  off 
the  hair,  by  cries  of  lamentation,  and  by  funeral  dirges.  The  latter  were  performed  by 
musicians  employed  for  the  purpose  fiprjvav  e?apxot) ;  one  dirge  (Spijws)  was  sung  as  the 
corpse  was  borne  forward  ;  another,  at  the  funeral  pile ;  and  a  third,  at  the  grave  ;  they 
were  called  6\o<pyu.ol ;  also  laks/ioi,  TuXrtwt. 

Funeral  chants  are  still  common  in  Greece,  termed  myriologues.— See  Mrs.  Hcmans,  Greek  Funeral  Chant,  in  her  Poems.  Bost. 
1827.  vol.  ii.  p.  160. 

§  18f>.  The  custom  of  burning  the  corpse  became  universal  among  the  later 
Greeks;  the  ceremonies  attending  it  have  been  chiefly  mentioned  before  (§  31). 

1  t.  The  ashes  and  bones  were  gathered  (foroMyiov)  in  an  urn,  and  buried  commonly 
without  the  city,  amid  many  blessings  and  prayers  for  their  repose.  The  urns  used  for 
this  purpose  (/caAirdi,  Xiipi'axjc,  da-ToOnxai,  6o-TO<]o\ua,  aopai,  &c.)were  made  of  different  ma- 
terials, wood,  stone,  or  precious  metal,  according  to  tJie  rank  and  circumstances  of  the 
deceased.  These  urns  were  sometimes  inclosed  in  a  sort  of  chest,  which  was  formed 
of  stone  or  other  materials  ;  and  to  this  chest,  as  well  as  to  the  urn,  the  term  oapKo<payo$. 
seems  to  have  been  applied. 

The  body  of  Alexander  was  conveyed  from  Babylon  to  Alexandria  in  a  splendid  carriage,  and 
hi-!  funerai  there  conducted  with  great  pomp  by  Ptolemy.  The  Sarcophagus  in  which  the  golden 
coffin  or  urn  containing  his  remains  was  inclosed,  is  said  to  be  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
having  been  discovered  at  Alexandria  by  the  French  in  the  expedition  of  Bonaparte,  and  by 
them  surrendered  to  the  English. 

F..  D.  Clarke.  The  Tomb  of  Alexander.  Camb.  I8P5.  8.  Cf.  also  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iii.  p.  164.  ed.  N.  York.  1815.— vi/air. 
de  Qnincy,  Sur  le  char  funeraire  qui  transpose  de  Babylone  en  Egypte  le  corps  d'Alexandre,  in  the  Mem  de  VAcad.  des  laser 
C  I  asse  i'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  iv.  p.  315,  with  a  plate.    Cf.  C  de  Caylvs,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  xsii.  86. 

On  an  alabaster  Sarcophagus  discovered  at  Thebes,  in  the  tombs  of  the  kings,  Loud.  Quart.  Rev.  xviii.  369 ;  xix.  192,  404. 

Along  with  the  corpse  when  buried,  and  with  the  urns  containing  the  ashes  when  the  corpse 
was  burned,  it  was  customary  to  deposit  cups,  phials  (^mXirJcc),  vases  (Xfjuvdot),  of  different 
kinds,  and  other  articles;  many  of  which  have  been  found  in  modern  times  by  searching  ancient 
sepulchers.  These  vessels  are  "sometimes  of  terra  cotta,  sometimes  of  alabaster,  nol  unfrequently 
of  glass.  Some  made  of  the  latter  material  have  been  gathered  from  the  catacombs  in  the  island 

18 


222  GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

Milo,  the  ancient  Melos,  one  of  the  Cyclades  (cf.  P.  V.  ?  146).  "  Among  the  decayed  bones  any 
found  coins  ornaments  of  gold  and  precious  stones  for  the  ears,  lamps,  lachrymatory  vases  (cf. 
£31!  7)  with  large  quantities  of  glass,  earthen,  and  copper  vessels,  probably  for  oils  and  per- 
f,i„,es    '  Man]  earthen  cups  .ire  of  the  form  we  call  Etruscan;  the  larger  are  painted 

wuli  'a  light  pencil  often  only  the  outlines  are  given,  but  generally  with  much  spirit.  The  ques- 
tion whether  the  ancients  knew  the  use  of  glass,  was  settled  by  the  discoveries  in  Pompeii;  this 
il  the  first  I  have  beard  of  among  the  Creeks  The  vessels  are  generally  rlat  at  the  bottom,  and 
four  no  ties  over  ;  they  rise  one  inch,  of  this  diameter,  and  then  suddenly  narrowing  to  the  dia- 
meter "fan  inch  and  a  half,  pass  thus  to  the  height  of  seven  or  eight  inches  ;  their  shape  is  much 
like  thai  of  a  candlestick:  but  1  have  several  other  forms,  running  through  a  considerable 
variety." 
The  above  quotation  is  from  luntit  Sketch  of  Naval  Life  N.  Haven,  1829.  2  vols.  12.-Cf.  SiZKmon'l  Journal,  vol.  svi.  p.  333, 
i  these  tues.— Specimens  of  the  vases  found  at  Milo  are  in  the  cabinet  of  Amherst  College.— For  furlher 
notices  of  the  urns  and  vases  found  in  sepulchers,  see  5  341,  and  P.  IV.  §  173. 

2  t.  The  solemnities  of  the  funeral  were  concluded  with  an  oration  or  eulogy,  with 
garni  -.  n  pasts,  and  sacrifices  and  libations;  which,  in  many  cases,  were  repeated  on 
successive  anniversaries;  the  sacrifices  and  offerings  in  honor  of  the  dead  were  various; 
those  offeree]  on  the  second  day  alter  the  funeral;  Imam,  on  the  ninth;  rpiaica&ts, 
on  the  thirtieth,  when  the  time  of  mourning  expired,  which  at  Sparta,  however,  was 
limited  it  is  said  to  eleven  days:  \oai  and  ivayiapara,  libations  and  offerings  of  flowers 
and  fruits  a)  various  times;  yevcata,  offerings  on  the  birth-day  of  the  deceased;  vtKvcna, 
offerings  on  the  anniversary  of  the  death. — In  the  case  of  such  as  had  died  in  war,  the 
oration  at  their  funerals  and  at  subsequent  anniversaries  of  their  decease,  was  viewed  as 
so  importanl  that  the  speaker  for  the  occasion  was  appointed  by  the  public  magistrates. 
Thus  Pericles  was  appointed,  when  the  Athenians  solemnized  a  public  funeral  for  those 
first  killed  in  the  Peloponnesian  war {Thwcyd.  ii.  34);  and  Demosthenes,  when  the  same 
honor  was  rendered  to  those  who  fell  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Chasronea  (cf.  Mitford's 
Greece,  ch.  xlvii.  sect.  6). 

For  a  very  interesting  view  of  the  games  and  exercises  performed  in  honor  of  the  dead,  the 
Student  is  referred  to  the  twenty-third  bnnk  of  the  Iliad,  where  Homer  gives  an  account  of  the 

funeral  "f  Patroclus. Solemn  uaines  with  rich  prizes  were  instituted  by  Alexander  in  honor 

of  liis  friend  Hephsstion  at  Ecbatana ;  the  whole  ceremonies  of  the  funeral  were  conducted 
wuli  great  magnificence,  according  to  Aman  (lib.  vii).  Diodorus  Siculus  speaks  also  particu- 
larly of  Hephestion's  funeral  pile. 

Cf.  Comic  de  Caylus,  Le  bOcher  cl'Hepliaestioc,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Imcr.  xxxi.  76. — Quarr.  rfe  Quincy,  on  the  same,  in  the  Mem. 
ii  I'hiMtitvl,  C  1  asse  a'HM.  tt  Lit.  Aac.  iv.  p.  395,  with  a  plate. 

The  custom  of  honorine  by  festivals  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  friends  and  eminent  per- 
sons was  followed  by  some  Christians  of  the  early  ages,  in  the  celebrations  termed  paprvpuv 
hi  "These  festivals  were  preceded  by  vigils,  and  celebrated  around  the  graves  of  the 
martyrs,  where  their  lives  were  read,  and  eulogies  pronounced,  the  sacrament  administered, 
and  public  entertainments  given  gratuitously  by  the  rich." 

See  L.  Coleman,  Aiiiiq.  of  Christian  Church,  p.  441. — /.  P.  Schwabe,  De  Veneratione  erga  Marlyres  in  prim.  Ecclesia.  Lips. 
1748    4. 

§  1ST.  The  sepulchral  monuments  of  distinguished  men  were  built  often 
with  (Treat  expense  and  splendor.  Monuments  were  also  frequently  erected  to 
them  in  other  spots,  where  their  ashes  were  not  deposited. 

1.  In  early  times,  the  Greeks  were  accustomed  to  place  their  dead  in  repositories, 
made  for  the  purpose,  in  their  own  houses.  Temples  also  were  sometimes  made  repo- 
sitories for  the  dead ;  especially  for  such  as  had  rendered  eminent  public,  services.  But 
in  later  agi  -  il  became  the  general  custom  to  bury  the  dead  without  the  cities  and 
chiefly  by  the  highways.  At  Athens  the  most  common  place  of  burial  was  near  the 
r.iail  leading  to  the  Peirrjeus,  outside  of  the  Itonian  gate,  which  on  that  account  was 
styled  the  burial  gate  (>}pt'a«  rriXat) ;  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle,  however,  were  buried 
in  the  ouier  Cerameicus,  at  the  public  expense.     Graves  at  first  were  mere  openings 

i  the  earth,  wrdyaia.  Soon  there  was  a  custom  of  paving  and  arching  them  with 
Btone.  The  place  of  interment  was  originally  marked  simply  by  a  barrow  or  mound 
oi  earth  fcfyia);  which  sometimes  had  a  circular  basis  of  masonry  (*pr/m'c).  On  this  a 
rude  stone  (afhia)  was  placed  afterwards;  then.a  stone  more  carefully  prepared,  a  cippus 
.1  truncated  column  ;  at  length,  larger  and  more  imposing  monuments  were  built. 

2.  '1  he  terms  pit)pa  and  pvnpcXov  were  applied  to  designate  the  whole  structure,  includ- 
ing the  n  ceptacle  Mr  the  remains  and  the  monumental  erections.  Two  parts  are  dis- 
criminated ;  (l)the  grave  strictly,  called  imn,  anfi\aiov,  ripffos,  ru^oc,  fyiov,  which  last  means 
ipecially  the  portion  underground;  (2)  the  space  around  it,  usually  fenced  with  poles  or 

ol  balustrade,  called  Spiyxdc.,  <"rnrij, ncptotKofop}),  Ipm;,  anKoq;  within  this  space  the 
monumental  pillars  [eril\ai)  and  ornaments  were  erected. — The  various  monuments  have 
been  discriminated  under  four  heads;  1.  o-rOXai,  designating  upright  tablets  terminating 
in  an  oval  beading  called  rm'%a,  but  applied  to  any  form  of  sepulchral  pillars;  2.  in'owy, 
"'l""l"~;    ;;    'i "'•'  "'•  Hat   horizontal  tablets;    4.  >ipt3a  or  vaiSta,  small  buildings  in  the 

'"r (  temples.— On  the  pillars,  or  other  structures  forming  the  tomb,  were  placed 

inscriptions  (imypaipaC) ;  ami  often  images  of  the  deceased  (dya\para),  and  also  other  orna 
•Minis     with   devices   denoting   their"  character   and    pursuits   or  particular   achieve- 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       MONUMENTS    FOR    THE    DEAD.  223 

ments.  Thus  on  the  monument  of  Diogenes  was  inscribed  the  figure  of  a  dog ;  on  that 
of  Isocrates,  a  syren  reclining  upon  a  ram  ;  on  that  of  Archimedes,  a  sphere  and  cylin- 
der. Tombs  adorned  with  sculptured  bas-reliefs  have  been  discovered  at  Athens  and 
other  places.  Some  of  the  most  remarkable  Greek  tombs  were  recently  discovered 
in  Lycia. 

See  DtBozt,  Descript.  d'un  Tombeau,  ftc.  in  (he  Mem.  de  VJcad  des  Inscr.  iv.  648.— Archseolopa,  (as  cited  P.  IV.  §  243.  3), 
»ol.  liii.  p.  280,  on  a  Greek  sepulchral  Monument;  with  a  plate.— Also,  specially,  Becker's  Chancles;  and  Slackelbere,  DieGraber 

der  Hellenen.    Berl    1837. On  the  tombs  of  Lycia,  C.  Fellows,  Account  of  Discoveries  in  Lycia,  a  Journal  kept  during  a  sec  nd 

Excursion  in  Asia  Minor.  Lond.  1841.  8.  with  thirty-eight  plates.  Cf.  C.  Fellows,  Journal  during  an  Excursion  in  Asia  Minor 
Lond.  1839.  8.  with  twenty-two  plates. 

3.  Cenotaphs  (Kevoraipta,  xevfipia)  wpre  monuments  erected  for  the  dead,  which  were  not  the 
repositories  for  Iheir  remains.  They  were  raised  boih  for  persons  who  had  never  obtained  a, 
proper  funeral,  and  also  for  such  as  had  received  funeral  honors  in  another  place.  It  was  a 
notion  of  the  ancients,  that  the  ghosts  of  un buried  persons  could  not  be  admitted  into  the  regions 
of  the  blessed  without  first  wandering  a  hundred  years  in  misery  ;  and  if  one  perished  at  sea  or 
where  his  body  could  not  be  found,  the  only  way  to  procure  repose  for  him  was  to  build  an 
empty  tomb,  and  by  certain  rites  and  invocations  call  his  spirit  to  the  habitation  prepared  for  it. 

4.  A  common  place  of  sepulture  for  many  individuals  was  called  iro\vav&pinv. — The  term 
KoifiriTi'iptov,  cemetery,  appears  to  have  been  introduced  by  Christians,  in  accordance  with  their 
faith,  that  the  grave  is  but  a  temporary  tier  ping -place.  The  early  Christians  protested  against 
the  practice  of  burning  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  and  followed  the  Jewish  custom  of  burying  them. 
In  the  fourth  century,  an  open  space  near  the  church  was  appropriated  for  the  burial  of  princes 
and  the  clergy,  which  was  afterwards  made  common  to  all  the  mt*ibers  of  the  church.  In 
earlier  periods,  the  Christians  buried  their  ?ead  chiefly  in  subterranean  excavations,  which  were 
often  of  vast  extent,  and  which  in  those  days  of  persecution  served  at  once  as  the  home,  of  the 
li/ing  and  the  repository  of  the  dead.     See  j  341.  8. 

5.  The  custom  of  raising  spletidid  monuments  in  honor  of  the  dead  at  length  led  to 
such  extravagance,  that  it  became  necessary  to  impose  penal  restraints.  The  splendor 
of  the  monument  erected  to  3Iausolus  (cf.  P.  II.  §  72)  occasioned  the  word  Mausoleum 
to  be  applied  as  a  common  name  to  such  structures.  It  is  said  to  have  been  more  than 
400  feet  in  compass,  surrounded  by  36  beautiful  columns. 

See  he  Cayliu,  Tombeau  de  Mausole,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxvi.  321.— Saintt  Croix,  Tomb,  de  Maus.  in  the  Mem.  de  Vln- 
tutut,  C 1  a  s  s  e  d'tfuf.  &c.  ii.  506. 

In  our  Plate  XVIII.  are  some  specimens  of  monumental  structures.  Fig.  1  represents  a  tomb 
of  white  marble  at  Mnurghab  in  Persia,  corresponding  to  the  ancient  Pasargada  ;  it  has  com- 
monly been  supposed  to  be  the  Tomb  of  Cyrus,  which  was  erected  by  himself,  and  visited  by 
Alexander  (cf.  Arrian,  vi.  29);  some,  however,  declare  it  to  be  a  more  modern  structure.     Cf. 

Morier,  cited  P.  IV.  #  243.  3 Fig.  2  represents  a  structure  called  Absalom's  Pillar,  which 

stands  near  Jerusalem  (cf.  P.  I.  I)  168  b).  In  the  time  of  Josephus  there  was  a  marble  structure 
by  tbis  name,  said  to  have  been  reared  by  Absalom  (cf.  2  Sam.  xviii.  18).  The  one  here  given  is, 
however,  no  doubt,  comparatively  recent.  "The  lower  portion  is  quadrangular,  standing 
detached  from  the  living  rock,  from  which  it  was  hewn.  Upon  the  four  facades  are  cut  Ionic 
pillars,  above  which  is  a  frieze  with  Doric  metopes  and  triglyphs.  Over  this  basis  rises  a  square 
piece  of  masonry,  smaller ;  and  the  whole  is  crowned  by  a  tail  conical  tower  ;"  and  the  "dome 
or  cupola  runs  up  into  a  low  spire,  which  spreads  a  little  at  the  top  like  an  opening  flower."  Cf 

Robinson,  as  cited  P   I.  $  171.  vol.  ii.  p.  519. Fig.  3  gives  a  view  of  the  Tomb  of  Cestius  a» 

Rome  ;  cf.  P.  IV.  »  226.  1  :  it  is  taken  from  Pronti,  cited  P.  IV.  J  243  2. Fig.  4  presents  the 

gates  of  a  tomb;  over  them  is  a  Greek  inscription,  Glycon  and  Hemera  to  the  infernal  gods;  Mei- 
cury,  with  his  wand,  is  represented  as  in  the  act  of  closing  or  opening  them,  it  being  a  part  of  his 
office  to  introduce  departed  spirits  into  Hades.  See  P.  II.  }  32.  1.  $56.  Cf.  Calmtl,  Dictionary, 
fcc.  vol.  iii.  p.  279.  Chariest.  1813. 


PLATE    XXVlo. 


ATTIC    CIVIL    INSTITUTIONS. 


Classes  of  the  Population. 

These  wan- Cilixtni,  IIoMTai ;  Residents,  Mitoucoi  ; 

Slaves,  AoMoi  ;  and  Strangtrt,  "Zivc*. 
rioXIroi,  divided  by  Ccarrp!  into  4  Trihs,  W»«  ; 
Bach  *v>v  mt-  3  Races,  *paip!oi,vE9i'i)  i 

trola  into  30  Kindnds,  Tivit,  Toeaicddic  ; 
His  Tiiba,  Ktxporis,  Airixiuiv,  'AKroio,  IlapaAfa. 
Ctisthenes,  fen  ;  afterwards,  twelve. 

I  L'/alxf,  nivraKOD-io/ifJl^fOl,  'IffTTltf, 

Zcvylrai,  6i)res  ;  ao-ord>ng  to  wealth. 
ilo  17-1  A>>oi,or  Wards. 


Various  Public  Officers. 


!     1.  Tor  the  Executive. 
The  Eleven,  'Oi  "F.vlcea  ;  a  sort 
I  rTs      the    No/ioclvAaias 

The    Lexiarchi,    Arjllapx01  '<    six 
chief;  30  subordinate. 

t,  Totrfrai  J  1000. 

2.  For  the  Legislature. 
The  President    'EiriordTijc 

o/  Sma/e,  Tf)s  Bov.\f)c. 

The  President     tEnL(TTaTT)S 
|      of  Assembly,       7tjs   K/cicXijo-tac. 
'  The  Protdn,  ripdtijpw. 
The  Prytanu,  Upv-ravite. 
■'  1*.  XopoMrai. 
icj.  Itjvciicoi. 
• «,    'Pijropt;,   same   as 
,     2ti'ii>'cipoi. 

,  for, '  F.ipiSwf,  having  care 
i      of  the  t 

rap/u,  Suvyparfitfs  ;  30, 
who  collected  the  votes. 
•>.  rpa/i^orttj. 
.  ijpv«s 

ri,  np£(T/3trc. 

The  Pylagori,  rivXayopM,  delegates 
to  the  'Afi^KTVovla. 

3.  Connected  with  the 

Courts. 

I  ijr-ttt,  'Apiio7TaytTaL 
I  uao-rat. 
1  ii'irai. 

•    IrXo/JaffiXtrc. 

I,  irbo  sat  in 
•  el  i  hy  Archons. 
:'/r/Tat. 

I  urral. 

ii  m,  KVyropcc. 
CMera,  Kiyie.Wtc. 

4.  For  Public  Works  and 

Lands. 

'Knio-rrfToi 
Tiiv  'Koywv. 
[I    'Eiriordrai 

KfiTJTO'/lljAag. 
"   >lOf  , 

I  Ttt%oirocof. 

I  'Ao-Tvvo/iot,  havingcarc 

oi  itreeo,  *c. 

224 


Cleronchi,    KAijoov^oi,     to 
lands  in  colonies;  applied 


divide 
also  to 


tin 


rifle 


5.  For  the  Treasury. 

Chief  Tamias,  Ta^(a$  ir}$  Aiot- 
Kijo-tiuc ;  for  4  years,  or  5. 

Sub-Treasurers,  Ta/itov^ot ; 
Tap.las  Ttbv  a-TparuoTiK&v, 
Ta/tfas  Ttuf  ^cujfJtKdiv,  &c. 

Collectors  of  Finest  UodKrope^. 

Tax  gatherers,  "EKAoyctj. 

HcllenotamizCf  '  EAA^voTa/tfai,  for 
the  Tribute  fioni  Greek  allies. 

Potetx,  TLu>\1)Tat,,   ten  overseers  of 
sales. 

Thtori,  6iu>aol,  deputies  with  pre- 
sents for  festivals,  &c. 

Assessors  of  taxes,  'Ejriypa^eJc;. 

Register*  of  accounts,  Ataypa^tfTs. 

Auditors,  'Avrtypa^tiJ. 

Receivers,  'Ano££K7ai. 

Colacrttsc,  Ku>\aKpnal,  for  money 
due  to  the  temples. 

Searches,  on  Deofs,  ZtjttjtoI, 
on  Confiscations,  Md<TTnot$. 

6.  Connected  with  Trade. 
The  Sitophylaees,  EtToi£t)Aa*«c. 
The  Sifo/ia.  JLir&vai. 
The  .S«077i«J(ra:,  Eiro/UTpai. 
Overseers  of  Port,  'Krrt/icAifrat 
'E/MTopiov,  or  tujv  Vfwptoy. 

hupecterf  "***'*•  M"<""'d'HB" 

<  Markets,  'Ayopavd/iot, 

Lr'nh,  'QipovopLot. 
Pilots,  Nai'^»iAo«£C. 

7.  For  Manners  and 
Morals. 

(Enopta,  'Oivdrrrat,  to  nolice  wine- 

mixing  at  banquets. 
Gynucocosmi,    rvva'.KOK6<riiott    lo 

b  drew  of  women* 
Gymtcotwmi,      TvvaiKov6p.oij    to 

guard  the  conduct  of  wpmen. 
Phratores.   *pdTop«c,  to  iee  to  the 

register  of  births. 
Sophronists,    Ew^povfarat,      over 

jrnuth  m  Gymnasia. 

1    'avKTTaX,   to  take 

care  of  orphans. 

'Eirtoxtfffoi,  overseers  of 

allied  cities  and  colonies;  occasional 

office. 


The  Legislature. 

Assembly,  'KrfKAqo-la,  of  all  the  IloAiTat. 
Senate,  UoT-A-i),  of  400  at  first;   then   600 ; 
finally  6,0  ,  50  from  each  tribe;  by  lot. 


The  Executive. 

Archons,  *Oi  ''Ap^oi/TCjj  ;  Nine,  by  lot ;  the 
'Eni&vvjtos,  'he  Bao-iAeiis,  the  XloMpap- 
%ost  and  the  six  Grtr/tofoVai ;  forming  the 
State  Council. 

The  Judiciary. 

Areopagus,  'Apr.ion-ayoj;  at  first,  Supreme. 
Epidelphinxum,  'Errl  AfA^ivfw,     *|        in 
Epipalladium,  'Err*  IlaAAatfiVi      [  Actions 
Epiprytaneum,  'Erri  np^Tavtiw,    j        o/ 
Enphrcattinm,  'Ev  $QtanoX,        J     Blood. 
Hdisea,  'HAtafa,  the  Highest;         -\ 
Five  others;  Hapd^vo-Tov,  I    in  Ctw/ 

Tp^ytuvov,  Katvdv,  Td  irrl         |   ^cft'oiw 

Awov,  and  Td  M?j7f^ov,  J 

The  Dizetetz,  AtatTijTal  ;  two  kinds;  public, 

KXr/poTQl  ;  yn'Dafe,  dtptrof  ;  Arbitrators  or 

Referees. 
The  Forty,  TtvcrapdKovTa,  a  Circuit  Court 

for  the  At)/aoi. 
The  A'auiorficiE,  Naf  rodtC/cat,  in  naval  affairs ; 

at  rirtcus. 
The  Exetastz,  JE\tra<TTaX,  of  10  AoyiffTol 

and  10  'EvOvvol  ;  on  accounts  of  officers. 
The   Thesmothetse,  BtafioGeTai,  on  subjects 

not  falling  toother  Courts. 


Actions  in  Law* 

Public,  AtKat  ^ijfido-tat  ',  which  included 
rpa^//,  $dfftc,  "EvCti$t$,  'ATraycoy^, 
'E07jyT;o-(S,  'AvdpoA^^a,  'EtsayytAfa  ; 
under  the  rpafjij;  came  the  highest  crimes ; 
murder,  &c. 

Private,  AiKat  \6tai ;  including  actions  for 
trespass,  BAu/3?;c,  ;  r/ie/f,  &c. 


Punishments. 

Fine,  Zrjfiia;  Disgrace,  ^Anp.Ca;  Slavery, 
AovXtla  ;  Branding,  Zriyfia  ;  Porting, 
EttJA7J  ;  Bonds*  Ac(r/xot  ;  Banishment* 
$vy?)  ;  Deal/t,  Sdvaroc  ;  'Oo-TpaKKr/idc 
was  Banishment  for  10  years. 


Civic  Honors. 

First  Seat,  Ilportpla  ;  Statues,  'EikoVcc; 
CVowjif,  Er^avot;  £xe77jpt?o?i,  'AtM«o; 
fgjwian,  by  £tTTj<ns  ^v  npifravcf^a. 


Revenues. 

Finer,  Tc^rJ/iaTa  ;  Tributes,  *dpot ;  Bf?if*, 
T£Ar/ ;  Cotifrjfciftiorif,  'Eic^opal ;  Sen  ices, 
J^tiTovpytat  ;  the  latter  including  Xopff' 
yfa,  rv/iva<r(«p,\fa,  'Eo-Ttao-t*,*,  and 
Tpn?pop^("o. 


Expenditures. 

Public  JVorhs,  "Epya  typ-dtria  ; 

F«<(al  Shuivs,  Tlo(inal,K,  t.  A. 

/7o?mtiye.»,  Aiavo/tal  ; 

Theatric  Fte,  Aitu/3oAfa  ; 

I'ny  of  Senate,  Mio*0ds  HovAetTtwdc; 

Pay  of  Assembly,  Mttr$t\$  EKKAijmaiTTi/cdc  ; 

Faj/  of  Army,  Mtcffdj  ErpaTtcuTiK^f  ; 

Pay  of  Navy,  JVlto*0d$  NavTixoj  ;  &c. 


ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Introduction. 

§  188.  It  belongs  to  the  topics  of  history  and  geography  rather  than  antiqu: 
ties  to  describe  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  Romans,  and  the  extent  of 
their  empire.  Yet  a  glance  at  these  subjects,  and  a  few  remarks  upon  them 
will  aid  in  getting  a  better  view  of  the  Roman  antiquities,  and  enable  one  to 
understand  and  appreciate  more  correctly  the  people  and  their  more  important 
peculiarities.  Some  notices  of  Rome  and  its  empire  will  be  given  first,  and 
then  something  respecting  the  Romans  themselves. 

§  189.  According  to  the  common  accounts  of  history,  the  city  of  Rome  was 
founded  752  B.  C.  by  Romulus  and  Remus,  grand-children  of  the  Alban  king 
Numitor.  It  was  situated  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  in  Latium,  a 
province  in  middle  Italy.  In  the  beginning  it  was  of  small  extent,  confined  to 
Mount  Palatinp,  on  which  it  was  built.  The  number  of  inhabitants  did  not 
amount  to  4,000.  This  more  ancient  part  of  the  city  was  afterwards  called  up- 
pidum,  while  the  better  part,  later  built,  was  called  urbs,  which  became  at 
length  a  general  name  for  Rome.  It  was  first  peopled  by  some  families  from 
Alba  Longa,  and  afterwards  by  various  accessions  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  109,  110); 
partly  of  the  vagabond  and  worthless  from  the  neighboring  people  of  Italy. 

1  u.  The  Capitoline  Hill  was  occupied  next  after  the  Palatine,  and  at  last  five  ither 
mountains  or  hills  were  included  in  the  city,  and  thence  was  derived  the  epithet  septi- 
collis.  The  first  walls  around  the  city  were  low  and  weak;  Tarquinius  Priscus  and 
Servius  Tullius  improved  them. 

2m.  Among  the  principal  events  which  greatly  changed  the  appearance  of  the  city 
were  the  capture  and  burning  of  it  by  the  Gauls,  385  B.  C,  and  the  erection  of  nu- 
merous buildings  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  after  the  conflagration  under  Nero. 
In  t  te  two  last-mentioned  periods,  Rome  was  very  rapidly  ei  larged  and  adorned,  and 
continued  to  be  further  improved  under  succeeding  emperors  down  to  the  time  of  Ho- 
norius.  In  his  reign  occurred  the  capture  and  sack  of  Rome  by  the  Goths  under 
Alaric,  A.  D.  410.  The  city  was  in  a  great  measure  rebuilt  by  Theodorie.  But  by 
that  disaster,  and  the  still  greater  devastations  of  the  Gothic  king  Toiila,  A.  D.  547, 
it  lost  much  of  its  ancient  splendor.     It  continued  to  wane  during  the  ages  following. 

3  u.  After  all  the  exertions  of  the  later  popes  to  restore  its  former  beauty,  there  is 
avast  difference  between  modern  and  ancient  Rome.  Of  the  latter  we  find  only 
certain  traces  and  monuments,  and  these  are  in  part  mere  ruins  and  fragments. 

P.  Macquier,  Romische  Jahrbilcher,  oder  chronol.  Abriss  der  Gesch.  Roms ;  aus  dem  Franz,  rr.il  Anmerk.  von  C.  D.  Beck 
Leipi.  1783.  8. 
A  more  particular  notice  of  the  topography  of  Rome  is  given  in  P.  I.  §5  51-71. 

§  190.  In  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Rome,  at  the  close  of  the  republic 
and  beginning  of  the  imperial  monarchy,  the  population  was  very  great.  The 
number  of  citizens  may  be  estimated  at  three  hundred  thousand,  and  the  whole 
number  of  residents  at  two  millions  and  upwards. 

"  Concerning  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  ancient  Rome,  we  can  only  form  conjec- 
tures. Lipsins  computes  them,  in  its  most  flourishing  state,  at  four  millions."  {Adam.) 
Tacitus  (Annals,  L.  xi.  c.  25)  states,  that  by  a  census  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  the 
number  of  Roman  citizens  amounted  to  nearly  seven  millions;  it  is  supposed  that 
this  number  must  have  included  the  citizens  in  other  places  besides  the  city  of  Rome 
itself. — Gibbon  has  the  following  remarks  on  the  population  of  the  Roman  empire: 
"The  number  of  subjects  who  acknowledged  the  laws  of  Rome,  of  citizens,  of  pro- 
vincials, and  of  slaves,  cannot  now  be  fixed  with  such  a  degree  of  accuracy  as  the 
importance  of  the  object  would  deserve.  We  are  informed  that  when  the  emperor 
Claudius  exercised  the  office  of  Censor,  he  took  an  account  of  six  millions  nine  hun- 
dred and  forty-five  thousand  Roman  citizens,  who  with  the  proportion  of  women  and 
children  must  have  amounted  to  about  twenty  millions  of  souls.  The  multitude  of 
subjects,  of  an  inferior  rank,  was  uncertain  and  fluctuating.     But  aft  n-  weighing  with 

225 


226  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

attention  every  circumstance  which  could  influence  the  balance,  it  seems  probable 

thai  there  existed,  in  the  tin I  Claudius,  about  twice  as  many  provincial  as  there 

were  citizens,  01  either  se.x  and  of  every  age;  and  that  the  s.aves  were  at  least  equal 

in  number  to  the  tree  inhabitants  of  the  Roman  world      1  he  total  amount  of  this  im- 

pi  rfeel  calculation  would  rise  to  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions  of  persons ;  & 

e  of  population  which  possibly  exceeds  that  oi  modern  Europe,  and  iorms  the 

numerous  society  that  has  ever  been  united  under  the  same  system  of  govern- 

'"/','',  MaB,,  Sur  la  population  librc,  he.  de  la  Republ.  Rom.  in  the  Mem.  rfe  rinttih.t,  C  lasse  de  HM.  tt  Lit.  Jlnc.  vol.  x.  161. 
B   II •■■  ...in.  Dissertation  on  the  Numbers  of  Mankind  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Times.    Edinb.  1753.  S.-Bume,  Essay  on  tb« 
I  I  tar.  Quart.  Register,  vol.  ix.  140. 

§  191.  Originally  the  authority  of  Romulus  extended  scarcely  six  thousand 
paces  beyond  the  city.  But  he  and  the  succeeding  kings  considerably  enlarged 
the  dominion  of  Rome.  During  the  time  of  the  republic  her  empire  was  rapidly 
ami  widely  spread,  and  at  length,  by  numerous  and  important  conquests,  a 
great  part  of  the  known  world  was  subjected  to  her  sway. 

1  it.  In  ilif  reign  of  Augustus  the  limits  of  the  Roman  empire  were  the  Euphrates 
on  the  east,  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  the  African  deserts,  and  Mt.  Atlas  on  the  south, 
the  ocean  on  the  west,  and  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine  on  the  north.  Under  some 
oi  i  !.<•  succeeding  emperors,  even  these  limits  were  transcended. 

Tni  following  countries  were  subject  to  Rome:  in  Asia;  Colchis,  Iberia,  Alba 
nia.  Pontus,  Armenia,  Syria,  Arabia,  Palaestina,  the  Bosphorus,  Cappadocia,  Galalia, 
Bithynia,  Cificia,  Pamphylia,  Lydia,  in  short  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor:  in  Africa; 
Egypt,  Cyrenaica,  Marmarica,  Gretulia,  Africa  Propria,  Numidia,  and  Mauretania: 
and  in  Europe;  Italia,  Hispania,  Gallia,  the  Alps,  Rhcetia,  Noricum,  Illyricum,  Ma- 
lia,  Epirus,  Graecia,  Thracia,  Moesia,  Dacia,  and  Pannonia.  In  addition  to 
these  were  a  number  of  islands,  from  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  the  Black  sea,  to 
which  Britain  may  be  added. 

2  //.  Augustus  made  a  division  of  the  whole  empire  into  twelve  parts. — The  empe- 
roi  Hadrian  afterwards  gave  a  new  form  to  this  division,  and  separated  Italy,  Spain, 
Gaul,  Aquitania  and  Britannia,  Illyricum,  Thracia  and  Africa  into  provinces. — One 
ni  trie  lasi  changes  of  this  kind  was  made  by  Consiantine  the  Great,  who  divided  the 
empire  into  four  Praefecturates,  containing  various  dioceses  and  distinct  provinces,  for 
the  government  of  which  he  appointed  a  number  of  new  magistrates  (cf.  §  309.  3). 

The  most  complete  description  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  of  its  various  changes,  is  found  in  Omiphrii  Panvinii  Romanum  Im- 
periuni.  in  the  Thesaurus  Anliq.  Rom.  of  GrsutUI,  vol.  i— Cf.  Uibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall,  Sc.  ch.  I 

§  192.  In  a  few  centuries  the  Romans  acquired  a  greatness  and  power,  which 
is  altogether  singular  and  the  most  remarkable  in  all  history. 

1  //.   What  in  the  highest  degree  contributed  to  this  was  their  warlike  character,  for 
whirli  they  were  from  their  first  origin  distinguished.     Bodily  strength  and  superior 
prowt  ss  constituted  the  grand  object  of  their  wishes  and  efforts,  and  war  and  agricul- 
ture were  their  only  pursuits.     A  great  part  of  the  people  were  directly  occupied  in 
their  constant  wars;  the  proportion  of  soldiers  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  citizens 
[mated  to  have  been  as  one  to  eight.     All  the  early  Romans  felt  an  equal  interest 
in  defending  their  country,  because  the  conquered  territory  was  divided  equally  among 
tin  hi.     In  addition  to  all  this,  much  must  be  ascribed  to  their  policy  in  the  manner  of 
aining  their  conquests,  in  the  treatment  of  allies,  and  in  arranging  the  govern- 
'   i In   provinces,  and  to  the  respect  towards  them  awakened  in  other  nations. 

2  a  I'm  treat  of  these  topics  belongs  to  history  ;  yet  a  brief  view  of  the  principal  revolutions 
'.t\  Roman  affairs  seems  to  be  necessary  for  our  object. 

%  I'M  u.  Romulus,  the  founder  and  builder  of  Rome,  was  the  first  king.  Accord- 
ing io  the  common  accounts  (not  altogether  certain,  however,)  six  other  kings  suc- 
ceeded  him;  Numa  Pompilius,  Tullus  Hostilins,  Ancus  Martius,  Tarquinius  Pris- 
Serving  Tullius,  ami  rJ'ur</iiiiiins  Superbvs ;  men  of  active  enterprise,  who  con- 
tributed  to  the  growth  and  stability  of  the  nation.  The  most  remarkable  circum- 
stances or  <  vents,  during  the  regal  form  of  government,  were  the  division  of  the  peo- 
ple into  Tribes,  Curias,  Classes,  and  Centuries;  the  separation  of  Patricians  and  Ple- 
b«';:ins  ;  ilie  i-siabb.-hinent  of  the  senate,  and  of  the  religious  worship;  the  settlement 
Oi  the  mode  "I  computing  time,  of  the  military  discipline,  of  the  valuation  and  taxa- 
tion;  and   the  introduction  of  coined   money.     In  general  it  may  be  remarked,  that 

'I"'  principles  oi  rh< vernment  under  this  first  form  were  not  strictly  monarchical, 

bui  rather  oi  a  mixed  character,  and  really  laid  the  foundation  of  the  subsequent  ad- 
8  Bystem  of  the  republic,     During  this  whole  period,  the  Romans  were  in- 
volved in  war-:  Inn  this  uninterrupted  continuity  of  war  contributed  to  their  success, 
foi  they  nevr  would  make  peace  until  they  had  conquered.    The  regal  government 
it  years,  and  was  abolished  B.C.  509,  because  the  last  king,  Tarquinius 
Superbus,  bad   provoked  the  nobility  by  arrogant  haughtiness;   and  the  people  by 
impositions. 


p.  III.  INTRODUCTION.  22^ 

The  immediate  occasion  of  Tarquin's  expulsion  and  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy,  is  said  ts 
have  been  the  vile  abuse  committed  upon  Lucretia,  wife  of  Collatinus,  by  Sextus  Tarquiniati, 
thi  king's  son.-  -Cf.  Ouldsmiihrs  Rome,  by  Pinnock;  p.  65.  ed.  Phila.  1835. 

§194  w.  Rome  was  now  a  free  state,  at  first  aristocratical,  and  then  for  a  peri  id 
governed  more  by  the  Plebeians,  whose  importance  and  power,  sustained  by  their 
tribunes,  constantly  increased.  During  this  time  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  as 
well  as  the  vigor  of  their  constitution  was  augmented  ;  their  legislation  was  judicious  ; 
and  their  morals  comparatively  rigid.  For  a  considerable  period  they  maintained  an 
elevated  national  character,  in  which  simplicity  and  propriety  of  manners,  a  high  spirit 
of  enterprise,  a  strong  sense  of  justice,  daring  boldness  and  self-denial  and  the  warmest 
patriotism,  were  prominent  traits. —  The  most  brilliant  era  in  ihe  Roman  republic  was 
the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  from  the  building  of  the  city,  and  especially  during 
the  sixteen  years  of  the  second  Punic  war,  at  the  close  of  which  Rome  was  in  posses- 
sion of  her  greatest  strength.  But  immediately  after  this,  corruption  of  morals  ad- 
vanced with  rapid  steps.  Among  the  various  causes  of  this,  we  may  mention  the 
victories  in  Greece  and  Asia,  the  long  residence  of  the  legions  and  officers  amidst  the 
luxuries  of  the  east,  and  at  last  the  overthrow  of  Corinth  and  Carthage  ;  each  of  these 
things  contributed  to  the  unhappy  result.  Through  debauchery,  luxury,  and  effemi- 
nacy, the  Romans  now  suffered  a  universal  degeneracy  of  manners  and  morals, 
although  they  gained  from  their  intercourse  with  the  Greeks  and  the  eastern  nations 
an  increase  of  knowledge  and  much  polish  and  refinement  in  matters  of  taste. 

A  valuable  work  on  this  subject  is  the  following  :  Chr.  Meiners,  GeschichJe  des  Verfalls  der  Sitten  und  der  Staatsverfassung  der 
Romer.  Leipz.  1782.  8  —Also,  by  same,  Geschichte  des  Verfalls  der  Silten,  Wissenschaflen  und  Sprache  der  Romer  in  den  ereterj 
Jahrhunderten  nach  Ch  Geburt.   Wien  und  Leipzig,  1791.  8. — More  minute,  but  especially  instructive,  is  Ad.  Ferguson's  Rise  and 

Prog,  of  Rom.  Republic,  cited  P.  V.  §  299.  7. Ou  the  slate  of  morals  in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  Spirit  of  the  Pilgiims,  vol.  iv. 

p.  579. 

§  195  u.  Selfishness,  avarice,  and  lust  of  power  were  immediate  consequences  of 
this  degeneracy ;  and  became  in  turn  causes  of  the  most  melancholy  disorders  in  the 
state,  and  of  those  civil  wars,  the  leaders  in  which  contended  for  the  supreme  authority. 
Octavius  at  last  gained  the  point,  and  under  the  name  of  Augustus  was  the  first  pos- 
sessor of  the  now  established  Imperial  throne.  His  reign  throughout  was  a  flourish- 
ing period  of  Roman  history.  Some  of  his  successors  were  worthy  rulers.  But 
much  more  effectual  and  more  fatal  was  the  influence  of  those  emperors,  who  dis- 
graced the  throne  by  the  lowest  voluptuousness  and  vilest  despotism  ;  under  these, 
the  already  prevailing  corruption  was  fully  completed.  Now  arose  in  rapid  succession 
the  most  violent  and  fatal  internal  commotions;  the  right  of  the  strongest  triumphed 
over  every  thing,  and  although  particular  emperors  endeavored  to  prop  up  the  sink- 
ing dominion,  it  constantly  drew  nearer  and  nearer  to  final  ruin. 

Goldsmith's  Rome,  and  Oilbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Cf.  P.  V.  5  299.  7. — Bridge's  Roman  Empire  undor 
Constantine  the  Great. 

§  196.  It  may  be  seen  from  this  brief  delineation  of  the  Romans,  that  their 
history  must  be  crowded  with  interesting  and  instructive  incidents:  and  that  a 
familiar  acquaintance  with  their  constitution  and  customs  must  be  highly  useful. 
The  utility  of  studying  the  Roman  antiquities  needs,  therefore,  no  further  re- 
commendation. 

1  u.  But  besides  the  indispensable  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  antiquities  in 
order  to  understand  properly  the  history  of  the  Romans,  there  are  other  advantages, 
which  render  it  worthy  the  attention  of  every  lover  of  literature,  and  of  every  one,  in 
fact,  who  is  not  wholly  indifferent  to  intellectual  refinement  and  taste.  It  is  essentia! 
as  a  help  in  reading  the  distinguished  Roman  authors,  whose  writings  are  preserved, 
and  in  obtaining  a  correct  idea  of  the  various  works  of  Roman  art. 

2  u.  The  best  sources,  whence  a  knowledge  of  Roman  antiquities  may  be  drawn, 
are  doubtless  the  Roman  writers  themselves,  particularly  the  historians.  There  are 
also  several  Greek  writers  valuable  in  this  respect,  as  they  lived  among  the  Romans, 
and  being  strangers,  many  things  must  strike  them  as  more  important  and  remarkable 
than  they  might  seem  to  the  native  citizens.  Among  the  latter  class  of  writers  are 
Polybius,  Dionysius,  Strabo,  Plutarch,  Appian  <ind  Dion  Cassius,  and  even  some 
later  writers,  as  Procopius,  Zonaras,  Lydus,  &c.  Some  aid  may  be  derived  also  from 
the  writings  of  the  Christian  Fathers. 

3  u.  In  modern  times  Roman  antiquities  have  been  formed  into  a  sort  of  science. 
The  materials  drawn  from  the  sources  just  named,  and  various  others,  have  been  di- 
gested into  regular  systems  on  the  one  hand,  while,  on  the  other,  particular  branches 
of  the  subject  have  been  examined  in  more  full  detail.  Yet  this  has  perhaps  never 
been  done  with  sufficient  knowledge  of  fact,  or  adequate  or  critical  skill  and  discrimi- 
nation :  the  essential  has  not  been  sufficiently  distinguished  from  the  less  important, 
nor  the  general  and  universal  from  the  particular  and  local ;  nor  has  there  been  suita- 
ble care  to  note  the  periods  in  which  the  customs  and  principles  were  introduced, 
made  prevalent,  or  changed.     These  are  defects,  which  we  must  notice  rather  than 


228 


ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 


avoid  in  tlie  brief  treatise,  upon  which  we  now  enter,  and  which  cannot;  De  mlly  re- 
moved  vvilhoul  more  labor  than  has  hitherto  been  devoted  to  the  subject. 

E.  Plattner,  I'  tr  Wissenschafiliche  Begruudung  und  Behandlung  der  Antiquiuten,  inbesonders  der  Rom.    aliru.  1812.  &— 
F  J    J  I" if,  Vorlcs..ngen  dber  Allerthums  wisseuschafl,  &c  as  cited  P.  V.  §  7.  9. 

$  l'.'T.  We  mention  here  some  of"  the  principal  writers  on  Roman  antiquities. 


1.  The  largest  Collections  of  separate  treaticcs  are  the  two 
fallowing: 

Jo.  Georg.  Grxviiu,  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Romanarum  ; 
c.  fig.  TraJ  ad  Rhen.  1694-99.  12  vols  fol.  (For  an  account 
of  thi- contents  of  this,  see  Append, x  to  Kinmlt.  cited  below.) 

J.  M.  Polenul,  Supplement  toGraviusaud  Gronovius.  Ven. 
1737.  5  vols.  fol. 

Alb.  Htnr.  de  Sallengre,  Novus  Thesaurus  antiq.  Rom.  Hag. 
Com.  1716-19.  3  vols    fol. 

Very  useful  on  account  of  its  copiousness  and  its  good  refer- 
ences, is  .Sum.  pilisci  Lexicon  Antiq.  Roman.  Hag.  Com.  1737. 
3  vols.  fol. 

As  a  sys'eni  formally  arranged,  may  be  mentioned,  Jo.  Roshii 
Antiq.  Ron, an.  Corpus  abiolutisaimum,  c.  n.  Tho.  Dempslcri. 
Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1710.  4.    (Ed.  J.  F.  Rdtzna.)  Amst.  1743.  4. 

Some  pertinent  treatises  are  contained  in  B.  Ugolinus,  Thesau- 
rus Anliquitatum  Sacrarum,  complectensselec'issima  clarissimo- 
rum  virorum  Opuscula  ;  in  quibus  Vet.  Hebrseorum  Mores,  Ritus 
Sacri,&c  illuslrantur:  Opus  ad  PhilologiamSacram  et  Profauam 
otilissimum.     Venet.  I74l-n9.  34  vols.  fol. 

Meutel.  a>  diet  §  240,  vol  3d  exhibits  the  writers  on  Roman 
Antiquities,  &c. 

2.  I  ii  !er  the  class  of  Manual*  are  the  following  : 

Thoi.  Godwyn,  Roman  Antiquities,  15th  ed.     Lond.  16S9.  4. 

B.  G.  Struoius,  Antiquitatum  Romanarum  Suntagma.  Jen. 
1701.  4. 

IV.  Barter,  Glossarium  Antiq  Romanarum.     Lond.  1726.  8. 

Bat.  Kin n: u.  R  iij.-e  Antiquae  Notitia.  or  the  Antiquities  of 
Rome,  in  two  Parts.  Lond.  1731.  8.  There  have  been  many 
us;  first  American,  Phil.  IS_>-».  S. 

G.  H.  Nicuport,  Rituum,  qui  olim  apud  Romanos  obtinuerunt, 
succinrta  explica'io.  14th  ed.     Berl.  1784.  8. 

C.  a.  .S'lwzrlr,  Observationes  ad  Nieuportii  Compendium  an- 
tiquitatum  Romanarum  led.  J).  M.  Nagel).     Altd    1757.8. 

C.  J  H  Umtmaun,  Aumerkungen  uher  NieuporCs  Handbuch 
der  romischen  AlterthQmer.    Dresd.  1766.  8. 

C/irilt.  Ccllarius,  Compendium  Antiq.  Rom.  cum  adnot.  J 
t    Im.  Malchii.  2ded.     Hal.  1774.  8. 

C.  C.  MaUmw  von  Cilano,  Ausfahrliche  Abhandlung  der 
r  mift  bea  Alterthamer,  herausgegeben  vonG.  C.  Adlcr.  Altona, 
1775-76.  4  vols    4. 

C.  G.  fhynii  Antiquitas  romana,  inprimis  juris  romani. 
G"tt.  1779.  8. 

P.  F.  A.  Kitsh,  Resrhreibung  des  hauslichen,  wisseuschaftli- 

ch-  n.  siulichen,  gottesdienstlichen,  politischen  und  kriegerischen 

/      indei  der  Rimer,  nich  den  verschiedenen  Zeitallern  der  Na 

lion,  l.y  J.  H  M  Ernuli.   Erfurt,  1SI2.  2  vols.  8.— Same  work 

Ii).    Erf.  1812.  8. 

K.  Ph.  Mordz,  ANOOTE  \,  oder  Rom's  Alterlhtlmer.  1st  part 
(of  the  sarre.1  riles  of  the  Romans).  Berl.  1791-97.  8.  2d  pari 
(of  the  civil  and  private  alTurs),  ed.  by  F.  Ilambach.    Berl.  1796. 

Alexander  Adam,  Roman  Antiquities,  &c.     Edinb.  1791   8. 

pi  no  I.    An  improved  ed.  by  Jama  Boyd    Edinb.  1834. 

I2uin.    Another  ed.  ly  J.  n.  Major.  Oxf.  IS37.  8.— Transl.  into 

Gel with  improveutents,  by  J.  L.  Meyer  (3d  ed.)    Erlsng. 

ISI-..  2  v 

J  K.  Unger,  s.iien  und  Gcbrtuche  der  ROmer.  VVien.  1805-6. 

I  Vols.    8    With  plltes. 

Klr/ike,  Antiqiiitates  Romans,  in  xii.  tab.  descr.    Berl. 

/..  Bdinaff",  Aiilir(jiiaten  und  Archaolngie  der  Griechen  und 
Rouirr.   i  In  Ins  fciijilf.  d.  dail.  AllcTlhumskvndc).    Magdeb. 

I       .uizrr,  Abrins  der  mu.ucl.en  Antiquiuten  mm  Gebrauche 

hi  igm    Leipx.  1824.  8. 
J.  P.  Fun,  Roman  Antiquities.  Translated  from  the  German. 
'if.  1840.  8. 


The  5ih  vol.  of  Wul/'sVorlesungen,  as  ciled  P.  V.  §  7.9,  treats 
of  Roman  Antiquities. 

Less  extensive,  but  useful  and  instructive,  is  the  following  . 
/.  H.  L.  Meierollo,  Ueber  Sitten  und  Lebensart  der  ROmer,  in 
verschiedenen  Zeiten  der  Republik.  Berlin,  1814.  8.  (Ed.  Ph. 
Buttniann). 

Worthy  of  mention  also  is,  Wifrock's  Roman  Conversations,  or 
Descriptions  of  the  Antiquities  of  Rome.    Lond.  1797.  2  vols.  8. 

The  following  are  abridgments  : 

Abriss  der  griech.  und  romisch.  Alterthumer,  von  Chr.  Fried. 
Haacke.    Stendal,  1821. 

Roman  Antiquities,  and  Ancient  Mythology,  for  Classical 
Schools;  by  Cits.  AT.  Dillaway.     Boston,  1831;  2d  ed.  1835. 

Thos.  S.  Carr,  Manual  of  Rom.  Antiquities.    Lond.  1836.  12. 

3.  We  may  also  refer  here  to  M<mtfancon's  Antiquite  Ex- 
pliquee,  as  illustrating  by  its  plates  aud  descriptions  Roman  as 
well  as  GrccJi  Antiquities  (cf.  5  13). 

The  following  work  contains  many  excellent  delineations: 
Raccolta  Tavole  rappresent.  i  costumi  religiosi,  civili  e  militari 
degli  antichi  Egiziani,  Elruschi,  Grecie  Romani, tralti  dagli  auti 
chi  nionumenti,— disegrate,  ed  incise  in  rame,  da  Lorenzo  Rot 
thegpani.    2  vols.  4.  containing  one  hundred  plates  each. 

As  pertaining  especially  to  the  subject  of  costume,  we  add, 
Bardnn,  Costume  des  Anciens  Peoples.    Par.  1786.  2  vols.  4. 

A.  Lent,  Le  Costume,  ou  Essai  sur  les  habillements  et  lea 
usages  de  plus,  peupl  de  l'Anliquite,  prouve  par  les  monuments. 
Liege,  1776.  4. 

Tim.  Hope,  The  Costume  of  the  Ancients.  Lond.  1812.  2  vols 
8.  with  numerous  engravings  in  outline.  New  ed.  Lond.  1841 
2  vols   8. 

Particularly,  Maillot  and  Martin,  Recherche3  sur  les  cos- 
tumes, les  mccurs,  &c.  des  anciens  peuples,  &c. — orne  de  29U 
planches,  au  trait.  Par.  1804-6.  3  vols.  4.  "  The  first  volume 
contains,  in  great  detail,  the  costume,  manners,  &c.  of  the  Ro- 
mans, from  Romulus  to  the  last  emperors  of  Constantinople. 
The  engravings  are  taken  from  medals  and  monuments  of  each 
epoch." 

4.  It  is  proper  also  to  refer  here  to  works  illustrating  the 
remains  of  Roman  Antiquity. 

See  P.  IV.  §§  130,  138,  187,  188,  191,  228,  243. 

F.  A  David,  Antiquites  d'Herculanum.  Far.  1750-1S03. 
12  vols.  4. 

IV.  Stnkeley,  Itinerarium  Curiosum,  4c.  Lond.  1760.  2  vol*, 
in  one,  fol.  with  two  hundred  copperplates;  containing  notices 
of  Roman  monuments  in  England. 

The  Publications  of  the  tnslituto  di  Correspondenza  Archeo- 
logica,  a  society  for  archaeological  correspondence,  founded  in 
Rome  by  several  distinguished  scholars  and  antiquaries.  The 
BnlUtino  dclV  Insliluto,  commenced  1829,  contains  brief  notices 
of  new  discoveries  and  new  works,  with  other  articles  of  special 
interest.  By  the  title  of  Monumenti  Inediti,  the  annual  volume 
of  plates  is  designated.  The  Annali  delV  Insttlulo,  the  chief 
publication,  gives  essays,  reviews,  and  extended  descriptions. 
Gerhard,  Kestner,  RaoulRochelle,  Bock,  Panofka,  Hirl,  MiVlet, 
Millingeu,  &c.  have  been  contributors 

5.  On  various  points  it  will  be  useful  so  consul  I  irdner, 
Pauly,  Weber,  Fusbrone,  &c.  as  cited  §  13.  5. 

Also,  F.  Sabbathier,  Institutiou,  Manners,  and  C'jstcms  of  the 
Ancient  Nations.    Translated  from  the  French  by  P.  Stockdale. 
W.  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities. 

6  Other  references  to  authors  on  particular  topics  ale  givei 
under  the  sections  treating  of  those  topics. 

Lvctihart's  Valerius,  Builder's  Pompeii,  and  t\'are*9  Letters 
from  Palmyra,  are  fictions  professing  to  txbibit  the  state  of  mas 

»re  in  Vhe  first  centuries  after  Christ. 


IVI  RELIGION    OF    THE    ROMANS.  229 

§  IPs.  We  shall  treat  the  Roman  Antiquities,  as  we  did  the  Greek,  undei 
four  distinct  branches;  thus  exhibiting  separately  the  affairs  of  religion,  civil 
government,  uar,  and  private  life. 

I.    RELIGIOUS  AFFAIRS. 

§  199.  As  the  word  religion  is  of  Roman  origin,  it  may  be  well  to  notice  the 
ideas  attached  to  this  term  in  the  Latin  language.  Originally,  religio  seems  to 
have  signified  every  sort  of  serious  and  earnest  exertion,  to  which  one  was  im- 
pelled by  external  or  internal  motives.  Afterwards,  it  was  used  chiefly  to  ex- 
press the  included  idea  of  duty  towards  the  Deity  and  towards  fellow-creatures; 
and  the  theory  of  this,  as  well  as  the  practice,  then  took  the  name  of  religion. 
In  the  plural  number,  the  word  usually  designates  the  regulations  and  practices 
pertaining  to  the  worship  and  propitiation  of  the  Deity.  And,  in  as  much  as 
the  knowledge  and  practice  of  duty  towards  men  and  the  Divine  Being  will 
lead  to  a  certain  permanent  moral  sensibility  and  conscientiousness  of  deport- 
ment, the  word  religio  was  also  naturally  employed  as  comprehending  in  its 
meaning  this  correctness  of  morals. 

§  200.  In  inquiring  into  the  origin  of  the  religion  of  the  Romans,  we  must 
revert  to  the  origin  of  the  nation,  already  noticed  (§  189).  There  doubtless 
existed  in  Latium,  long  before  the  founding  of  Rome  various  rel.^ious  customs 
and  the  worship  of  various  divinities;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  ivace  out  their 
gradual  rise  and  establishment.  By  the  subsequent  colonies  from  Greece,  Elis, 
and  Arcadia,  this  native  religion  received  many  additions  and  modifications; 
hence  the  great  similarity  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  systems  of  mythology 
gnd  worship  (cf.  P.  II.  §  8).  In  some  particulars  the  Roman  traditions  differ 
from  those  of  the  Greeks,  where  the  divinities  and  their  chief  attributes  are  the 
same.  The  Romans  also  adopted  several  religious  usages  not  practiced  by  the 
Greeks,  as  e.  g.  in  relation  to  auguries  and  auspices,  which  were  borrowed  from 
the  Etrurians.  To  the  latter  source  we  may  chiefly  ascribe  the  great  prevalence 
of  superstition  in  the  earliest  part  of  the  Roman  history. 

§  201.  The  religion  of  the  Romans  was,  like  that  of  the  Greeks,  intimately 
connected  with  their  politics.  It  was  often  employed  as  a  means  of  promoting 
secret  designs  of  state,  which  the  projectors  knew  how  to  render  agreeable  and 
desirable,  by  the  help  of  superstition.  Thus  the  inclinations  of  the  mass  of  the 
people  were  determined  by  pretended  oracles  and  signs.  .Many  military  enter- 
prises derived  their  most  effective  stimulus  from  this  source;  and  not  seldom 
it  furnished  the  strongest  motives  to  patriotic  exertion,  since  love  of  country 
was  held  to  be  a  religious  duty.  The  pomp  of  the  religious  solemnities  and 
festivals  served  to  foster  and  to  deepen  sentiments  of  awe  and  fear  towards  the 
gods,  and  thus  contributed  to  the  same  end.  The  purpose  and  influence  of  the 
gods  were  considered  as  effecting  much  in  all  events  and  transactions,  and  this 
belief  was  greatly  confirmed  by  the  artifice  of  the  poets,  who  sought  to  impart 
dignity  to  the  incidents  of  their  stories,  by  describing  the  intervention  and  agency 
of  the  gods  therein. 

§  202.  On  the  first  establishment  of  the  city,  Romulus  made  it  a  prominent 
object  to  render  the  national  religion  a  means  of  union  between  the  various  and 
discordant  materials  of  which  the  first  inhabitants  were  composed.  Still  more 
carefully  was  this  object  pursued  by  his  successor  Numa,  who  is  viewed  as  the 
chief  author  of  many  of  the  religious  usages  of  the  Romans,  which  were  in  part, 
as  has  been  suggested,  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  and  Etrurians.  His  pretend- 
ed interviews  with  a  supernatural  being,  the  nymph  Egeria,  secured  greater 
respect  and  success  in  his  efforts.  The  fundamental  principles  of  Noma's 
system,  being  retained,  were  afterwards  carried  out  more  fully  and  variously.- 
As  knowledge  and  sound  philosophy  advanced  among  the  Romans,  the  religious 
notions  of  the  more  intelligent  portion  were  gradually  rectified  and  elevated  ; 
but  this  was  confined  to  a  few,  while  the  great  mass  adhered  to  the  common 
faith,  even  in  the  period  when  the  system  became  inconsistent  and  cumbrous  by 
the  deification  of  the  emperors. 

On  N'un.a,  cf.  P.  V.  §  447.— lor  a  particular  account  of  the  gods  worshiped  by  the  Romans,  we  refer  to  the  part  (II.)  of  tbi»  wnr« 
which  treats  cf  the  subject  of  Mvtfarlogy.    Ttie  Roman  division  or  classification  of  their  gods  is  uotit  zi  in  (P.  U.)  $  9. 


230  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

§  -203.  TIip  "Teat  number  of  the  Roman  deities  occasioned  a  large  number  ol 
temples,  of  «  hich,  as  some  assert,  there  were  in  Rome  above  four  hundred  [foui 
hundred  and  twenty].  The  name  of  temples,  templa,  however,  properly  belong 
,  ,1  only  to  such  religious  buildings  as  were  solemnly  consecrated  by  the  augurs 
by  tin-  i  ircumstance,  and  also  by  a  less  simple  style  of  architecture,  they  were 
distinguished  from  the  acdes  sacrw,  although  the  names  are  often  used  inter- 
changeably. Their  form  was  almost  entirely  in  Grecian  taste,  oblong  rectangu- 
lar oftener  than  round.  It  was  customary  to  dedicate  them  with  various  cere- 
monies,  on  laying  the  foundation  and  on  the  completion  of  the  building,  and 
also  after  a  remodeling  or  repairing  of  it. — The  principal  parts  of  a  temple  were 
commonly  the  sanctuary  (cella  sanctior,  adytum),  the  interior,  appropriated  for 
the  ceremonies  of  sacrifice,  and  the  exterior  or  court,  serving  for  various  pur- 
poses.  The  temples,  however,  were  often  used,  not  only  for  religious  solemni- 
ties,  hut  also  for  meetings  of  the  senate,  select  councils,  and  the  like.  They 
usually  Stood  in  an  open  place,  and  were  surrounded  with  pillars,  or  at  least 
ornamented  with  them  on  the  front. 

On  Hit  structure  of  ancient  temples,  cf.  P.  IV.  5  234,  and  references  there  given On  the  temples  at  Rome,  cf.  P.  I.  §§  5S-60— 

esde  I  incieiine  Koine,  in  the  .Vein.  Mad.  Inscr.  i.  199. 

§  204.  The  Humans  adorned  the  interior  of  their  temples,  as  did  the  Greeks, 
with  statues  of  the  gods,  with  other  works  of  sculpture  and  painting,  and  with 
consecrated  offerings  of  various  kinds,  called  donaria.  Every  thing  connected 
w  ith  a  temple  was  held  as  sacred  to  the  god  or  gods  to  whom  it  was  devoted. — 
A  general  name  for  such  places  as  were  sacred  to  the  gods,  even  if  no  buildings 
were  there  erected,  was  fanum.  The  word  delubrum,  on  the  other  hand,  had  a 
more  limited  meaning,  signifying  properly  only  that  portion  of  the  temple  where 
stood  the  images  of  the  gods,  one  or  more;  but  it  is  often  used  in  a  more  gene- 
ral sense.  Small  temples,  or  chapels,  also  places  for  worship  without  roofs  and 
only  guarded  by  a  wall,  were  termed  sacel/a.  Among  the  groves  (luci)  conse- 
crated  to  the  gods,  of  which  there  were  thirty-two  in  the  city,  those  of  Vesta, 
Egeria,  Furina,  and  Juno  Lucina  were  the  most  noted. 

§  205.  Jl  liars  were  sometimes  erected  apart  from  any  temple,  and  were  then 
inscribed  merely  with  the  name  of  the  god  to  whom  they  were  dedicated;  usu-- 
ally,  however,  they  were  placed  in  temples.  A  distinction  was  made  between 
altaria  and  arse;  the  former  were  raised  higher  (alia  ara),  and  were  used  for 
offering  the  sacrificial  victim;  the  latter  were  lower,  and  were  used  in  offering 
the  prayer  and  libation.  The  former  were  more  usually  consecrated  to  the 
celestial  gods ;  the  latter,  to  the  infernal.  They  stood  one  behind  the  other,  and 
were  so  placed  that  the  images  of  the  gods  appeared  behind  them. 

1  a.  There  was  also  a  third  kind  of  altar,  anclabris  or  enclabris,  a  sort  of  table,  on 
which  the  sacrificial  utensils  were  placed  and  the  entrails  of  victims  were  laid  by  the 
Haruspices.  The  mensa  sacra  was  something  still  different,  a  table  on  which  incense 
was  sninrtinii-s  presented,  and  offerings  not  designed  to  be  burned,  as  various  arti- 
cl(  a  "t  turn  ami  food. — Ahars  were  sometimes  made  of  metals,  even  of  gold  or  some 
metal  gilded,  but  more  frequently  of  marble  and  other  stones,  commonly  of  a  white 
color.  Sometimes  they  were  hastily  formed  of  ashes,  earth  or  turf,  or  the  horns  of 
victims.  I  he  form  of  altars  was  various,  quadrangular  oftener  than  round.  Not  un- 
frt  quently  they  were  adorned  with  sculpture  and  image-work. 

Different  forma  of  altars  are  seen  in  our  Plate  XXVII.  fig.  B,  C,  m.  Fig.  t  is  the  evdabrit. 
Pig  II  is  a  representation  of  Solomon's  altar  of  burnt  offering  (cf.  2  Chron.  iv.  I);  given  by  Pri- 
dm.ii.  as  drawn  according  to  accounts  of  the  Halibuts';  copied  and  described  in  Calmet,  Diet. 
k(  vol  111  p  144,  357,  ed.  Chariest  IHI3  —  Fig.  E.  is  an  altar  erected  as  a  sepulchral  monument, 
in  honor  "i  a  Roman  emperor;  it  Is  highly  ornamented  wiili  sculptures,  and  bears  an  inscrip- 
tion ;  tin-  letters  l>  M  stand  for  Diu  Manibus.  The  elevations  at  the  corners  in  this  and  in  fig. 
H.  shon  what  Is  designated  by  the  phrase  "  horns  of  the  altur."— In  Plate  XX.  are  other  forms 
..r  the  alt  >r.     In  the  Sup.  Plate  30,  are  four  others  ;  on  the  altar  of  Jupiter  is  seen  the  bust  of 

the  god,  and  below  n  on  eagle  holding  a  tl lerboli  in  Ins  claws  ;  beneath  this,  in  the  original 

'"■" "'■  »■  'he    necriplion,  I.  <).   M.  lVSSA  OCTAVIa  .sYCCKSSA  P.;  i.  e.  Juvi  Optimo 

Maximo, jumi  Oetavia  Sueceaaa  posuit.     On  the  altar  of  Bacchus,*  Bacchanal  is  dancing  over  a 

prostrate  wine-cup,  I ling  another  cup  in  one  hand  and  the  thyrsus  in  the  other.    Tne  ulhir 

''  ^r'""  Isont  n(  the  four  discovered  at  Antium  (Nettuno);  on  it  is  sculptured  Neptune  with 
the  trident  iii  liis  left  hand  and  a  dolphin  in  his  right;  above  this  is  inscribed,  in  the  original, 

iRA  NEPTVN1  The  tripod  was  often  used  as  (he  form  of  an  altar  to  Apollo;  the  very  re - 
in  Hkabie  ..ne  given  iii  ibis  Plate  corresponds  to  a  representation  on  a  silver  coin  of  Consul  M. 

1  '"  Lepldili  Bee  Montfavcon  (as  cited  P.  II.  $  12),  ii.  242.  132.  Sup.  ii.  50.— For  various  a'tars 
is  sepult  In  a  erections,  «<■>■  Montfaucon,  vol.  v.  and  Buppl.  vol  v.— Roman  altars  have  repcat- 
♦  Ji\  been  Ii  und  iii  England.     Arehaologia,  as  cited  P.  IV.  $  32.  5.  vol.  iii.  p  118,  324 


PLATE     XXVII. 


^§gMb3^ 


331 


32  ROMAX    ANTIQUITIES. 

2.  It  was  common  also  to  adorn  altars  with  fillets  or  ribins,  and  garlands  of  he:  •>»  int 
Rowers.  Altars  and  temples  afforded  a  place  of  refuge  among  the  Romans  as  well  as 
Greeks  ',cf.  §  fcdi).  chiefly  for  slaves  from  the  cruelty  of  masters,  for  insolvent  debtors 
and  criminals,  where  h  was  impious  to  touch  them,  although  contrivances  might  be 
employed  (as  e.  g.  kindling  a  fire  around  them)  to  force  them  away,  or  they  might  be 
confined  there  until  they  perished. 

§  206.  A  great  variety  of  instruments  and  vessels,  vasa  sacra,  were  employed 
;n  the  sacrifices  offered  to  the  gods. 

1  v.  The  most  important  were  the  following :  the  ax  (bipennis,  securis,  d,  d),  or 
club  [malleus,  c),  with  which  the  victim  was  first  struck;  knives  for  stabbing  (cultri, 
e.  c).  and  others,  long,  two-edged,  for  dividing  the  flesh  and  entrails  (secespitce) ;  the 
censer  (Ihuribulum,  1),  and  the  box  containing  the  substance  burnt  for  incense  (acerra 
or  arcula  thuraria,  5) ;  a  vessel  used  in  dropping  the  wine  upon  the  sacrifices  {gultus) ; 
a  llat  vessel  in  which  the  priests  and  others  offering  sacrifices  tasted  the  wine  (simpu- 
Linn.  In  ;  broad  dishes  or  bowls  {patera,  i,  2),  for  wine  and  the  blood  of  the  victims  ; 
an  oblong  vase  with  one  or  two  handles  (capedo,  capeduncula,  capis,  o,  o) ;  vessels  to 
hold  the  entrails  {ollte  extares) ;  plates  on  which  the  entrails  and  flesh  were  brought  to 
the  altar  [lances,  disci,  n);  baskets,  particularly  to  contain  the  fruit  offered  (canistra) ; 
small  tables  with  three  legs  (tripodes) ;  an  instrument,  having  a  tuft  of  hair,  or  the 
like,  for  sprinkling  the  sacred  water  (aspergillum,  f);  pans  for  the  sacrificial  fire  (prm- 
fericula);   metallic  candlesticks  (candelabra,  h)  to  which  the  lamps  were  attached. 

2.  The  numerals  and  letters  included  in  the  parentheses  with  the  Latin  terms  in  the  above 
specification,  refer  to  the  figures  thus  marked  in  our  Plate  XXVII  The  figures  marked  by  the 
letters  are  drawn  from  Montfaucon,  vol.  ii.  p.  150.     Those  marked    by  the  numerals  are  from 

Pompeii,  p.  130,  as  cited  1\  IV,  #  2'26. The  Plate  exhibits  other  articles  of  sacrificial  apparatus  ; 

fin.  g  shows  the  sacred  fillet  (vitla),  which  was  sometimes  hung  from  the  neck;  fig  4  is  a  ladle 
(lio-ida);  fig.  3,  a  pitcher  (urceitu,  ciitutlus)  used  for  the  libations;  these  figures  are  taken  from 
sculptured  representations  on  an  altar  standing  in  the  court  of  a  temple  found  at  Pompeii  ;  fig. 
B  exhibits  a  scene  from  the  same  altar ;  a  magistrate  in  his  robe  is  offering  sacrifice;  he  holds 
in  bis  band  a  patera;  the  victim  is  led  forward  by  the  popaor  cultrarius,  who  is  naked  to  his 
waist  with  a  wreath  on  bis  bead;  behind  the  magistrate  is  a  boy  holding  a  vase  or  pitcher,  and 
an  older  servant  bearing  a  platter  (discus);  by  bis  side  is  a  musician  blowing  the  flute,  followed 
by  lictors  with  their  fasces;  in  the  back  ground  appear  the  pillars  of  the  temple  decorated  with 
garlands. — Fig.  in  also  represents  a  sacrifice  ;  given  by  Montfaucon  from  an  ancient  coin  ;  the 
augur's  wand  (litnvs)  is  seen  in  the  hand  of  the  principal  person.  The  group  of  articles  in- 
cluded in  fig.  1)  is  drawn  from  Egyptian  monuments,  and  may  serve  to  illustrate  also  Hebrew 
and  likewise  Greek  and  Roman  sacred  utensils.  The  observer  will  notice  among  them  the  sho- 
vel, the  fork  of  several  tines,  knives,  a  vessel  like  the  modern  teapot,  a  fire-pan,  jars,  bowls, 
dishes,  &.<-.  cf.  Exod.  xxv.  29. — Fig.  a,  is  the  sacred  trumpet  (tuba)  sounded  at  hecatombs  and 
other  sacrifices.  The  straight  trumpet  was  also  used  at  sacrifices,  as  is  seen  in  Plate  XXIX,  and 
likewise  Hie  flute  or  clarionet,  as  is  seen  in  Plate  XXIX,  and  Plate  XLV.— In  Plate  XLV.  is  seen, 
hanging  from  the  girdle  of  a  priest  (the  one  that  holds  the  head  of  the  victim)  the  case  (vagina) 
for  the  knives  ;  the  same  article  is  given  in  the  Sup.  Plate  31.  fig  18.  In  this  Plate  also  are 
various  instruments  of  sacrifice  ,  1,  2  the  acrra  and  thurarium  .'  3,  enclnhris ;  4,  thuribvlum,  as 
given  by  Montfaucon,  differing  from  the  form  given  in  Plate  XXVII.,  fig.  1  ;  5,  capis;  6,7,  10, 
forms  of  the  simpulum  ;  8,  patera  or  patella;  9,  the  vessel  given  by  Montfaucon  as  the  prmferi- 
euhim,  which  he  describes  not  as  a  pan  for  holding  the  fire,  but  as  a  vessel  for  holding  the  wine 
of  the  libation  ;  1 1 ,  17,  cultri ;  \1.1uba;  13,  malleus;  14,  Dolabra;  15,  securis  ;  16,  seva,  or  seces- 
pi'a  ;  19.  discus,  a  broad  shallow  platter  ;  10,olla;  21,  lituus  ;  22,  candelabra;  23,  aspergillum, 
aspersorium,  or  lustrica. 

§  207.  The  priests  were  very  numerous,  and  were  formed  into  certain  com- 
mon orders,  or  colleges.  These  were  mostly  established  by  the  first  kings; 
Romulus  established  the  Luperci,  Ouriones,  Haruspices,-  Numa,  the  Flamines, 
Vestal,  s,  Salii,  Augures,  and  Feciales.  During  the  republic  the  Bex  sacrorum 
and  the  Epulones  were  introduced  ;  and  under  the  emperors  some  others. — The 
Roman  priests  may  be  ranged  in  two  general  classes,-  those  common  to  all  the 
gods  (omnium  deorum  sacrdotes) ;  and  those  appropriated  to  a  particular  deity 
{tini  numini  addicli).  Of  the  former  were  the  Pontifices,  Augmres,  Quindecem- 
viri  sacris  faciundis,  Haruspices,  Fratres.Arvales,  Curiones,  Epulones,  Feciales, 
Sodalt  s  Titienses,  and  Rex  Sacrorum.  Of  the  latter  class  were  the  Flamines, 
Salii,  Luperci,  Potitii,  Pinarii,  Galli,  and  Vestales. 

§  208.  The  first  rank  was  held  by  the  Pontifices,  instituted  by  Numa,  origi- 
nally only  one,  subsequently  four,  then  eight,  and  finally  more  even  to  fifteen. 
The  chief  of  these  was  styled  Pontifex  Maximus,  who  held  the  highest  priestly 
office,  dignity,  and  power.  He  was  appointed  at  first  by  the  kings,  subse- 
quently by  the  college  (Collegium)  or  whole  body  of  Pontifices,  but  after  104 
B.  C.  by  the  people.  Sylla  restored  the  right  to  the  college,  but  it  was  again 
taken  from  them.  All  the  other  priests  and  the  vestals  were  subject  to  the 
Pontifex  Maximus. 

J  n.  lie  had  the  oversight  of  all  religious  affairs,  the  regulation  of  the  festivals  an»J 


III.         RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       AUGURS.       CLASSES    OF    PRIESTS.  33 

the  solemuties  connected  therewith,  and  the  keeping  of  the  records  of  public  transac- 
tions (annales).  He  was  also  judge  in  many  questions  of  right. — His  dress  was  a 
toga  prarextu,  and  his  head-ornament  a  sort  of  cap  made  of  the  skin  of  a  victim  and 

called  galerus. Augustus  assumed  this  office  himself  as  emperor,  which  was  done 

likewise  by  his  successors  down  to  Gratian,  who  abolished  it. 

2.  Tho>e  who  held  the  office  of  Pont  if  ex  Maximus,  are  said  to  have  resided  in  a 
public  house  called  Regia  (cf.  S>  213). — The  hierarchy  of  the  church  of  Rome  is  thought 
to  have  been  established  on  the  model  of  the  Pontifex  Maximus  and  the  college  of 
Pontifices. 

L.  Bimard,  Le  Pontificat  des  Empr.  Romains,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Imer.  xii.  355  ;  XV.  38.  Cf.  ix.  115. On  the  Roman  pon- 
tiffs, he.  cf.  Mvyle's  Works,  vol.  i.— Beaufort,  Republique  Romaine. 

§  209.  The  Augurs,  in  ancient  times  called  auspices,  derived  their  name  from 
consulting  the  flight  of  birds,  augurium,  avigerittrn.  They  were  introduced 
front  Etruria  by  Romulus,  and  established  as  a  regular  order  by  Nnma.  Their 
number  was  originally  three,  then  four,  afterwards  nine,  and  finally  increased 
by  Sylla  to  fifteen.  At  first  they  were  taken  only  from  the  Patricians,  but  after 
B.  C.  300,  in  part  from  the  Plebeians.  Their  chief  was  called  Magister  Collegii, 
and  Augur  Maximus.  Their  badges  of  office  were  a  robe  striped  with  purple 
(trabea),  a  crooked  staff  (lituus),  and  a  conical  cap  (sometimes  called  apex). 
Their  principal  business  was  to  observe  the  flight  and  cry  of  birds  (auspiciumS, 
from  which  they  predicted  future  events.  They  also  explained  other  omens  and 
signs,  derived  from  the  weather,  the  lightning,  and  the  observation  of  certain 
animals,  particularly  of  young  fowls  and  the  like. 

1  u.  In  the  camp  auspices  were  taken  ex  acuminibus,  i.  e.  prognostics  were  drawn 
from  the  glittering  of  the  points  of  the  spears  by  night,  or  from  the  adhesion  of  the 
lower  points  of  the  standard  poles  in  the  ground,  where  they  were  planted.  The 
places  where  auspices  were  to  be  taken  or  holy  edifices  were  to  be  erected,  were  con- 
secrated by  the  Augurs.  The  order  of  Augurs  continued  until  the  time  of  Theodo- 
sius  the  Great.  The  public  Augurs  of  the  Roman  people  should  be  distinguished 
from  the  private  Augurs  of  the  emperors. 

2.  The  omens,  siena,  portenta,  prodigia,  from  which  the  Augurs  conjectured  or 
pretended  to  foretell  the  future,  have  been  classed  in  five  divisions.  (1)  From 
birds;  chiefly  the  flight  of  some  (alites),  such  as  eagles,  vultures,  and  buzzards;  but 
also  the  chattering  and  singing  of  others  (p&cines),  such  as  the  owl  (bubo),  crow  (corvus, 
cornix,)  or  cock  (gallus).  (2)  From  appearances  in  ihe  heavens;  as  thunder,  light- 
ning, meteors,  and  the  like. — For  taking  omens  of  either  of  these  two  kinds  the  augur 
stood  on  some  elevated  point  (arx,  templum),  which  was  frequently  called  auguratorium, 
with  his  head  covered  with  the  lana,  a  gown  peculiar  to  the  office;  after  sacrificing 
and  offering  prayer,  he  turned  his  face  to  the  east,  and  divided  the  heavens  in  lour 
quarters  (called  tcmpla)  with  his  lituiis,  and  waited  for  the  omen.  A  single  omen  was 
not  considered  significant;  it  must  be  confirmed  by  another  of  the  same  sort.  In 
whatever  position  the  augur  stood,  omens  on  ihe  left  were  by  the  Romans  reckoned 
lucky,  contrary  to  the  notions  of  the  Greeks  (cf.  $  75);  the  explanation  given  of  this 
disagreement  is,  that  bolh  Greeks  and  Romans  considered  omens  in  the  east  as  lucky  , 
but  the  Greek  augur  faced  the  north,  and  the  lucky  omens  would  be  on  his  right, 
while  the  Roman  augur  usually  faced  the  south,  and  therefore  had  the  lucky  omens 
on  his  left.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  omens  on  the  left  were  sometimes  called  un- 
lucky among  the  Romans,  and  the  term  si?iister  came  to  signify  unpropitious ,  and 
dexter  to  mean  propitious.  (3)  From  chickens  (pulli)  kept  in  a  coop  for  the  purpose, 
by  the  pullarius.  The  omen  was  taken  early  in  the  morning  from  their  actions  when 
the  augur  threw  crumbs  of  corn  before  them  ;  if  they  turned  away  from  it,  or  ate  re- 
luctantly, it  was  an  unlucky  omen;  if  they  devoured  greedily,  very  lucky.  Taking 
this  augury  was  called  Tripudium,  perhaps  from  the  bounding  of  the  corn  when 
thrown  to  the  fowls.  (4)  From  quadrupeds,  chiefly  by  observing  whether  they  appear 
ed  in  a  strange  place,  or  how  they  crossed  the  way,  whether  to  the  right  or  the  left, 
and  the  like.  (5)  From  various  circumstances  and  events,  which  may  be  included 
under  the  term  accide?its  ;  among  these  were  sneezing,  falling,  hearing  sounds,  see 
ing  images,  spilling  salt  upon  the  table,  or  wine  upon  one's  clothes,  and  the  like. 
Omens  of  this  class  were  usually  unlucky,  and  were  called  Dirce. 

Kennrtt,  as  cited  §  197.  2,  ch.  iv.— Cf.  Marin,  Les  Augurs;  and  Simon,  Les  Presages,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  da  I?ucr.  i.  54  ana 
129.— Mayo,  Mythology,  i.  255. 

§  210.  The  Haruspices  were  the  priests  who  inspected  the  entrails  of  animals 
offered  in  sacrifices,  in  order  to  ascertain  future  occurrences;  they  were  called 
extispices.  They  appeared  under  Romulus  and  were  established  by  him;  it  is 
doubtful  of  what  number  their  college  consisted.  For  some  time  Etrurians  only 
and  not  Romans,  discharged  the  duties  of  the  office.     It  was  to  trowed  from  the 


2^4  ROMAN"    ANTIQUITIES. 


Ktrnrians  directly,  but  seems  to  have  been  primarily  of  Asiatic  origin;  the  dis- 
covery of  the  art'  (Ilaritspicina)  was  ascribed  by  fable  to  Tages,  a  son  of  Jupi- 
ter.  The  number  of  the  Haruspices  gradually  was  increased  up  even  to  sixty. 
Their  overseer  was  styled  Magisler  Publicus  or  Summits  Haruspex.  From  the 
diir.-r.Mit  modes  and  objects  of  their  divination,  they  were  divided  into  three 
classes,  exiispices,  fulguralores,  and  predigratores.  For,  besides  observing  the 
entrails  of  victims  and  the  various  circumstances  of  the  sacrifice,  as  the  flamt. 
9moke,  &c.,  they  also  were  consulted  in  relation  to  lightning  and  places  oi 
buildings  stricken  by  it,  and  they  likewise  explained  prodigies  and  dreams. 

1  u.  In  examining  the  entrails,  they  observed  chiefly  their  color,  their  motion,  and 
the  condition  oi  the  heart,  and  when  they  could  determine  nothing  from  the  appear- 
ances, ihey  called  them  exta  muta.  On  the  other  hand,  the  term  litare  was  used  to 
signify  an  auspicious  sacrifice. 

2  The  college  of  Haruspices  had  their  particular  registers  and  records,  as  also  the  other  reli- 
gious orders  bad  ;  these  seem  to  have  been  accounts  of  their  observations,  memorials  of  thuii- 
dei  and  lightning,  and  ominous  occurrences.  Their  art  was  at  one  time  considered  so  impor- 
tant thai  the  senate  decreed  thai  a  number  of  youth  should  he  regularly  instructed  in  it;  at  a  later 
period  il  fell  into  disrepute;  the  emperor  Claudius  attempted  to  revive  it.  Cf.  Cicero,  De  Div. 
i.  41,  43.  ii.  21,  2(.i,  Its.  Tuciins,  \itu.  xi.  15.— Most  of  the  ominous  circumstances  connected  with 
sacrifices  are  alluded  to  by  Virgil  (Georg.  iii.  486). 

§•211.  The  Epulones  were  priests,  who  attended  on  the  feasts  {epulx)  of 
the  i_roils.  There  were  three  first  appointed,  B.  C.  197;  by  Sylla  the  number 
was  increased  to  seven,  called  Seplemvt'ri  Epuhmes,  and  by  Caesar  at  last  to  ten. 
They  had  the  care  of  what  were  called  the  Ledhlernia,  when  couches  were 
spread  for  the  gods  as  if  about  to  feast,  and  their  images  were  taken  down,  and 
placed  on  the  couches  around  the  altars  or  tables  loaded  with  dishes;  the  most 
important  of  these  was  the  annual  feast  in  honor  of  Jupiter  in  the  Capitol.  They 
were  required  to  be  present  also  at  the  sacred  games  to  preserve  good  order. 
Very  young  persons,  even  those  under  sixteen,  were  often  taken  for  this  office; 
yet  it  was  so  respectable,  that  even  Lentulus,  Cassar,  and  Tiberius  performed 
its  duties.  Like  the  Pontifices,  they  wore  a  toga  prsetexla.  The  viri  epulares 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  epulo7ies,-  the  former  were  not  the  priests,  but 
the  guests  at  the  repasts  spoken  of. 

§  212.  The  Feciales  were  a  class  of  priests  or  officers  existing  long  before  the 
building  of  Rome,  among  the  Rutulians  and  other  Italian  states.  The  order 
wis  introduced  at  Rome  by  Numa.  It  continued  to  the  beginning  of  the  impe- 
rial authority,  and  consisted  of  twenty,  sometimes  of  fewer,  members.  They 
may  be  considered  as  a  body  of  priests,  whose  business  chiefly  related  to  treaties 
and  agreements  pertainin<r  to  peace  and  war.  The  highest  in  rank  was  called 
Faler  pntratus.  It  devolved  upon  him,  or  the  Feciales  under  him,  to  give  the 
•  in  my  the  warning,  which  preceded  a  declaration  of  war,  and  to  make  the 
declaration  by  uttering  a  solemn  form  (clarigatin),  and  hurling  a  spear  (hasta 
tanguinea),  into  the  enemy's  limits.  These  priests  were  also  the  customary 
agents  in  effecting  an  armistice  or  cessation  of  hostilities.  Their  presence  and 
.Mil  was  still  more  indispensable  in  forming  treaties  and  at  the  sacrifices  there- 
with  connected.  They  were  charged  also  with  the  enforcing  of  treaties,  and 
the  demanding  of  amends  for  their  violation,  and  also  with  guarding  the  security 
if  foreign  ambassadors  at  Rome. 

§  213.  The  Rex  sacrorum,  or  Hex  sacriftcuius,  held  an  office,  which  was  insti- 
tuted first  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  and  probably  derived  its  name  from 
the  circumstance,  that  originally  the  public  sacrifices  were  offered  by  the  kings 
themselves  or  under  their  immediate  oversight.  Perhaps,  as  Livy  suggests, 
the  office  ami  name  both  arose  from  a  desire  that  the  royal  dignity  might  not 
he  wholly  forgotten.  This  priest  had  a  high  rank,  and  at  sacrificial  feasts  oc- 
nupied  tin-  lirst  place,  although  the  duties  were  not  numerous,  and  consisted 
chiefly  in  superintending  the  public  and  more  important  sacrifices.  He  was 
p.ls,.  required  at  the  lie.jinning  of  every  month  to  offer  sacrifice  jointly  with  the 
Pontiles  Maximus,  to  convoke  the  people  (ptipulum  calare),  and  make  known 
•.he  distance  of  the  Nones  from  the  Calends  of  the  month  then  commencing. 
At  the  Comitia  he  offered  the  great  public  sacrifice,  after  which,  however,  he 
o.uh,  withdraw  from  the  forum,  and  conceal  himself.     His  wife  was  called  /te- 


P.  HI.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       CLASSES    OF    PRIESTS.  235 

gtna  sacmrum ;  she  was  also  a  priestess,  and  offered  sacrifices  to  Juno.  His 
residence,  freely  granted  to  him,  was  also  often  termed  Regia.  The  office  con- 
tinued until  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Great. 

See  Ambrmch,  StudieD  und  AndeutungeD,  p.  41. -Cf.  L.  Schmitz,  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Antiq.  p.  823. 

§  214.  The  name  of  Flamines  was  given  in  general  to  all  such  priests  as 
were  devoted  to  the  service  of  a  particular  deity.  The  most  eminent  of  them 
was  the  Flamen  Dialis,  or  chief  priest  of  Jupiter.  At  the  first  institution  of  the 
order,  there  were  but  two  besides  this,  viz.:  the  Flamen  Martialis  and  the  Flu- 
men  Quirinalis.  Afterwards  the  number  rose  to  fifteen  and  still  higher.  They 
were  divided  into  majores,  who  must  be  Patricians,  and  minores,  who  were 
taken  also  from  the  Plebeians.  Their  dress  was  a  long  white  robe  with  a  purple 
border  (laenrt),  and  a  cap  of  conical  form  {apex)  adorned  with  a  twig  of  olive. 
The  Flamen  Dialis  had  a  lictor,  and  also  a  sella  curulis  and  the  toga  prselexta; 
his  wife  was  called  Flaminica,  and  aided  him  in  some  parts  of  the  worship  on 
the  festivals  of  Jupiter.  This  priest  likewise  held  a  seat  in  the  senate,  and  en- 
joyed several  other  privileges,  which  were  peculiar  to  the  Flamines.  Many 
duties  and  services  were  required  of  the  Flamines,  especially  of  the  Flarnen 
Dialis.  They  were  distinguished  by  names  derived  from  the  god  to  whose  ser- 
vice they  were  devoted,  as  Flamen  Neptunalis,  Floralis,  Pomonalis ;  so  of  those 
belonging  to  a  deified  Caesar,  as  Flamen  Jugustalis,  Flavialis,  &c. 

§  215.  The  Salii  were  priests  of  Mars  Gradivus,  and  according  to  the  common 
opinion  had  their  name  from  dancing  (satire),  because  on  certain  festival  days 
they  passed  about  the  city  dancing,  and  singing  songs  in  honor  of  Mars.  They 
were  first  instituted  by  Numa.  The  immediate  occasion  of  their  institution,  ac- 
cording to  the  tradition,  was  the  famous  shield,  Jincile,  said  to  have  been  sen' 
from  heaven ;  this  shield,  and  the  eleven  others  made  exactly  like  it  in  order  tc 
hinder  its  being  stolen,  which  were  all  guarded  by  the  Vestals,  were  carried 
by  the  twelve  Salii  Palatini,  when  they  made  their  circuit  around  the  city. 

1  u.  Their  chief  and  leader  in  the  procession  was  styled  Prcesul,  whose  leaping  was 
expressed  by  the  verb  amfruare,  and  the  leaping  of  the  others  after  him  by  redamiruare. 
They  had  their  appropriate  residence  (curia  Saliorum)  upon  the  Palatine  Hill.  Besides 
the  music  which  accompanied  their  dancing,  they  struck  their  shields  together,  and 
in  that  way  noied  the  measure  of  their  songs,  which  celebrated  the  praises  of  the 
god  of  war  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  114.  4.)  and  of  Veturius  Mamurius,  the  artist  who  made  the 
eleven  shields. 

2  v.  The  order  was  highly  respected,  and  was  rendered  the  more  so  by  the  acces- 
sion of  Scipio  Africanus  as  a  member,  and  some  of  the  emperors,  especially  M.  Au- 
relius  Antoninus.  Their  term  of  service  was  not  for  life,  but  only  for  a  certain  period. 
— The  Salii  Cellini  or  Quirinales  were  distinct  from  this  body,  and  established  by 
Tullius  Hostilius. 

See  tit),  i.  20.— Ov.  Fast.  iii.  259. On  the  Salii,  and  other  classes  of  priests,  cf.  CBUHng,  Geschichte  der  Rom.  Staatsverfass.— 

See  also  especially  Harlung,  Die  Religion  der  Ronier.— T.  Gullierlelhi  de  Saliis  Martis  sacerdotibus  apud  Romanos  liber  singularis. 
Franequerae,  1704.  8  — Cf.  Sadel,  De  saltat.  sacr.  vet.  Rom.    Berl.  1826.— A.  AptVs  Metrik,  Til.  2  p.  647. 

§  216.  The  Luperci,  priests  of  Pan,  were  of  Arcadian  origin,  and  established 
by  Romulus.  Their  name  was  derived  from  that  designation,  which  Pan  re- 
ceived from  his  guarding  the  flocks  against  the  wolf,  Lupercus  (ab  arcendo  lupos). 
His  temple  was  from  the  same  circumstance  called  Lupercal,  and  his  most  cele- 
brated festival  at  Rome,  Lupercalia.  This  festival  began  about  the  middle  of 
February,  and  was  regarded  as  a  season  of  expiation  for  the  whole  city.  The 
Luperci,  on  this  occasion,  ran  up  and  down  the  streets,  naked  excepting  a  girdle 
of  goat's  skin  about  the  waist;  they  carried  in  their  hands  thongs  of  the  same 
material,  with  which  they  struck  those  whom  they  met ;  the  word  to  express 
the  action  was  catomidiare.  A  peculiar  efficacy  was  ascribed  to  these  blows, 
particularly  in  rendering  married  women  prolific. 

1  u.  There  were  three  distinct  companies  (sodalitates)  of  these  priests ;  the  Fahiani, 
Quinlilioni,  and  Julii.  The  last  were  of  later  origin  and  took  their  name  from  Julius 
Caesar ;  the  others  were  named  after  individuals,  who  had  been  their  chief  or  head 
priests. 

2  u.  The  Potitii  and  Pinarii  were  not  companies  or  sodalities  of  Luperci,  but  priests 
of  Hercules ;  they  were  not  held  in  important  estimation,  although  their  pretended 
i>rigm  was  traced  to  the  age  of  the  hero  himself.     The  tradition  was,  that  Hercules, 


2:30  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

during  his  residence  in  Ttalv  with  Evander,  instructed  in  the  rites  of  his  worship  thr 
this  inline,  which  was  afterwards  retained  by  the  priests. 

§.  -217.  The  Galli  were  priests  of  Cybele  the  great  mother  01  tne  gous,  so 
palled  from  the  river  Gallus  in  Phrygia,  whose  water  ws»s  regarded  as  possess- 
iiiLT  singular  virtues,  rendering  frantic  those  who  drank  it.  The  circumstance 
oftheir  being  castrated  is  referred  to  the  fable  respecting  Atys.  At  the  festival 
of  their  goddess,  celebrated  in  March,  and  called  Hilaria  (cf.  P.  II.  §  21),  these 
priests  imitated  the  phrensy  of  Atys  by  strange  gestures,  violent  motions,  and 
self-scourging  and  cutting.  Their  chief  priest  was  termed  Archigallus.  The 
order  was  not  highlv  respected. 

218.  The  Vestals,  Firgines  Vestales,  were  an  order  of  Priestesses,  of  very 
early  origin,  devoted  to  the"  goddess  Vesta.  The  constant  preservation  of  the 
fin  and  the  guarding  of  the  Palladium  (P.  II.  §  43,  §  67)  were  the  princi- 
pal duties  of  the  Vestals.  They  were  first  instituted  by  Numa,  four  in  number* 
two  were  added  by  Tarquinius  Priscus  or  Servius  Tullius,  and  the  number  ever 
after  remained  six.  Their  leader,  the  eldest,  was  called  Vestalis  or  Virgo 
Murium.  They  were  selected  (cupcre)  between  the  age  of  six  and  ten,  particu- 
lar regard  being  had  to  their  descent  and  their  bodily  vigor  and  perfection. 
Tluy  were  obliged  to  continue  in  the  office  thirty  years  unmarried.  The  first 
ten  years  were  employed  in  learning  the  rites,  the  second  ten  in  performing 
them,  and  the  rest  in  instructing  others.  Negligence  in  any  of  their  duties  was 
severely  punished.  If  any  one  violated  her  vow  of  chastity,  she  was  buried 
alive  in  a  place  called  Campus  sceleralus,  near  the  Porta  Collina.  Besides  the 
two  principal  duties  of  these  priestesses,  they  were  accustomed  to  offer  certain 
sacrifices,  whose  precise  object  is  unknown.  They  also  had  the  care  of  some 
preparations  and  services  connected  with  other  sacrifices.  They  enjoyed  great 
respect,  and  many  privileges;  e.  g.  entire  freedom  from  parental  control;  au- 
thority to  deliver  from  punishment  a  criminal,  who  accidentally  met  them ;  cer- 
tain revenues  of  lands  devoted  to  them;  the  attendance  of  a  lictor,  whenever 
they  went  out;  a  public  maintenance,  and  release  from  the  obligation  to  take 
an  oath.  Their  office  was  abolished  under  Theodosius,  on  account  of  its  ex- 
pense. 

For  representations  of  Vestals,  see  Plate  XXVIII.  and  explanations  given  P.  II.  §  67.— Cf.  Nndal,  Dtipuy,  &c.  as  there  cited. 

§  219  a.  A  few  words  must  be  added  respecting  the  other  classes  of  priests 
bil'i  .re  named  (cf.  §  207).  The  Quindecemviri  sacrts  faciundis  had  the  care  of  the 
Sibylline  hooks  (cf.  §  2-2(5).  The  Fralres  Jrva/es  served  especially  at  the  festi- 
val called  Amburvalia  (cf.  P.  II.  §  63),  when  the  fields  were  dedicated  and 
blessed,  tin  se  priests  passing  over  them  in  procession  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  114),  with 
a  crowd  of  attendants.  The  Soda/es  Titii  or  Tatii  had  their  name  from  the 
Sabine  king  Titus  Tatius:  each  tribe  had  seven  of  them.  There  were  also 
S<nhih*  Jlugustales,  or  priests  in  honor  of  Augustus.  The  Curtones  were  thirty 
priests,  who  performed  the  sacred  rites  common  to  the  several  Curia?. 

1.  Each  <>l  the  Curia  hail  a  president  or  priest  called  Curio;  these  thirty  priests 
formed  a  college  under  a  chief  president  termed  Curio  maximus.  Cf.  §  251  ;  also 
P.  I.  <  61. 

-'  ».  'I  In'  priests  of  all  the  various  classes  had  their  assistants  and  servants  (minis! ri). 
Among  these  were  the  waiting  hoys  and  maids,  camilli  and  Camilla;  the  assistants  of 
the  priests  who  offered  sacrifices,  flaminii  and  jlamina;  the  keepers  of  the  temples, 
mlii a,  or  aditumni ;  those  who  brought  the  victims  to  the  altars  and  slew  them,  popee, 
i  hi  iimirii,  mil  rani.  The  tihicines,  tubicines,  fidicines,  &c,  who  accompanied  the 
ith  music,  formed  likewise  another  fraternity. 
.'!    Tin-  mystagogi  were  those  who  initiated  others  into  mysteries  ;  the  name  is  also  given  to 

those  «  ho  BhoM  ed  to  visiters  the  curiosities  of  the  temples. By  some  late  writers  the  priests 

win-  divided   into  three  classes  |  antutitu,  chief  priesls  ;  sacerdutcs,  ordinary  priests;  and  mi- 
tn  ' ■  i.  meanest  pi iests. 

5  s?19  b.  Respecting  the  emoluments  of  the  Roman  priests  little  is  known.  When 
Romulus  tii - 1  divided  the  Roman  territory,  he  set  apart  what  was  sufficient  lor  the 
performance  ol  Bacred  rites,  and  lor  the  support  of  temples.  Numa  is  said  to  hava 
pio\ ided  a  fund  lor  di  fraj  ing  the  expenses  of  religion,  and  to  have  appointed  a  stipend 
endium]  foi  the  Vestals;  the  Augurs  also  and  the  Curiones  are  said  to  have  re- 
■  d  an  annual  stipend  :  hut  there  i-^  no  evidence  that  the  priests  received  any  regu- 
nr  salary,  except  a-  il  may  seem  probable  from  the  instances  specified.     Yet  there 


zzsmL 


P    111.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       PRAYERS.       SACRIFICES.  237 

can  oe  no  doubt  (hat,  in  some  way  or  other,  sufficient  provision  was  n.ade  for  their 
support. — 'I  wo  priests,  the  Pontifex  Maximus  and  the  Flamen  Dialis,  were  by  virtue 
of  their  office  members  of  the  senate.  All  the  priests  held  their  offices  without  respon- 
sibility to  the  civil  magistrate  ;  and  with  few  exceptions  were  allowed  to  hold  other 
offices  both  civil  and  military. 

Cf.  Cic  De  Leg.  ii.  9.— Liv  xxxviii.  47 ;  \xxix.  45.— Dionyi.  Hal.  iv.  8.— Also,  Liv.  i.  20.— Dionyi.  ii.  6,  l.—Tac  Ann.  iv.  16 
—Sec  H  BtUiius,  De  Sacerdotiis  Rom.  in  Sallengre,  vol.  lii.—Burigny,  Les  honneurs  accordes  aux  prelres,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad. 
Inter  xxxi.  108. 

Representations  nf  priests,  from  ancient  monuments,  mav  be  seen  in  Plates  XIX.,  XX 
XX  VII  ,  XXVIII.,  XXIX.,  XLV.,  XLVI.;  also  in  the  Sup.  Plates 28,  29,  32.— In  Plain  XXVIII., 
Hie  two  fiL'iires  marked  Priests  are  taken  from  a  bas-relief  found  at  Aiitiin  {Jlvgustodunum,  cf. 
P.  I.  £  1?)  ;  they  represent  two  Druidte,  or  priesis  of  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Gauls  and  Bri- 
tons ;  both  have  ample  robes,  and  long  beards ;  one,  who  is  perhaps  the  Arch-Druid,  wears  a 
crown  of  oak  leaves  and  holds  a  scepter,  the  oilier  holds  a  crescent  or  half-moon. 

Respecting  the  Druids,  see  fotbrokt,  Encrclop.  of  Antiq  p.  768.— G.  Higgins,  The  Celtic  Druids.  Loud.  527.  4.— The  work 
entitled  "Identity  oj  lite  Religions  calkd  Druidical  ar.d  Helmut."— Moitlfaiuon,  vol.  ii.  p.  434.— Mayo,  Mythology,  vol.  ii.  p.  209. 
-Edinb  Eneyclop. 

§  220.  Of  the  vast  multitude  cf  religious  customs  among  the  Romans,  we 
will  notice  first  some  of  those  pertaining  to  their  prayers  to  the  gods.  They 
prayed  with  the  head  covered  or  vailed  (capitevelato).  They  bowed  themselves 
down  to  the  ground,  in  this  posture  moved  around  completely  from  right  to  left, 
placed  their  right  hand  on  the  mouth  (adoratio),  and  directed  their  face  towards 
the  east,  where  the  altars  and  images  of  the  gods  were  placed.  In  a  higher 
degree  of  devotion  they  cast  themselves  upon  their  knees,  or  prostrated  the 
whole  body  upon  the  ground.  They  were  accustomed  to  lay  hold  of  the  altar 
and  to  make  offerings  0f  meal  and  wine  with  their  prayers.  The  prayer  was 
not  always  offered  with  an  audible  voice.  Public  prayers  (precaiiones)  were 
made  by  a  priest  or  a  magistrate.  The  most  solemn  prayer  of  this  kind  was 
that  before  the  Comitia,  by  the  Roman  consul.  Thanksgivings  (supplicaliones) 
were  also  public  and  general,  for  the  purpose  of  entreating,  appeasing,  and 
praising  the  gods;  in  which  view  the  people  made  a  solemn  procession  to  the 
temples.  Public  occasions  of  this  sort  were  called  supplicaliones  ad pulvinaria 
denrum  ,•  these  pulvinaria  were  a  sort  of  couches  or  stools  with  cushions  or 
pillows  (pulviui),  on  which  were  placed  the  statues  of  the  gods.  They  were 
also  termed  supp/ieia,  and  were  appointed  in  honor  of  particular  deities,  or  of 
all  the  gods  united.  The  prayers  offered  on  these  occasions  were  called  obse- 
crationes,  which  term  usually  has  reference  to  the  averting  of  danger. 

Burigny.  Les  prieres  des  Paiennes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol  xlii.  p  27. — Marin,  Baisemains,  kc.  (adoratio),  in  the  same 
.!/>•..   vol.  iii.  p.  69. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  public  relieiotis  instruction  formed  any  part  of  the  duty  of  priests,  or  was  ever  connected  with  public 
worship,  wh.ch  cous-sted  «  boll)  in  performing  such  rifts  is  are  above  specified,  and  in  oflcrings  and  sacrifices.  Nothing  like  preach- 
ing or  sacred  oratory  was  known. 

§  221.  The  sacrifices  of  the  Romans  (sacrijicia)  were  very  various.  They 
were  offered  either  at  stated  times  (slala,  solennia),  or  on  particular  occasions 
(frac.ii/enic  naia).  Animal  sacrifices  were  termed  hostile  or metimae  ,•  the  original 
difference  between  tnese  words,  viz.  that  the  former  designated  a  sacrifice  offered 
on  going  out  against,  a  foe,  and  the  latter  a  sacrifice  on  returning  victorious,  is  as 
little  regarded  by  ihe  writers,  as  another  distinction,  which  makes  the  former 
a  smaller  and  the  iattei  a  greater  sacrifice. 

1  u.  The  animals  must  be  without  blemish,  and  were  therefore  previously  selected. 
They  were  brought  to  the.  altar,  ornamented,  like  the  person  offering  them,  with  gar- 
'ands  of  flowers;  ihe  horns  of  bullocks  and  rams  were  decked  with  gilt,  and  white 
illets  were  hung  over  their  necks.  The  willing  approach  of  the  victim  was  considered 
is  a  favorable  omen ;  reluctance  and  resistance  on  the  other  hand  as  unfavorable  ;  the 
let  of  bringing  the  victim  forward  was  called  admovere.  The  priests  then  commanded 
all  the  profane  to  depart,  and  another  priest  ordered  silence  [Unguis  favete).  Then 
followed  the  prayer  to  the  gods,  and  after  it  the  offering  of  the  victim.  The  knife  and 
the  altar  were  consecrated  for  the  purpose,  by  sprinkling  them  with  a  mixture  of  salt 
and  the  meal  of  new  barley  or  spelt  roasted  (mola  salsa).  The  head  of  the  victim  was 
sprinkled  with  the  same,  and  this  is  what  is  properly  expressed  by  the  word  immolare, 
although  it  is  often  synonymous  with  mactare. 

2  u.  Thecultrarius,  whose  business  was  to  kill  the  victim,  having  asked,  A  gone  ? 
and  the  consul,  praetor  or  priest  having  answered,  Hocage,  then  struck  the  animal  in 
the  forehead  with  his  ax  or  mallet;  another,  next  cut  or  stabbed  him  in  the  throat ; 
and  a  third  caught  the  blood  in  a  sacrificial  vase.  The  entrails  were  then  examined 
hv  the  haruspe.r.  and  if  they  were  found  favorable,  were,  after  being  cleansed,  laid  on 


239  ROMAN"    ANTIQUITIES. 

the  altar  and  burned.     Sometimes  the  whole  animal  was  burned  Qiolocauslum) ;  bul 
i  |y  only  a  part,  the  resl  being  assigned  to  the  sacrificial   feast,  or  to  the  priests. 
in  1  he  burning  flesh  incense  was  scattered,  and  wine  was  poured  out;  the  lattei 
i   ihe   libation,  and  was  accompanied  with   a  formal  address  to  the  deity, 
,.-.     In  early  times  milk  was  used  in  the  libation  instead  of  wine.     After  all 
lich  ilie  priests  and  those  who  presented  the  sacrifice  partook  in 
nun.  and  which  was  usually  accompanied  with  music  and  dancing,  and  often  fol- 
lowed with  garni 
:<    Music  also  usually  accompanied  Ihe  offering  of  the  sacrifice,  as  is  shown  by  the  monuments 

esenteri  i r  Plates.    Compare  Plate  XXVII.  fig.  B,  where  are  seen  two  long  straight 

ir pets;  Plate  X  \  I  \   whei  e,  besides  the  trumpets,  the  double  flute  is  played  by  a  buy,  who  is 

.1,1. ir I  wiiii  a  wreath  on  Ins  head,  as  are  also  most  of  the  officiating  priests;  Plate  XLV., 

where  the  flute  and  the  tympanum  are  introduced  (cf.  P.  II.  $  91.  2). 

1    Tii.  re  wi  -  withoul  blood;  made  by  libations  usually  of  wine,  but  also 

iy  burning  incense  or  fragranl  wood,  such  as  cedar,  fig,  and  myrtle; 

-  a  tribute  or  tithe  from  the  harvest  {primitive)  and  also  sometimes 

nade  of  flour  and  honey  or  of  wax. 

5.  Illustrations  of  the  pouring  nut  of  libations  are  given  in  Plate  XXVII.  fig.  C,  and  in  Plate 

XV:  in  the  latter  is  also  seen  the  offering  of  fruit  or  cakes,  together  with  a  libation  ;  it  is  from 

n  sculpture  in  ivory,  representine  a  sacrifice  withoul  blood  to  Mercury;  a  female  is  taking  sonie- 

tiuiiL'  from  a  cylindrical  vase,  while  a  servant  {Camilla)  holds   a  discus  of  fruit  or  cakes  ami  a 

com  lining  the  libai .—In  the  same  plate  is  ilie  representation  of  a  bloodless  sacrifice 

to  Diana,  from  a  bas-relief  on  the  Arch  of  Constantine  (cf.  P.  IV.  }  188.  2).  The  image  of  the 
goddess,  with  a  crescent  on  her  head  and  a  spear  in  her  right  hand,  standing  on  a  pedestal,  is 
Been  between  two  trees;  on  one  of  which  is  fixed  the  head  of  a  wild  boar  tojw  r) ;  the  a  liar  is  in 
front  of  ihe  image  ;  three  milites  hastati  are  in  attendance,  while  the  emperor  Trajan,  holding  in 

one  hand  a  volume,  with  the  other  hand  empties  a  patera  upon  the  flame. In  Plate  XLVI.  is 

a  representation  of  the  sacrifice  of  a  bull  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus  by  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius, 
drawn  from  a  remarkable  anaglyph  at  Koine.  Cf.  P.  IV.  J  188.3. — In  ihe  Sup.  Plate  32  is  a 
beautiful  representation  of  the  animal  sacrifice  performed  hy  priests,  and  of  the  sacrifice  with 

out  lil I  conducted  by  priestesses,  one  of  whom  is  pouring  a  libation  from  a  vessul  which  is 

perhaps  the  capedo  (cf.  $  206). 

§  -J'2-2.  It  was  very  common  among  the  Romans  to  make  vows  (vote/),  which 
generally  consisted  in  promises  to  render  certain  actual  acknowledgments  or 
returns,  provided  the  gods  should  grant  the  requests  of  those  making  the  vows. 
A  person  doing  this  was  said  vota  facere,  concipere,  suscipere,  nuncupare,  and 
was  called  villi  reus ;  to  fulfil  the  promise  was  vota  solvere,  reddere ;  he  who 
gained  his  wish  was  said  to  be  vuti  damnatus,  voti  compos.  Sometimes  the 
thing  desired  was  itself  termed  volum.  Often  public  vows  were  made  for  the 
benefit  of  the  whole  people;  these  were  considered  as  the  most  binding.  The 
vow  was  usually  written  upon  a  wax-tablet,  which  was  preserved  in  the  temple 
of  the  god  to  whom  it  was  made. 

I  ii.   Those  who  had  survived  shipwreck,  especially,  were  accustomed  to  hang  up  in 

the  templi  ol  some  god  (Neptune  often)  pictures  representing  the  circumstances  of  theii 

et  and  delivi  Similar  pictures  were  sometimes  carried  about 

ii  in  oiiler  to  obtain  charitable  relief. 

J  a-   Among  the  vows  of  a  private  nature  were  those,  which  a  person  made  to  Juno 

Lucina  or  Genius, 1  birth-day {vota  natalilia);  those  made  when  boys,  on  passing 

from  childhood,  cul  off  their  hair  and  dedicated  ii  to  Apollo  {vota  capillitia) ;  the  vows 
ol  thi  e  ol  recovery;    the  vows  of  those  in  shipwreck  for  escape;    of  those 

irneys  by  land.     It  also  became  a  custom  lor  subjects  to  make  vows  for  the  wel 
ii  thi  I  emperors,  which  were  renewed  after  the  fifth,  tenth,  or  twentieth  year  of 
their  reign,  and  therefore  called  quinquennia,  decennalia  or  vicennalia. 

H  0  Iwrl    de diebtw  veterum  nitalitiii.  in  his  Pralea.  Jcad.    Or.  1692   6.  p.  153. 

:.  The  dedication  of  the  temples,  sanctuaries  and  altars  (dicatio),  was 
one  of  the  religious  solemnities  of  the  Romans.  This  was  originally  performed 
by  the  kings,  afterwards  by  the  consuls,  and  often  also  by  two  magistrates  ap- 
point* d  for  the  purpose  and  called  duumviri  dedicandis  templis.  The  senate 
musl  first  decree  ihe  service;  the  Pontifex  Maximus  must  be  present  at  the  so- 
lemnity and  pronounce  the  form  of  dedication,  which  was  accompanied  with 
acclamations  from  the  people.     Sacrifices,  games,  and  feasts  then  followed. 

lion  ui  a  temple,  see  Tacilui,  His!,  iv.  53.— Cf.  Hooke's  Rom.  Hisl.  vol.  x.  p.  2Si,  as  cited  P.  V 

1  u.  Similar  to  this  was  the  ceremony  of  consecration  {consecratio) ;  only,  the  latter 
expression  was  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  particular  objects,  e  g.  statues,  sacred 
utensils,  fields,  animals.  &c.  Resecratitrt,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  private  trans- 
nction,  in  which  ihe  people  or  individuals  were  freed  from  their  vows;    this  wa9  also 

-'    The  term   inaugutatio  was  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with  dedicnlio  and 


P.  Ill        RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       LUSTRATIONS.     OATHS.     ORACLES.  &YJ 

cansec ratio;  but  it  was  in  general  the  ceremony  by  which  the  Augurs  sought  the  plea- 
sure or  sanction  of  the  gods  in  respect  to  any  thing  decreed  or  contemplated  by  men; 
it  was  a  ceremony  theretore  used  not  only  in  dedication,  but  in  introducing  a  priest  or  » 
magistrate  into  office,  and  in  entering  upon  any  important  engagement.     Cf.  §  209. 

3  u.  Execration  was  imprecating  evil  on  an  enemy. — Evocation  of  the  gods  was  a 
solemn  rite  by  which  {certo  carmine)  they  called  upon  the  gods  of  a  besieged  city  (evocare) 
to  take  the  side  of  the  Romans.  It  was  attended  with  sacrilices  and  consultation  of  the 
entrails. 

§  224.  Expiation  was  a  solemnity  designed  to  appease  offended  gods,  and 
the  sacrifice  or  propitiatory  offering  was  called  piacu/um.  Much  more  frequent 
and  various  were  the  lustrations  or  purifications  (lustrationes),  both  public  and 
private. 

1  u.  Public  lustrations  were  occasionally  connected  with  certain  festivals;  the  private 
were  annually  repealed  in  the  month  of  February. — It  was  customary  before  the  march 
of  an  army  or  the  sailing  of  a  fleet  to  appoint  a  lustration,  not  for  reviewing  the  forces, 
but  to  purify  them  by  sacrifices. 

2.  After  the  taking  of  the  census,  which  was  done  at  the  end  of  every  five  years,  a 
purifying  sacrifice  was  made,  consisting  of  a  sow,  a  sheep,  and  a  bull,  which  were 
carried  round  the  whole  assembly  and  then  slain.  The  sacrifice  was  called  suovetaurilia, 
and  he  who  performed  it  was  said  condere  lustrum.  The  name  lustrum  is  said  to  have 
been  applied  to  it,  because  at  that  time  all  the  taxes  were  paid  by  the  farmers-general 
to  the  censors  (from  luere  to  pay) ;  the  term  is  also  used  to  signify  a  space  of  five  years, 
because  the  ceremony  was  performed  always  at  the  end  of  that  period.  The  verb 
lust  rare  expressed  the  act  of  purifying,  and  as  in  doing  this  the  victims  were  carried 
round,  the  word  naturally  obtained  another  meaning,  viz.  to  go  around,  to  survey.  The 
lustrum  was  always  made  in  the  Campus  Martins. 

In  Plate  XXIX.  is  a  fine  representation  of  the  Suovetaurilia,  or  sacrifice  to  Mars,  drawn  from 
ancient  marbles  sculptured  in  bas-relief:  the  priest,  probably  Trajan  the  emperor,  with  a  veil 
upon  his  head,  approaches  a  double  altar  crowned  with  laurel  ;  a  servant  {Camillas)  stands  by, 
holding  the  acerra ;  another  plays  upon  the  double  tibia,'  two  soldiers  blow  the  tuba;  behind 
the  emperor  is  a  priest  or  servant  bearing  the  vessel  considered  by  Mnntfaucori  as  the  prcrftri- 
culum  ;  others  are  leading  forward  the  three  victims  ;  in  attendance  are  several  soldiers  and 
standard-hearers;  a  rich  fillet  lies  upon  ihe  hack  of  the  bull;  all  the  priests  are  crowned  with 
laurel.     Cf.  Montfaucon,  ii.  lMt,  anil  Sup.  ii.  73. 

3.  The  expiation  made  on  the  appearand'  of  some  prodigy,  was  often  very  solemn  and  impos- 
ing. "The  senate,  after  having  ordered  the  Sibylline  b  'i  ks  to  be  consulted  by  those  who  had 
the  keeping  of  them,  to  see  what  was  io  be  done  on  those  occasions,  ordinarily  appointed  days 
of  fasting;  as  also  festivals,  especially  the  Lectisterma;  public  prayers;  and  sacrifices.  Then 
you  might  have  s»fii  the  whole  city  of  Home,  and  in  imitation  of  her  the  oilier  cities  of  Ihe  em- 
pire, in  mourning  and  consternation;  the  temples  adorned;  the  Leciislernia  prepared  in  the 
public  places  ;  expiatory  sacrifices  repealed  over  and  over  again.  The  senators  and  patricians, 
their  wives  ami  their  children,  with  garlands  on  their  heads,  every  tribe,  every  order,  pieceded 
by  the  /  igh  Priest and  Ihe  Duumviri,  man  lied  gravely  through  the  streets;  and  this  procession 
was  accompanied  by  the  youth  singing  hymns,  or  repeating  prayers,  while  the  Priests  were 
offering  sacrifices  in  the  temples  and  invoking  the  gods  to  avert  the  calamities  with  which  they 
imagined  themselves  to  be  threatened." 

§  225.  The  oaths  (jusjurandum,  juramentum)  of  the  Romans,  which  wete 
regarded  as  holy  and  inviolable,  may  be  divided  into  public  and  private.  The 
first  were  taken  by  the  magistrates  before  the  Tribunal  (cf.  §  243.  1)  often  also 
by  the  whole  senate,  the  generals,  the  whole  army,  all  the  citizens  at  the  census, 
and  every  single  soldier.  To  the  latter  class  belonged  judicial  oaths,  and  such 
as  pertained  to  marriage.  They  were  usually  taken  before  the  altars  of  the 
gods,  who  were  thus  invoked  as  witnesses;  not  unfrequently  sacrifices  were  at 
the  same  time  offered.  Persons  taking  an  oath  in  a  prescribed  form  were  said 
concept  is  verbis  jurare. 

1.  Witnesses  in  civil  proceedings  sometimes  confirmed  their  testimony  by  an  oath  ;  arid  in  all 
public  trials  (cf.  t>  2hl)  were  required  to  do  it.  Perjury  was  punished,  yet,  so  far  as  appears,  not 
more  severely  than  false  testimony  (falsum)  without  oath. — Swearing  seems  to  have  been  in- 
dulged freely  in  common  life  and  ordinary  conversation  ;  such  expressions  as  the  following 
were  frequent;  Hercle,  or  Mehercle ;  Pol,  JEdepol,  Perpal;  per  Jovem ;  per  superos ;  viedius 
fidius  ;  ilii  me  perdant,  or  iiiterficeant,  &c. 

Brissonius,  De  Formul.  &c  —  L.  C.  ^alchenacr,  De  Ililibus  in  Jur.indo  a  veteribus,  in  /.  Oelrick's  Collect.  Opusculorum.  Brem. 
1768.  4. 

2  n.  What  was  called  devotio  consisted  in  a  voluntary  surrender  of  one's  self  (devovere)  to 
capital  danger  or  to  violent  death,  in  order  to  rescue  his  country  or  the  life  of  a  person  particu- 
larly dear.  Sometimes  the  term  was  applied,  when  a  conqueror  assigned  (devovebat)  a  captured 
city  or  army  to  destruction,  or  when  an  individual  was  punished. 

§  22fi.  The  Romans  had  no  oracles  themselves;  but  in  cases  of  importance, 
they  resorted  to  those  of  \3reece,  particularly  to  the  Delphic.  Roman  supersti- 
tion, however,  found  nearer  sources  of  information  respecting  the  will  and  decla 


210  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

rations  "f  the  gods.  -Besides  the  use  of  their  augurium  and  extispisctum,  they 
had  recourse  to  the  Sibylline  Books,  or  the  pretended  prophecies  of  the  Sibyl  of 
Cumae. 

1  u.  Thi  sc  Books  wen  n  c<  ived  from  the  Sibyl  by  Tarquinius  Superbua  (see  P.  V. 

'I  hi  v  wi  re  kepi  with  great  care  in  a  stone  vault  under  ground  in  the  Capitol, 

ii  the  custody  <>i  the  Quindecemviri  sacrisfaciundis  (cf.  §219).  In  important  emergencies, 

lt-.  v\  In ins  wi  re  inauspicious,  or  circumstances  were  pi  rph  \  ng, 

thi  y  ennsu  j  Lliric   predictions,  and  endeavored  thence  to  ascertain  how  tin. 

ofTendi  ould  be  appeased. 

1  In   burning  of  the  Capitol,  I!.  C.  84,  occasioned  the  destruction  of  these  hooks; 

n  store  some  pans  ol  them  from  fragments  and  quotations.  '1  he 

-  now  cxiaiii  under  tins  name,  however,  are  in  all  probability  not  genuine,  but  of 

7.  The  use  of  lots  (jsortes),  in  order  to  ascertain  the  result  of  an  affair  or 
undertaking,  u;is  very  common  with  the  Romans.  They  were  small  tablets  or 
blocks  (tali)  of  wood  or  metal,  on  which  certain  words  or  marks  were  inscribed, 
which  w<  re  kept  in  an  apartment  in  the  temple  of  Fortune.  The  most  famous 
wi  re  those  in  tiir  temple  of  this  goddess  at  Prscneste,  which  in  early  times  were 
very  frequently  employed. 

1  ».  Those  at  Am ium  were  also  renowned;  those  at  Caere  and Falerium  disappeared, 
as  ii  was  pretended,  miraculously.  Sometimes  lots  ot  this  son  were  provided  ami  kept 
for  domestic  use.    Those  who  foretold  the  future  by  means  ot  lots  were  called  Sortilegi. 

nut.  ii.  41. — Lit),  xxi   P2.  xsii.  I.—Du  Rmiel,  Recherches  Histor.  sur  les  Sorts  appelees  par  les  Payens,  Sorlea 
Inter,  vol.  lix. 

2.  Besides  the  use  ol  lots  and  the  practice  of  augury  (cf.  §  209),  other  artifices  were 
employed  among  the  Romans  by  those  who  pretended  to  foretell  the  future.  Some 
-,.i  to  do  n  by  consulting  the  stars,  and  were  called  Astrologi,Mathematici,  or 
(,,  netldiaci,  and  sometimes  <  'huldai  or  Babylonii,  as  the  art  was  first  practiced  in  Chal- 
Others  professed  to  interpret  dreams,  Conjectores;  others  to  have  an  internal 
afflatus  or  inspiration,  Harioli,  Vaticinatores.  Insane  persons  were  supposed  to  lore- 
know  the  future;  in  which  class  were  the  Ceriti,  those  rendered  insane  by  Ceres;  the 
t,ymphati,  rendered  so  by  the  water-nymphs;  Lunatici,  by  the  moon;  Fanatid,by 
ill,   s|  l  auni,  or  ot  Faunus,  the  first  builder  of  a  fane  (fanum).  In  short  many 

in  arts  ol  divination  (cf.  §  75)  were  practiced  among  the  Romans. 
Magical  an.--,  although  prohibited,  seem  to  have  been  employed  among  the  Ro- 
;  perhaps,  however,  chiefly  by  Greeks  and  other  foreigners.  Some  passages  in 
I!,  race  clearly  indicate  that  magical  pretensions  were  openly  avowed  at  Home.  Pliny 
.•-peak-  ol  magic  as  a  most  fraudulent  art,  that  has  had  sway  in  all  the  world. --'I  he 
Romans  gi  m  rally  admitted  the  notion  thai  certain  persons  had  the  power  of  fascinating 
others  (fascinalio),  by  darting  an  evil  look  upon  them;  which  the  Greeks  termed 
Bao-i  6).     To  aver:  such  malignant  influences,  an  amulet  of  some  kind  was 

,  us  worn  on  the  neck,  called faseinum  (cf.  1'.  11   §91.  2). 

Sce.l  ledP  IV.  \  243. 3.)  vol.  xiz.  p.  70,  on  an  antique  Bas-relief  supposed  to  represent  the  fascination  by  the  evil 

eve— 1'  JiUariui,  De  Invidia  el  Fascino  Veterum,  in  Gnteita,  vol,  «ii.— Clou.  Journ.  vol.  xxxvi.  p  IS5,  "ii  >hr  ma^.c  of  the 
Greeks  i  tfem.  ih  VIrutitut,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts,  i.  S\.—Bonamy  ind  Blan- 

".    vi,.  19      (  I  Hur.  Epnd  5.  and  Vt.—Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  jcix.  l.-Sulvcrtt,  lies 
i  i  la  Magie.     Car.  IM9.  2  vols.  8. 

-  The  division  of  the  year  was  made  at  Rome  a  care  of  the  priests,  and 
therefore  falls  under  the  head  of  religious  affairs.  Without  noticing  the  various 
changes  in  this,  we  may  remark  that  Romulus,  Nunin,  and  Julius  Caesar  were 
the  authors  of  the  principal  methods  of  dividing  and  computing  the  year.  The 
month  was  divided  into  three  parts  by  the  Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides,  and  in 
computing  the  days  of  the  month,  the  Romans  reckoned  backwards  from  these 
three  fixed  points. 

1  it.  The  day  was  reckoned  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  This  space  was  divided  into 
twehe  hoi  i  i,i. -h  o|  course  were  of  different  length  at  the  different  seasons  of 

the  year;  hence  the  phrase  hora  hibernia,  equivalent  to  hora  brevissima.  The  night 
was  likewise  dividt  d  into  twelve  hours  (P.  I.  §  187),  and  also  into  tour  watches  (vigilia  ). 
The  usi  ol  sun-dials  (solaria),  and  of  water-glasses  (clepsydra),  seems  to  have  been  in- 
troduced at  a  comparatively  late  period. 

2.  Tin-  dial  i-  said  t"  have  been  Invented  ai  Lacedtemon  in  the  time  of  Cyrus  t lie  (.'rent  The 
Rril  one  nl  Rnme  was  set  up  B  C.  about  260.-  The  clepsydra  (icXtifiSpa)  was  invented  at  Alex- 
in..In  i.  and  carried  thi  nee  la  Uhens  and  afterwaids,  It  C.  nboiii  160,  introduced  at  It e.    "  It 

tvai  fori i  hj  .1  vessel  <a  wati  t.  having  a  minute  perforation  in  the  bottom,  through  which  i lie 

water  Issued  (st<  aling  out  a)  drop  by  drop,  and  fell  into  another  vessel,  in  which  a 

(ht  bod)  Boated,  having  attached  in  it  an  index  or  graduated  scale.     As  the  water  increased 


^p^ 


P.  III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       FESTIVALS.  241 

In  the  receiving  vessel,  the  floating  body  rose,  and  by  its  regularly  increasing  he  ght  furnished 
an  approximation  to  a  correct  indication  of  time."  (Bigelow's  Technology,  p.  365.) — It  was  so 
constructed,  that  the  orifice  for  letting  out  the  water  could  be  accommodated  to  the  varying 
length  of  the  Roman  hours.  A  servant  was  employed,  whose  business  it  was  from  time  to  lime 
to  examine  the  water-clock,  and  report  the  hour  to  his  master. 

See  the  account  of  the  divisions  of  time  among  the  Romans,  the  day,  month,  and  yar,  given  under  Chronology ;  cf.  P.  I.  \\  187, 
188,  191-193.— To  the  references  there  given  we  add  D'ssen,  Ue  Partibus  Noctis  et  Diei,  Sic.  in  his  Kleine  Schriften. 

§  229.  The  Romans  had  a  multitude  of  festival  days,  set  apart  for  the  service 
of  the  gods,  and  celebrated  with  sacrifices,  banquets,  and  games;  these  were 
called  dies  festi.  The  days  called  dies'  fasti  were  those  on  which  no  assembly 
of  the  people  or  senate  was  held,  but  the  praetor  administered  justice;  days,  on 
which  he  could  not  do  this,  were  termed  nefasti.  Days,  of  which  only  a  part 
of  each  could  be  appropriated  to  business,  were  called  intercisi '  ,•  those  wholly 
resigned  to  business,  pnfesli.  Such  as  were  considered  inauspicious  were 
called  dies  religtosif  among  these  they  reckoned  especially  the  first  days  after 
the  Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides;  which  they  named  postridian*.  The  festival 
days  were  termed  also  ferise,  dies  fcriati,  from  the  cessation  of  common 
business. 

1.  The  Roman  festivals  were  either  public,  observed  by  the  whole  nation  (fetiv  publico),  ot 
private,  observed  by  families  and  individuals  (feiiir  private).  Private  festivals  were  held  or. 
days  determined  by  the  parlies  interested;  being  designed  to  commemorate  births,  marriages, 
deaths,  or  other  important  events  in  domestic  history.  The  public  included  the  feria  stuiir.r, 
those  of  regular  occurrence  on  certain  fixed  days ;  the  ferus  coneeptivte,  those  held  on  days  annu- 
ally appointed  by  civil  magistrates  or  by  the  priesthood  (jus  pontificium);  and  the  feritB  impera- 
tive, those  held  on  special  emergencies  by  command  of  the  consul,  the  prtetors,  or  a  dictator. 
As  above  mentioned  all  common  business  was  suspended  on  the  public  feriir,  the  sancity  of 
which  was  violated  if  the  rex  sarrorum.  or  any  of  the  fiaminet,  saw  any  person  at  work.  The 
great  number  of  the  ferie  and  the  length  of  their  continuance  sometimes  interfered  with  the 
proper  discharge  of  the  public  affairs  of  the  state.  Marcus  Aurelins  ordained  that  two  hundred 
and  thirty  days  of  the  year  should  he  open  for  business,  anil  the  remaining  days  might  be  feriir. 
The  festivals  commonly  had  particular  names,  but  some  were  designated  by  a  distinctive  epi- 
thet applied  to  the  common  name;  as,  e.  g.  Feriip  La'imn,  commemorating  the  alliance  between 
;he  Romans  and  Latins;  Feriir  Sementivtr,  in  seed-time,  to  pray  for  a  good  crop — The  Nundin/B 
were  sometimes  reckoned  anions  the  Fvriir;  they  were  regular  days  oji  which  the  people  from 
the  country  assembled  to  expose  their  various  commodities  for  stile,  nwHcet  days  ;  called  Nandince, 
because  they  occupied  every  ninth  day  (Ov.  Fast.  i.  51)  — ll  was  the  business  of  the  Ponlifices 
to  prepare  annually  a  register  called  Kalenilarium,  or  Fasti  Kalendaree,  or  Fasti  Sacri,  in  which 
the  days  were  marked  in  each  month  and  distinguished  according  as  they  belonged  to  the  differ- 
ent classes  above  named  ;  and  the  various  festivals  were  mentioned  as  they  were  to  take  place 
through  the  year  The  Fus/t  A'«/«»(/u«s  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Fasti  Jimmies:  the  latter 
were  registers  of  the  magistrates;  of  which  the  most  important  were  those  termed  Fasti  Conn  u  tares. 
Hartung,  Die  Religion  der  Romer.— R  HoJpinton,  lie  Festis  Diebus  Judjeorum,  Gracorum,  Romanorum,  et  Turcarum.  Tigur. 
1593.  lb!.— Couture,  Les  Fasies.  in  theAftm.  .lead  tnscr  i.  60—  Dela  Name,  Calendner  Romain,  in  the  same  .Vfem.&c.  vol.  xxvl 
p.  219. — Cf.  Port  Royal  Lat.  Grammar. — Several  Fragments  of  Calendars  are  given  in  Grxvtiu,  vol.  viii. — A  Calendar  from  Pauly s 
Real-Encyclopadie  is  given  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Antiq — Respecting  the  Calcndarium  Pnenatmuui,  see  P.  IV.  §  133.  6.— Respect- 
ing the  FaMi  Annates  or  Historin,  see  P.  V.  §  508. 

§  230 1.  Of  the  numerous  Roman  festivals,  we  will  mention  some  «_f  the 
principal,  in  order  of  the  months. 

January,  1st  day.  The  festival  of  Janus,  on  I  ralia,  to  the  Manes,  accompanied  wun  a  solemn 


the  first  day  of  the  year,  on  which,  in  later 
times,  the  Consuls  entered  upon  their  office. 
The  presents  customary  on  this  day  were  called 
st rev ir ;  they  were  sent  from  clients  to  their 
patrons,  from  citizens  to  the  magistrates,  and 
from  friends  to  one  another. 9th.  The  jia-o- 


expiation  or  purification  of  the  city,  called  fe- 
hruatio,  whence  the  name  of  the  month  itself. 
It  continued  from  the  lMh  to  the  end  of  the 
month,  during  which  time  presents  were  car- 
ried to  the  graves  of  deceased  friends  and  rela- 
tives, and  the  living  held  feasts  of  love  and  rt 


nalia,  also  in  honor  of  .Tanus. 1  llh  and  15th. :  conciliation. 21st.  Terminulia,  to  Terminus, 

The    Carmentalta,   to    the    goddess    Carmenta,  :  the  god  of  boundaries. 

an  Arcadian  prophetess,  mother  of  Evander.       March.     On    the   first   day,  with    which  in 

25th.    The   Sementino?,  or  festival  of  seed,  j  early  limes  the  year  began,  a  festival  to  Mars, 

accompanied   with  the  Jimbarvalia,  Which  dif-  i  on  which  the   procession  or  war-dance  of  the 
fered   from   the  festival  of  the  same  name  in  !  Salii  was  made  (cf.  {  215);  called  also  the  fes- 

May  ;  on  which  they  passed  over  the  fields  with    tival  of  the  shields;  il   lasted  three  days. 

the  animals   to  he  slain    in   sacrifice. 30th.    6th.  Vestalia,  different  from  that  held   in  June. 

The  festival  of  Peace  (Pax),  first  established  by I7th.    Liberalia,   to   Bacchus,   but   different 

Augustus. 31st.  The  festival  in  honor  of  the  j  from  the  Bacchanalia. 19th.  Quinquvtria,  to 

Penates,  or  household  gods.  '  ,  Minerva,  named  from  its  duration  of  five  days  ; 

February.     1st.  The  Lucaria,  in  memory  of    the   last  day  called  Tubilustrium,  because  ;he 

the  asylum  formed  by  Romulus,  or  of  the  re-    trumpets  used  in  sacred  rites  were  then  puri 

fuge  (Incus)  of  the  Romans  after  the  sack  of    tied. 23d.    Hilaria,  to  Cybele,  whose  sacrei* 

their  city  by  Brennus. — This  day  was  also  dedi-    image  was   during   it  sprinkled   and   purified 

cated   to  Juno   Sospita. 13th.    Faunalia,    in    called  also  Lavatio  jMatris  De-fan. 

honor  of  Faunus  and  the  Sylvan  gods,  repeated        April.  On  the  1st  day,  Veneralvx,  the  festival 

5th  December. 15th.  Lvpercalia,  to  Lyctean    of  Feniis,  to  whom  the  whole  month  was  dedi- 

Pan  (cf.  ?  216). 17th.     Quirinalia,  to  Romti-    cated.     (Cf.   Scholl.    Hist.  Litt     Rom.   vol.   iii 

lus,  deified  by  the  name  Quirinus 18th.  Fe-    p.   24). 5th.    jWegalesia,  to  Cybeio,    wbos» 


242  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

the  Galli  (cf.  $  217),  on  this  made  their  games  in  honor  of  Mars. 13th.    To  Diana. 

procession. 12th.  Cerealin,  to  Ceres,  attended  1 T 1 1 1    Portvmnalia,   to   Pnrtumnns,  the  gnd 

with   games. 15.  Fordicidm,  to  the  goddess  of  harbors. 18th     Consvalia,  to  Consus,  the 

.  the  purpose  of  averting  a  dearth  or  godof  counsel  or  rather  to  Equestrian  Neptune, 

scarcity,  on  occasion  of  which  Nunia  instituted  The  seizure  of  the  Sabine  women  \\;cs  eom- 

uria  furnished  a  pregnant  memorated  the  same  day. '21st.   ''nmltu  (the 

rificed.ln  Tellus. '21st.  second),  or  festival  of  the   vintage   to  Jupiter 

rural    country  festival   to  Pales,  god-  and   Venus. 23d.   Vulcanalia,   to  Vulcan   as 

!ia,  repeated  in  Au-  the  god  of  fire,  for  security  against  conflagra- 

gu8l,  !■■  consecrate  to  Jupiter  the  growth  of  the  tions. 25th.   UptcunsiL-u,  to  Illiea,  or  Ops,  or 

vine  in  Italy. '23.  Robigalia,  to  the  god  Ro-  fruit-bearing  Earth. 

buns,  that  he   mighi   protect  the  grain   from  '    September.    On  the  1st  day,  to  Jupiter  Mai- 

blighling  !8th.  FUralia,ta  I  lo-  mattes. 1th.  IauIi  Magni,  or  Romani,  in  the 

ra  or  Chloris,  attended   with  games  (cf.  $  236).  Circus,  lo  Jupiter,  Juno,  and    Minerva;  they 


th,  The  festival  of  the  Palatine  Vesta,  in 
stituted  bj  Augustus. 

Mu.  tin  the  tir>i  day,    the    Festival  to  the 
s,  and  the  ceremonies  bv  night  to 


lasted  from  the  4th  day  to  the  12th. 13ih.  The 

ceremony  of  fixing  a  nail  [clavus  Jigendus)  in 
the  temple  of  Jupiter,  by  a  dictator  appointed  for 
tin-  purpose, to  aver i  contagious  pest  Hence. - 


/      .  performed  by  the  vestals  and  wo-   25th.  To  Venus  Genetrix. 30th.  Meditrinalia, 

men  alone. "2d.   Compitalia,  lo  the   I. ares  in  for  tasting  new  wine  before  the  vintage ;  that 

the  public  ways. 9th.   Lemuria,  to  the  l.einn-  this  festival  was  sac  red  to  a  goddess  of  health, 

ir  wandering  spirits  of  deceased  ancestors  named  Meditrina,  is  as  doubtful  as  the  existence 
and  relativ.es  on  ine  father's  side  (cf.  P.  II.  }{   of  the  goddess  herself. 

110.  III). 15th.  Festnm  Mercatorium, to  Wer-  October.     I2th.  Jiugustalia,  properly  games 

Miry,  for   merchants   (cf.  P.   11.  <?  56). 23d.  in  honor  of  Augustus,  instituted  after  the  close 

malia,  lo  Vulcan,  called   also    Tubilustria  of  his  campaigns,   particularly  tie  Armenian. 

'miii  the  purifying  of  the  sacred  trumpets.  ;  B.  C.  19  nr  20. 13th.  Fontinalia,  in  win.  h  the 

June      On  the  first   day  were  several   festi-  public  fountains  were  crowned  with  garlands. 

vals,  to  l)ea  Carna,  Juno  Jlioneta,  Mars  Extra- 15th.  To  Mars,  chiefly  a  horserace  on  the 

■  ii...  ami  Tempest  as. 3d.  '1  lie   festival  Campus   Martins,  at  the  end  of  which  a  horse 

to  Bellona  4th.  To  lien  ales. 0th.  Vesta-    was  offered  in  sacrifice. 19th.  The  Jrmilus- 

lia,  to  Vesta,  in  memory  of  the  gift  of  bread  to  trium,   or  review-muster,   celebrated    only   by 

men      food  was   sent  to  the  Vestals  to  he  of  soldiers,  and  in  full  armor. 

f.-red  to  the  L'.ids  ;   and  the  asses,  which  turned  NOVEMBER.      13lh.  A  feast  dedicated  to  Jupi- 

the   mills,  were  decked  with   garlands  and  led    ter,  Epulum  Jovis. 15th.  I.vdi  Plebeii,  in  the 

in    procession. —    10th.    JUatralia,  to   Matuta,  theatre,  or  the  circus  j  they  were  also  frequent- 
celebrated  by  Roman  matrons;  also  a  festival,  ly  held  at  other  times  not  defined, 
on  the  same  day,  to  Fortuna  Virilts,  by  women  ;  December.     5th.  Faunalia,  kept  by  the  pen- 

tn  Concordia. 13th    Quinqnatria(parva),  pie  of  the  country,  as   the   same  in  February 

designed  for  the  improvement  and  pleasure  of    was   by  the   inhabitants   of  the   city 17th. 

who  had   the  care  of  the   music  in  the  Saturnalia,  one  of  the  most  famous  festivals  of 

worship  of  the  L'ods. 16th.    I'nrifv  mil'  of  the  Koine,  originally  limited  to  a  simile  day,  aller- 

temple  of  Vest  a. 19th     To  Summanus,  i   e  wards  extended  over  three,  four,  and  more.    It 

probably  to  Pluto. —  24th.  Fortuna  Fortis.  for  was  a  festival  of   leisure  and  general  joy,  in 

people  of  the  lower  classes. 30th.  To  Her-  memory  of  the  golden  period  in  Italy  under  the 

nh's  and  the  Muses.  government  of  Saturn.     During  it  slaves  were 

•!'iY.     <>n    the    first   day  the   occupants   of  placed  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  tlieir  mas- 
hired  bouses  changed  their  residence. 5th.  ters.    Many  of  the  peculiar  customs  and  sports 

Jlpollinares,  with  sacrifices. fjth.  To  were  similar  to  those  of  the  Carnival,  or  Christ- 
Female  Fortune  in  memory  of  Coriolanus  with-  mas  Festival,  of  modern  Koine  s.  e  (alumni's 
drawing   his   army  from  the  city   ILiv.  ii.  40).  Chr.  Antiq    p.  435.— The  w.ork  entitled  Rome  in 

7ih.  To  Juno  Caprotina,  for  young  women,   the  Nineteenth  Century,  vol    iii.  p.  240 19th. 

I.i.  To  Castor  and   Pollux 23d    JVeptu-    Opulia,  to  the  goddess  of  Ops The  Compi- 

nahn. '25th    Farivalia,  to  the  goddess  Furina.  tulia,  to  the  Lares  of  the  cross  ways,  were  often 

August.     On  the   1st   day  a    festival  to  the  held  shortly  after  the  Saturnalia,  as  well  as  in 

-■    Idi    -  of  Hope;  and  gladiatorial  sporis  and  other  months. 

§  LJ.SM.  The  public  games  (htdi)  among'  the  Romans,  as  well  as  among  the 

Greeks  from  whom  the  former  borrowed   them  in  part,  were  viewed  as  festival 

occasions  in  honor  of  the  gods.     These  games  were  usually  at  the  expense  of 

'In-  slate,  sometimes  at  the  expense  of  individuals,  particularly  the  emperors. 

They  were  different  in  their  character,  as  well  as  in  the  time  ami  place  of  their 

iration.     Many  were   held  annually,  or  after  a  period  of  several  years,  at  a 

fixed   or  variable;   many  also  arose  from  particular  occasions;   hence  the 

variety   in   distinctive   appellations;  e.  g.,  ludi  stall,  imperativi,  instauralivi. 

■  nulls,  decennales,  seeulares,  lustrales,  &c.     Names  were  given 

also  in  reference  to  their  character,  and  the  place  where  they  were  celebrated  ; 

e.  o..  ludi  circenses,  capitolini,  scenici,  piscaiorii,  triumpkales,  funebres.     Only 

th.'  mosl  fine. us  of  these  games  can  here  be  noticed. 

.  The  first  in  lie  mentioned  are  the  Ludi  Circenses,  or  by  way  of  emi- 

e  Ludi  Magni.     They  received  their  name  from  the  ('/reus  Maximus,  which 

was  ii' •!  men  ly  a  laige  lice  place,  but,  taken  iii  its  whole,  formed  a  superb  edi- 

liee  ;  it  w;is  a  kind  n|  theatre,  commenced  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  enlarged 

and  adorned  by  Julius  <  Jaesar  as  dictator. 

1  »■   i-s  bit  udth  .\a.<  more  ihart  a  stadium,  and  iis  let  gth  was  three  and  .1  'm If  stadia 

AT  around  ii  were  seats  (.fori)  for  spectators,  so  as  lo  accommodate  at 

'.•h<i  1   n  <"..i  -..  :rSons.     I,,  me  ,m(jtiie|  extending  lengthwise,  was  a  wall,  culled  spina 


P.  III.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       FESTIVALS.     GAMES.  243 

circi,  4  feet  high,  12  broad,  and  1  stadium  in  length.  At  each  end  of  the  wall  were 
three  pyramids  on  a  single  base,  which  were  the  goals  {melee),  around  which  the  horsea 
and  chariots  turned.  The  wall  had  many  other  ornaments.  The  whole  edifice  also 
was  highly  ornamented  ;  it  was  altogether  the  largest  of  the  kind,  although  there  wore 
in  Rome  eight  other  places  tor  races  and  games,  called  Circi.  At  one  end  were  12 
openings  or  parts  separated  by  walls,  called  carceres,  where  the  horses  and  chariots 
stood  waiting  for  the  signal  to  start.  [Not  far  from  the  carceres,  a  whitened  rope  [alba 
lineal  was  drawn  across  the  circus;  one  half  of  it  marking  the  commencement,  anc 
the  other  half  the  end,  of  the  race.]  Those  who  governed  the  chariots,  were  divided 
into  certain  classes  (faclioues  or  greges),  distinguished  by  dresses  of  different  colors. 
The  whole  circus  was  dedicated  to  the  god  of  the  sun, 

2.  Pliny  (Hist.  N.  xxxvi.  24)  states  the  number  of  persons  which  the  Circus  Maximua  was 
capable  of  containing  as  260,000;  and  the  authority  of  Anrelius  Victor  has  been  cited  for  t lie 
number  of  385.000. — Of  the  other  structures  of  this  class  the  following  were  the  principal:  the 
Circus  Fliuninius ,'  the  Circus  Jllcxandrinus ;  the  Circus  Sail  usticus ;  the  Circus  Florialis,  or  Va- 
ticanus,  finished  by  Nero  in  a  splendid  style,  and  signalized  as  the  scene  where  numbers)  of  the 
early  Christians  suffered  mart)  nloni  under  that  emperor;  the  obelisk  in  the  centre  of  the  peris- 
tyle of  St.  Peter  was  taken  from  the  spina  of  this  circus  ;  the  Circus  CaracalltB ;  the  Circus  l.'o- 
mitim.— On  the  Via  Appia  t here  still  remains  the  "round  plan,  with  part  of  the  superstructure, 
of  a  small  circus,  commonly  called  the  Circus  uf  Caraculla. 

Grzuiiu,  as  cited  §  197.  I.  vol  ix.  ;  and  P  lemu,  as  there  cited,  vol.  v.—G.  L.  Bianami,  Discrizione  dei  Circlii  particolarmenle 
di  quelle-  di  Caracalla,  &c.  Con  nole  C.  Fea.  Roin.  17«0.  fob— £urge»,  The  Circus  on  the  Appian  Way,— Smith,  Diet,  of  Anti- 
quities. 

3k.  The  Ludi  Circenses  were  commonly  held  but  once  a  year;  sometimes  they 
were  appointed  on  extraordinary  occasions  ;  in  both  cases  they  were  maintained  at  public 
cost.  The  solemn  procession  which  preceded  them,  pompa  circensis,  moved  from  the 
Capitol.  The  images  of  the  gods  were  borne  in  splendid  carriages  or  frames  (in  ihensis 
et  fere u lis),  or  on  men's  shoulders  (in  humeris),  followed  by  a  great  train,  on  horseback 
or  on  foot,  with  the  combatants,  musicians,  &c.  Sacred  rites  were  then  performed, 
and  the  games  opened. 

§  233  u.  The  games  or  shows  (spectacula)  in  the  Cirrus  were  of  four  kinds;  chariot- 
races,  with  two  or  four  horses;  contests  of  agility  and  strength,  such  as  wrestling  (lucla), 
boxing  [pugilatus),  throwing  the  discus  (disci  jactus),  leaping  (saltus).  and  rui 
(cursi/s);  representations  of  sieges  and  of  battles  on  foot  and  on  horseback,  including 
the  Lu/lns  Troja  (Virg.  JEn.  v.  545);  fighting  of  wild  beasts  (venatio). — To  describe 
these  particularly  would  exceed  our  limits.  Many  of  the  exercises,  however,  cor- 
responded to  those  of  the  Greeks  (cf.  §§  78 — 83).  The  victors  svere  rewarded  with  crowns 
and  sometimes  with  rich  gifts  in  addition.  The  victor  in  the  chariot-race  received  a 
palm-branch,  which  lie  bore  in  his  hand. 

I.  We  have  in  fig.  B.  of  Plate  XVI.  a  victorious  Roman  charioteer,  with  the  palm  in  his  right  hand,  and  the  reins  in  his  left;  he 
is  closely  girdel  about  the  chest  and  boil y. 

See  Broltier,  Le  jeux  du  Cirque,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  da  Inscr.  vol.  xlv.  p.  4S7.— Mangez,  Sur  les  animaux  promenes  ou  tucs 
ians  les  Cirques,  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlattitvt,  C 1  a  s  s  e  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  .inc.  vol.  x.  p.  360. 

2  u.  At  the  time  of  the  Ludi  Magni,  other  spectacles  were  also  exhibited,  not  in  the 

Circus;  particularly  the  Naumachia,  or  representations  of  naval  battles.  These  ori- 
ginally were  made  in  the  sea,  but  afterwards  in  artificial  basins  or  excavations  made  foi 
the  purpose  and  filled  with  water,  which  were  also  called  Naumachirr.  The  vessels 
v/ere  usually  manned  by  prisoners,  malefactors,  slaves,  or  conquered  foes,  and  many 
lost  their  lives  or  were  severely  wounded.  This  spectacle  was  sometimes  exhibited  in 
the  Circus  Maximus,  water  being  introduced  into  it  for  the  purpose. 

3.  Claudius  is  said  (Tac.  Ann.  xx.  56.-Svet.  Claud.  21)  to  have  exhibited  a  magnificent  sea-fight  on  lake  Fucimrs,  in  which  there 
were  fifty  ships  on  each  side,  with  19,000  combatants  {naumachiarii).— Representations  of  naval  battles  were  common  under  the 
emperors,  and  are  commemorated  on  some  of  the  imperial  coins. — See  Scheffer,  De  Militia  Navali. 

§  234.  The  Ludi  Saeculares,  or  centurial  gfames,  were  solemnized  with  much 
ceremony.  They  were  not  celebrated  exactly  after  the  lapse  of  a  century,  but 
sometimes  a  little  earlier  or  a  little  later;  usually  in  the  month  of  April.  For  this 
occasion  loner  preparations  were  always  made,  the  Sibylline  books  were  consulted, 
ami  a  sort  of  general  purification  or  expiation  of  the  whole  city  was  previously 
made.  Sacrifices  were  offered  to  all  the  gods,  those  of  the  infernal  world  as  well 
as  those  of  Olympus,  and  while  the  men  attended  banquets  of  the  o-ods  in  theii 
temples,  the  women  assembled  for  prayer  in  the  temple  of  Juno.  Thank-offer- 
ings were  also  presented  to  the  Genii. 

1  u.  After  the  sacrifices,  a  procession  advanced  from  the  Capitol  to  a  lar<je  theatre  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  where  the  games  were  exhibited,  in  honor  of  Apollo  and 
Diana.  On  the  second  day  the  Roman  matrons  were  collected  to  offer  sacrifice  in  the 
Capitol.  On  the  third,  among  other  solemnities,  a  song  of  praise  to  Apollo  and  Diann 
was  sung  in  the  temple  of  Palatine  Apollo,  by  a  select  band  of  young  men  and  virgin* 


3-41  ROMAN    AXTIQUITIE9. 

of  Patrician  rank.     The  carmen  sceculare  of  Horace  was  prepared  to  be  thus  sung,  at 
i  niand  oi  Augustus,  in  whose  reign  the  games  were  celebrated. 

the  first  celebration  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  B.C.  17  (Tac.  Ann.  xi.ll);  the  second  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  A.  D.  47 

(Suet.  (  laud  2'  i :  the  third  in  Hie  reign  of  Domitian,  A.  D.  8?;  :.nd  the  last  in  the  reign  of  Philippua,  A.  D.  2-18,  just  one  thousand 

.  I  the  building  of  Rome.— Cf.  Harlung,  Die  Relig.  d.  Rom.— On  the  chronology  of  these  games,  Clan.  Journal,  xvii.  351. 

To  the  religious  solemnities,  which  were  held  for  the  purpose,  of  securing  the 

it  the  whole  state,  were  afterwards  added  various  amusements,  which  rendered 

this  a  festival  of  universal  hilarity.     Among  the  diversions  were  pantomimes,  histrionic 

rs  (prastigiatores),  persons  who  seemed  to  fly  in  the  air 

.  rope-dancers  (.funambuli),  and  the  like. 

The  rope-dancer  (Ka\ofiaTr)S.  <7£o«'o/?dT*jc)  seems  usually  to  have  been  a  Greek  (Juv  iii.  SO).  Some  of  the  paintings  found  at 
Herculaneum  <xlnl.it  funambuli  placing  themselves  in  a  great  variety  of  altitudes,  in  the  charaderof  bacchanals,  satyra,  and  the 
,ikr.— See  the  work  styled  jbitichi  aVErcolano  (cited  P.  IV.  J  243.  2),  vol.  iii.— A  few  of  the  figures  are  given  in  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Autiq.  p,  I  il. 

§  235.  The  gladiatorial  shows,  Ludi  Gladiatorii,  were  greatly  admired  in 
Rome.  They  were  usually  called  Munera,  as  they  would  impart  pleasure  to 
the  spectators,  or  bestow  respect  on  those  out  of  regard  to  whom  they  were 
field  ;  in  the  latter  view  they  were  appointed,  e.  g.  at  the  funerals,  or  in  com- 
laemoration,  of  the  deceased. 

]  a.  These  shows  were  of  Etrurian  origin,  and  probably  grew  out  of  the  ancient 
custom  "t  sacrificing  prisoners  at   funeral  solemnities  in  honor  of  the  departed.     At 

I; i   they  were  at  firsl  exhibited  chiefly al  funerals;   afterwards  ihey  were  given  by 

Ediles,  Praetors,  Quaestors,  and  Consuls, in  the  amphitheatres,  especially  on  the 
festivals  of  the  Saturnalia  and  Quinquatria. 

The  gladiators  {gladiatores,  uovou&xot)  were  supported  at  public  expense.  Their  resi- 
dence or  place  of  instruction  was  called  ludus,  a  name  often  given  to  any  arena  or 
building,  where  such  exercises  were  learned  or  practiced;  their  overseer  was  termed 
procurator,  and  their  instructor,  lanista.  In  the  public  spectacles,  the  combat  was  often 
carried  to  blood  and  even  to  death,  unless  the  conquered  gladiator  begged  his  life  of 
the  en  wd  of  spectators.  The  number  of  combatants  was  originally  indeterminate,  and 
until  fixed  by  <  laesar.  The  gladiators  bore  various  names  according  to  their  armor  and 
their  mode  of  fighting. 

2.  The  gladiators  termed  sent/ores  were  armed  with  helmet,  shield,  and  sword. 
Tin  v  wi  re  usually  matched  with  the  reliarii,  who  were  dressed  in  a  short  tunic  with 
nothing  on  the  head,  bearing  in  the  left  hand  a  three-pointed  lance  {t ridens  or  fuscina), 
and  in  the  right  a  net  (rete) in  order  to  throw  it  over  the  head  of  their  adversary.  The 
mirmillones  were  armed  like  Oauls,  and  took  the  name  from  the  image  of  a  fish  on  their 
helmet,  and  were  usually  matched  with  those  termed  Ihraces.  The  essedarii  fought 
from  chariots,  and  the  equites  on  horseback  ;  the  andabalcs  wore  helmets  which  covered 
their  eyes,  and  according  to  some  writers,  fought  on  horseback.  Several  other  classes 
are  named. — It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  term  gladiatores  included  those  who  fought 
with  beasts  as  well  as  those  who  fought  with  men  ;  although  the  former  were  termed 
distinctively  bestiarii. 

3.  At  first  gladiators  were  wholly  composed  of  criminals  and  slaves;  but  afterwards 
free  citizens  "t  noble  birth,  and  even  women,  fought  on  the  arena. — An  advertisement 
or  public  notice  (libellus)  was  put  up  by  the  person  {editor)  who  intended  to  exhibit  a 
gladiatorial  show,  with  an  account  of  the  combatants  and  sometimes  a  delineation  or 

i  iced,  On  the  day  of  exhibition  the  gladiators  were  led  along  the  arena  in 
procession,  and  then  matched  for  the  contest.  When  a  gladiator  lowered  his  arms,  it 
w:is  a  sign  oi  being  vanquished;  his  fate  depended  on  the  spectators;  if  they  wished 
him  to  be  savi  d,  they  pressed  down  their  thumbs ;  if  to  be  slain,  they  turned  up  their 
thumb-  [pollicem  ■premebant  or  vertebant).  If  a  vanquished  gladiator  was  spared,  he 
eive  his  discharge,  which  was  termed  missio,  hence  an  exhibition  in  which 
the  lives  of  the  vanquished  were  not  to  be  saved  was  said  to  be  sine  missione. — Vast 
numbers  of  men  and  of  brute  animals  were  destroyed.  In  the  spectacles  after  the 
triumph  mI  Trajan  over  the  I  lacians,  it  is  said  that  10,000  gladiators  (ought,  and  11,000 
animal-  were  killed.  These  shows  were  prohibited  by  Constantine,  but  not  fully  sun- 
d  until  the  time  of  Honorius. 

In  Plate  XXV  are  neveral  figures  illustrating  this  subject,  which  art;  taken  from  sculptures 
on  the  Inmh  »f  Scnurus  found  al  Pompeii.  Fig.  1  represents  an  equestrian  combat;  the  avila- 
bii.i  ;ir.  clothed  iii  i  in-  simrt  flunk  (i  nil  i,  i- ii  in),  iintl  armed  with  the  In  nee,  round  buckler  (  pat-ma) 
helmet  "  ilh  a  vizor  covering  the  face,  and  a  sen  of  mail  on  the  right  arm.— Two  gladiators  on 
fool  ; i  !■[••■  ii  in  figures  :'  nnd  ■!.  Each  h;is  the  helmet  and  the  subligaculwm,  a  short  apron  fixed 
above  the  hips  hy  a  girdle.  Fig  3  has  Hrmnr  on  the  right  arm,  and  holds  the  set  turn,  or  long 
-Iim  Id  :  ""  In-  riL'ln  leg  i-  a  kind  nt*  buskin,  and  mi  bis  left  the  ucrcn  or  greave  ;  the  rest  of  the 
bod)  la  naked ;  he  has  lowered  his  shield  as  being-vanquished,  and  raised  bis  band  to  implort 
mercy  of  the  spectators  Fig.  I  is  behind  him,  waiting  for  tbe  Bignal  from  them,  whether  to 
•pare  hU  antagonist  or  strike  the  dpath-hlow ;  be  tarries  a  smaller  shield,  has  armor  upon  his 
tbit'l.-  and  the  high  greaves  upon  his  legs  Fie  6  presents  a  group  of  four  gladiators;  two  are 
(all*  in  r,  (?trul,,ri\-),  and  two  net-men  (retiarii).     One  of  the  secutores  is  wounded  in  the  leg, 


PLATE    XXX 


"2  If)  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

thigh,  and  arm,  and.  having  in  vain  implored  mercy  of  the  spectators,  he  bends  his  knee  appa- 
rentlj  rom  the  sword  of  his  comrade  a  more  speedy  death  than  would  be  likely  from 

the  trident  of  his  antagonist  retiarius,  who  pushes  him  and  seems  thus  to  insult  his  conquered 
rival.  The  other  retiarius  is  wailing  to  tii'lit  in  his  turn  with  the  secutor  who  is  hastening  to 
•  ml  the  sud".  rings  "i  his  wounded  companion.  The  letters  against  two  of  the  figures  are  the 
sculptured  names  of  the  persons  represented,  with  the  number  of  victories  gained  by  them  o.n 
il.e  arena.  The  Fig.  8,  with  a  lame  in  each  hand,  is  from  a  group  on  the  same  tomb  representing 
a  you i  .  ireparing  himself  lo  contend  in  the  arena. — Fig.  5  is  also  from  a  sculpture  on 

this  i  nting  a  bull  frantic  with  rage,  with  a  lance  driven  through  his  breast,  and 

rushing  towards  the  man  by  whom  he  is  wounded. 

IV.  5  2-13.  2.— Pompeii,  p  291,  as  citej  P.  IV.  226.  1. For  minute  details  respecting  gladiators,  cf.  J. 

Ant.  1037.  6  v.ils.  fol. 

The  Ludi  F/oraks  were  united  with  the  festival  of  the  goddess  Flora, 
held  on  the  28th  of  April  (§  23Q).  They  were  instituted  at  Rome,  B.  C.  24; 
afterwards  they  were  discontinued  for  a  period,  but  were  renewed  again  in  con- 
sequence of  a  sterility  of  fruit,  which  was  viewed  as  the  punishment  for  their 
omission.  They  lasted  from  the  day  above  mentioned  to  the  evening  of  the  3d 
of  May  ;  no  sacrifices  were  offered  ;  those  who  engaged  in  the  celebration»wore 
garlands  of  flowers,  and  indulged  in  frequent  banquetings,  and  often  descended 
streme  licentiousness.  Parties  for  hunting  and  dancing  were  also  formed  ; 
and  the  sediles  curules,  who  had  the  care  of  the  plays,  distributed  vast  quantities 
of  peas  and  beans  among  the  populace  in  the  Circus. 

§  -237  I.  There  were  other  games  or  sports  (ludi),  which  we  may  just  men- 
tion here. 

The  Ludi  Megalenses,  in  honor  of  Cybele,  mother  of  the  gods,  celebrated  with 
shows,  and  by  mutual  presents  and  entertainments  (muti/are)  between  persons  of  the 
higher  ranks. — The  Ludi  Cereales  in  the  Circus,  in  the  memory  of  the  rape  of  Pro- 
Berpine,  and  the  consequent  sorrow  of  her  mother  Ceres. — The  Marliales,  dedicated 
to  \lar<  (Jltor,  or  the  avenger. — The  Apollinares,  in  honor  of  Apollo,  and  generally 
scenical. —  The  Capitolini,  to  Jupiter,  in  memory  of  his  preserving  the  Capiiol  from 
the  Gauls. — The  I'lth,  ii.  in  commemoration  of  the  expulsion  of  the  kings  and  the  re- 
covery of  freedom. — The  Consuales,  in  honor  of  Neptune,  and  in  memory  of  the 
ire  of  the  Sabine  women. — The  Ludi  Augustales  (Sf/Jaora,  and  'AvyovoraXia),  in 
honor  ol  Augustus. — The  Ludi  Piscatorii,  held  on  the  sixth  of  June,  near  the  Tiber, 
half  "I  'In  fishermen. — Among  the  games  occasioned  by  vows  and  called  ludi 
rutin,  the  principal  were  such  as  were  promised  and  appointed  by  generals  in  war  ; 
among  which  may  be  ranked  those  already  mentioned  (§  231),  the  guinquennales,  de- 
cenno.lcs,  &c,  given  by  the  emperors  every  five,  ten,  and  twenty  years. — To  the  class 
railed  exlraordinarii,  belonged  such  as  were  held  at  funerals,  called  Ludi  Funebres ; 
and  thost  appointed  by  Nero  for  youth  on  completing  their  minority  in  age  called 
Ludi  J u  ri  notes. 

§  238.  For  exhibiting  many  of  these  games,  especially  the  dramatic  (ludi 
.nniri)  and  gladiatorial,  theatres  and  ampithealres were  used. — In  the  first  ages, 
theatres  were  constructed  merely  of  wood,  and  were  taken  down  after  being1  used. 
Afterwards  they  were  built  of  stone,  and  sometimes  of  great  size  and  splendor. 
Their  construction  was  similar  to  that  of  Greek  theatres;  one  side  or  end  had 
the  form  of  a  prolonged  semicircle,  for  the  spectators,  and  the  other  was  rec- 
tangular for  the  stage  and  actors.  The  most  famous  theatre  was  that  built 
B.  < '.  ">!'  by  the  sedile  M.  Scaurus,  at  his  own  expense,  partly  of  marble,  and  sc 
capacious  that  eighty  thousand  spectators  could  sit  in  it.  The  theatres  of 
Pompey  and  Marcel lu9  were  also  very  large  and  celebrated  ;  the  latter  in  part 
still  remains. 

1.  The   Roman  theatre,  like  the  Greek  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  235),  consisted  of  three  parts, 

ihe  ta  mi.  orchi  stra,  and  cavea  ;  but  the  two  latter  are  sometimes  included  under  one 

because  in  the  Roman  the  chorus  and  musicians  wen1  placed  on  the  stage 

.  and   the  rows  of  seats  in  the  orchestra  were  occupied  by  the  senators, 

fori  ign  amba  3adors,   and  especially  distinguished   personages.     The  next  fourteen 

rows  ol  the  cavea  wi  n  assigned  to  the  equites,  and  the  rest  of  the  people.     Women 

i  ico   sur ding  the  whole,  by  an  arrangement  of  Augustus. — The 

it  age,  or  poriion  allotted  to  the  performers,  had  several  parts  distinguished  by  name ; 
one  part  was  liiai  to  which  the  term  sci  >m  (which  is  put  sometimes  for  the  stage  as  a 

wholi    i uppropriutrl\  belongs,  the  sc<- >tr  or  scenery;   the  part  sometimes  concealed 

I  v  a  curtain  [at  laum),  which  was  fastened  not  at  the  lop  but  at  the  bottom,  and,  when 
i   was  necessarj  to  hidi   th<   scene,  was  drawn  up  by  a  machine  for  the  purpose  (called 

ttostra);  coli is.  statues,  pictures,  and  various  ornaments  of  the  most   magnificent 

character  were  exhibited,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  plays.  The  postscenium  was 
'i  r>lace  behind  the  Bcene,  where  the  actors  changed  their  dresses,  and  the  proscenium 


P.  117.  RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       AMPHITHEATRES.  247 

wns  the  space  in  front  of  the  scene.  The  plnce  usually  occupied  by  the  actors  when 
speaking  was  termed  pulpttum  (Aoyaoe,  cf.  §  89). 

A  plan  of  the  Roman  theatre  is  given  in  our  Plate  XLIX.  fig.  2.  The  upper  half  of  the  circle 
BHIill  is  the  urcliestra  ;  the  circle  is  presented  complete  with  the  four  equilatrial  triangles  in- 
scribed, in  order  to  show  the  manner  of  determining  the  places  for  the  scena,  Hie  postseenium, 
and  l he  cunei;  these  triangles  are  inscribed  so  that  their  vertices  fall  severally  on  the  ends  of 
the  diameters  BI5,  HH  ;  then  their  other  angles  give  the  points  and  limits  required  ;  the  diameter 
(111!)  of  the  orchestra  was  usually  one-third  (or  more)  of  the  whole  diameter  of  the  theatre. 
The  length  given  to  the  scene  or  stage  was  twice  the  diameter  of  the  orchestra. 

2.  The  principal  forms  of  dramatic  entertainment  among  the  Romans  are  mentioned 
particularly  in  another  part  of  this  work  ;  see  P.  V.  §§  308-320. — Among  the  musical 
instruments  employed  were  (he  flute,  and  the  lyre  or  harp,  and  in  later  times  the  hy- 
draulic organ,  sometimes  called  cortina.  The  common  accompaniments  of  comedy 
were  the  flutes  termed  tibia  dextra  or  Lydia,  and  tibia  sinistral  or  Serrance  or  Tyria; 
the  terms  pares  and  impares  are  also  applied  to  them.  There  has  been  some  disagree- 
ment as  to  what  these  terms  mean.  It  is  most  commonly  supposed  that  the  musician 
used  two  flutes  at  once  or  a  double  flute  ;  that  the  sinistra  had  but  few  holes  and 
sounded  a  sort  of  bass,  while  the  dextra  had  more  holes  with  sharper  tones,  and  when 
these  two  were  united  they  were  termed  impares,  and  took  the  other  names  because 
one  was  stopped  by  the  left  hand  and  the  other  by  the  right ;  when  two  dextra  or  two 
sinistra  were  united  and  played  upon  by  the  musician,  they  were  called  pares. 

A  painting  found  at  Pompeii  represents  a  flute-player  blowing  upon  the  double  flute  ;  see  our  Plate  XXVI.  fig.  a,  and  cf.  {•  180.  2. 
—The  use  of  the  double  flu'e  is  seen  also  in  Plate  XLIX.  fig.  B,  and  in  Plate  XXIX.— JSodigcr,  Die  Erfindung  der  Flote,  in  vol.  ii. 
.•>f  rVidandU  Altiscbes  Museum. — A.  Manutms.  DeTibiis  Veterum,  in  Ugotmus,  vol.  xxxii.  as  cited  §  197. 

3  Masks  in  great  variety  were  used  on  the  Roman  stage  as  well  as  on  the  Grecian  ; 
and  were  probably  similar  to  those  of  the  Greeks.    Cf.  §  89.  2. 

Several  masks  are  represented  in  the  beautiful  mosaic  given  in  Plate  XLIX.  fig.  B  B. — On  theatres,  plays,  masks,  &c.  cf.  Ctriinrdi, 
Les  jeux  sreniques  chez  le.s  Rnmams,  in  ttie  Mum.  de  VTnstitut,  C  1  asse  d'fiist  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  viii.  p.  250. — Dunlop,  as  cited 
P.  V.  5  299.  8— Work  styled  Pompeii,  cited  P  IV.  §  226.—/.  L  Fabriciw,  lie  Ludis  Scenicia,  in  Gronovius,  vol.  viil—BUttiger, 
Prolus.  de  PerS'-ini3  sceincis.  vulgi  I.arvis.  Vinaris,  1731.  4. — Francisco  de  Ficroni,  Disser'atio  de  larvis  scenieis,  kc.  Rom.  (The- 
atrical Masques  of  the  Romans).  Rom.  1736.  4.  with  platts. — Boiudin,  Sur  les  Masques,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  aes  Inscr. 
rol.  iv.  p.  132. 

§  239.  The  first  n mphithealre  was  built  B.  C.  45  by  Julius  Caesar,  but  merely 
of  wood.  The  emperor  Titus  erected  the  first  of  stone,  the  ruins  of  which, 
under  the  name  of  the  Colosseum  or  Coliseum  (from  a  colossal  statue  of  Nero,  which 
stood  near  it),  constitute  still  one  of  the  most  remarkable  curiosities  of  Rome. 
The  form  of  ampitheatres  was  oval  or  elliptical.  They  were  generally  used  for 
gladiatorial  shows  and  the  fighting  of  wild  beasts.  Both  theatres  and  amphi- 
theatres were  commonly  dedicated  to  certain  gods. 

1.  The  amphitheatre  exhibited  the  appearance  of  two  theatres  joined  ;  thus  Curio 
actually  formed  one,  perhaps  the  first  ;  wishing  to  outdo  others  in  exhibitions  of  this 
sort,  he  constructed  two  large  theatres  of  wood  looking  opposite  ways,  in  which  dra- 
matic plays  were  performed  in  the  morning;  then  by  machinery  for  the  purpose  he 
suddenly  wheeled  them  round  so  as  to  look  at  each  other,  thus  constituting  an  amphi- 
theatre, and  presented  a  show  of  gladiators  in  the  atiernoon.  The  term  an  ?ia  \>  some- 
times put  for  the  amphitheatre,  but  means  properly  the  place  in  t lie  centre  where  the 
gladiators  fought,  and  was  so  called  front  its  being  covered  with  sand.  The  arena  was 
surrounded  with  a  wall,  guarded  with  round  wooden  rollers  turning  in  sockets,  to  pre- 
vent the  animals  from  climbing  up.  Sometimes  the  arena  was  completely  surrounded 
with  a  ditch  filled  with  water  (euripus).  Next  around  the  arena  was  the  podium,  raised 
12  or  15  feet  above  it,  projecting  over  the  wall  and  protected  by  a  sort  of  parapet.  On 
this  gallery  or  terrace,  which  was  wide  enough  for  two  or  three  rows  of  moveable 
seats,  senators,  ambassadors,  and  persons  of  special  distinction  were  seated;  here  also 
the  emperor  had  his  seal  (suggestus,  or  cubiculum).  Above  the  podium  were  the  fixed 
seats  (pro dim),  divided  into  stories  or  sloping  portions  called  maniana.  The  first,  next 
to  the  podium,  included  fourteen  rows  of  marble  seats  appropriated  to  the  Equites.  In 
the  second  and  third  maniana,  were  seats  occupied  by  the  people  and  called  popularia. 
The  maniana  were  separated  by  passages  {pracinctiones)  running  in  the  direction  of  the 
seats  ;  there  were  also  passages  (scala)  running  transversely  ;  thus  were  formed  several 
compartments  in  the  shape  of  wedges  (cunei).  The  women,  after  they  were  allowec 
to  attend  the  amphitheatre,  were  seated  in  a  gallery  or  portico  exterior  to  the  whole  of 
these,  and  servants  and  attendants  in  the  highest  gallery.  The  general  direction  of  the 
amphitheatre  was  committed  to  an  officer  styled  Villicvs  amphitheatri,  and  persons, 

called  designators,  were  employed  to  superintend  the  seating  of  the  spectators. By 

a  device  of  luxury,  perfumed  liquids  were  conveyed  in  secret  tubes  around  these 
structures,  and  scattered  over  the  audience,  sometimes  from  the  statues  which  adorned 
the  interior.  —The  Romans  had  also  a  remarkable  contrivance  for  covering  the  vast 
area  embraced  in  such  a  building;  an  awning  was  suspended,  by  means  of  ropes 
stretched  across  the  building  and  attached  to  masts  or  soars,  which  rose  above  the  sum- 


249  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

mit  of  the  walls.  Near  the  top  of  the  outer  wall  of  the  Coliseum  there  are  above  20C 
projecting  blocks  ol  -•one.  with  holes  cut  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  spars,  which  ran  up 
through  holes  cut  in  the  cornice. 

2  In  our  Plate  XXX.  li;.'  7,  is  a  plan  of  the  amphitheatre  of  Pompeii.  Its  extreme  length, 
fTom  nutjsidi  I  the  exterior  areade,  is  430  feet;  its  greatest  breadth  is  335  feet.    It 

consists  chiefly  of  the  rough  masonry  called  opus  ineertum,  with  quoins  of  squared  stone,  and 
o|  rubhle.  This  rude  mass  was  probably  once  covered  with  a  facing 
.,i  hewn  stone.-  Ai  each  end  of  the  ellipse  are  entrances  into  the  arena  fur  the  combatants; 
through  these  also  the  dead  hodies  were  dragged  out  into  the  spoliarium.  On  the  podium  were 
found  Bevel  il  insi  riptions  containing  the  names  of  the  duumvirs  who  had  presided  ;  there  were 

also  fn  igs,  which  soon  disappeared  on  being  exposed  to  the  at sphere.    There  are 

twenty  four  ts;  and  the  building,  as  has  been  estimated,  would  accommodate  above 

10,000  persons  si l'.  besides  su<  h  as  might  stand. 

urio,  in  the  Mem.  .lend.  Inter  xxiii.  369. — Cf. Pompeii',  as  cited  P.  IV.  ^  22G.  I. On  var.oui 

,  ui|  bitheatres,  Sluarl'j  Did.  of  Architecture.    I.ond.  1S32.  3  vols.  9.— A.  Gordon,  History  of  the  Ancient  Amphi 

I  from  the  Italian  of  Majfci.    Loud.  1730.8. 

II.    CIVIL  AFFAIRS. 

§  240.  In  order  to  understand  properly  the  civil  constitution  of  Rome  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  distinctly  the  different  periods  of  its  history;  particularly 
to  notice  the  three  different  forms  of  government  which  were  successively  es- 
tablished,  the  regal,  consular,  and  imperial.  The  first  continued  214  years  to 
B.  C.  510;  the  second  479  years,  to  B.  C.  31  ;  and  the  third  506  years  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  western  empire,  A.  D  476,  and  afterwards  in  the  eastern. — 
Under  the  Kings  the  government  was  of  a  mixed  character,  and  we  should  esti- 
mate the  powers  of  the  kings  by  a  reference  to  the  early  kings  and  princes 
among  the  Greeks,  the  chiefs  of  particular  tribes  (§  34),  rather  than  according 
to  iin>re  modern  ideas  of  an  unlimited  authority.  The  essential  prerogatives  of 
the  Roman  kings  were  the  control  of  the  religious  worship,  the  superintendence 
of  the  legislation  and  of  judicial  decisions,  and  the  assembling  of  the  senate  and 
the  people;  vet  even  in  the  exercise  of  these  prerogatives,  they  were  in  most 
cases  much  restrained  by  the  part  which  the  senate  and  the  people  had  in  the 
public  concerns. 

1  u.  The  ensigns  of  regal  dignity  were  borrowed  from  the  Etrurians,  and  consisted 
of  a  golden  crown,  a  chair  (sella)  of  ivory,  or  highly  ornamented  with  ivory,  a  scepter 

e  material,  with  an  eagle  on  its  extremity,  a  white  robe  (toga)wiih  purple 

embroidery  or  borderings,  &,c.  a  body  of  twelve  attendants (lictores),  who  went  before 
the  king,  carrying  each  a  bundle  of  rods  [fasces)  with  an  ax  (securis)  in  the  middle. 

In  our  Plate  XXXI.  fig.  I.  is  a  cut  representing  the  securis  hound  up  in  the  fusees.  The  fasces 
are  often  represented  on  the  consular  coins. — Fig.  3,  is  a  group  of  royal  scepters,  drawn  from 
Egyptian  monuments;  showing  various  forms  and  ornaments  at  the  extremity.  Cf.  Plate  XI. 
fig,  I,  and  fig,  :i.  where  Bceplers  are  seen  iii  the  hands  of  Jupiter  and  Juno. 

2  u.  Thi  timi  .  during  which  the  regal  form  is  said  to  have  continued,  is  too  long  for 
the  pi  u-  of  only  seven  kings,  which  is  the  number  specified  in  the  traditions 
fespeciing  ihis  period.  But  it  must  be  remarked  that  the  whole'  of  the  early  Roman 
history  is  at  leasl  uncertain,  and  is  by  some  considered  as  purely  fabulous.  Cf.  P.  V.  J  510. 

>  241.  On  the  abolition  of  monarchy  the  constitution  became  aristocratical. 
Two  magistrates  were  annually  chosen,  with  the  authority  and  influence  which 
the  kings  had  possessed,  and  called  Consuls  (comities).  No  particular  age  was 
originally  requisite  for  this  office,  but  a  law  (lex  annalis)  was  enacted  180  B.  C, 
that  it  should  be  held  by  no  person  under  forty-three.  Those,  who  sought 
the  office,  were  called  candidati,  from  their  peculiarly  white  shining  robe  (toga 
Candida).  The  election  took  place,  in  the  assembly  of  the  people,  voting  by 
Centuries,  usually  towards  the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August.  From 
that  time  until  January  of  the  following  year,  the  person  chosen  was  called  con- 
sul designatus,  and  then  he  entered  upon  his  office  under  many  solemnities*. 
The  two  consuls  had  equal  power.  At  first,  both  were  chosen  from  the  patri 
cians  ;  afterwards,  however,  one  was  often  taken,  and  sometimes  both,  from  the 
plebt  ians. 

1  u.  Their  badges  of  office  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  kings,  ( xcepting  the  golden 
•  rown.  and  thi  robe  with  purple  ornaments;  the  latter  was  allowed  them  on  certain 
public  solemnities,  as  e.  g.  a  triumph. 

2  k.  Tht  dutit  s  ol  tin  roii-uls  consisted  in  taking  the  auspices,  assembling  the  senate, 
irinsj  the  votes,  among  which  they  first  gave  their  own,  in  proposing  business  to 


P.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       PRAETORS.       jEDILES.  249 

the  senale  and  the  people,  fixing  the  comitia,  appointing  the  judges,  and  preparing  de- 
clarations of  war.  They  were  also  usually  commanders  of  the  army,  and  were  required 
to  attend  to  all  its  wants,  and  inform  the  senate  of  all  important  occurrences.  Alter 
completing  the  year'of  their  office  they  were  usually  proconsuls  or  governors  of  pro- 
vinces. The  power  of  the  consuls  was  gradually  diminished,  partly  by  the  institution 
of  the  office  of  dictator  and  tribunes,  and  partly  by  the  law  which  authorized  appeals 
from  the  decisions  of  the  consuls  to  the  people.  Under  the  emperors  nothing  more 
than  the  mere  name  remained ;  they  were  merely  the  agents  to  execute  the  imperial 
will,  to  whom  a  few  privileges  were  secured.  In  the  later  ages  also,  their  number  was 
increased,   and  the  term  of  continuance  very  short.     The  office  was  preserved  until 

A.  D.  541  (after  the  overthrow  of  the  western  empire,  cf.  P.  I.  §  214.  6),  when  it  was 
conferred  upon  the  reigning  emperor  for  life. 

§  242.  The  issue  of  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  B.  C  48,  between  Pompey  and  Caear, 
prepared  the  way  for  introducing  the  imperial  government;  which  was  established  in 
the  hands  of  Augustus  by  the  issue  of  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.  C.  31.  The  government 
now  became  in  fact,  a  military  monarchy  ;  although  the  first  emperors  adhered,  in  form, 
to  the  old  usages  and  customs  in  a  great  degree.  But  under  Tiberius,  the  immediate 
successor  of  Augustus,  the  real  nature  of  the  change  began  plainly  to  appear,  and  under 
succeeding  emperors  became  more  and  more  obvious.  As  the  emperors  concentrated 
in  their  own  persons  many  of  the  offices  of  the  state,  and  various  new  offices  were 
created  for  adherents  and  partizans,  the  whole  system  of  government  was  at  length 
turned  into  a  grand  scheme  for  individual  aggrandizement  and  luxury. 

De  la  Bletterie,  on  the  Roman  Government  under  the  Emperors,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  [nscr.  vol.  xix.  357,  and  xxi.  299  power  ol 
Emperors;  vol.  xxiv.  261,  power  of  Consuls;  vol.  xv.  392,  of  Tribunes;  xxvii.  438,  of  Senate.— Guttling,  Geschichte  der  Rorn. 
Staatsverfassung.    Halle,  1840. 

§  243.  Praetor  was  in  early  times  the  name  for  any  magistrate,  signifyino 
merely  an  overseer,  superintendant,  or  leader  (from  pracire).     But,  in  the  yeat 

B.  C.  365,  the  name  was  appropriated  to  an  officer  appointed  to  attend  to  the 
administration  of  justice.  The  Praetor  was  at  first  chosen  from  patricians, 
when  the  consulship  was  communicated  to  the  plebeians.  Two  Praetors  were 
chosen  after  the  year  B.  C.  243,  one  to  attend  to  the  business  of  the  citizens 
(Prastor  urbanus),  the  other  the  business  of  strangers  (Praetor  peregrinus). 
Afterward  there  were  four  Praetors,  and  six,  then  ten,  fourteen,  sixteen,  and  even 
eighteen,  until  Augustus,  it  seems,  limited  the  number  to  twelve. 

1  u.  The  dignity  of  the  city-Praetor  was  next  to  that  of  Consul,  and  his  principal 
business  was  holding  courts  of  justice  in  the  Tribunal  (in  or  pro  tribuziali),  a  buildin» 
appropriated  to  the  purpose  in  the  Forum  (§  261).  The  Praetor  on  entering  upon  hia 
office,  always  published  a  statement  of  the  rules  and  principles  by  which  he  should  be 
guided  in  his  trials  and  decisions;  this  was  called  his  edict  (edict um  Prcetoris).  The 
usual  form  in  giving  his  decisions  was  do,  dico,  addico. — In  the  absence  of  the  Consul, 
the  city-Praetor  took  his  place :  he  could  also  call  meetings  of  the  senate  and  hold  Co- 
mitia ;  he  had  the  care  also  of  some  of  the  great  public  games. — The  insignia  of  the 
Praetor  were  the  toga  pratexta,  a  sword  and  a  spear  (gladius  et  kasta),  and  an  atten- 
dance of  six  lictors.  In  the  provinces  the  Propraetors  had  similar  rank  and  authority, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Proconsuls  took  the  place  of  Consuls. 

2.  Besides  the  general  edict  above  mentioned,  the  Praetor  published  particular 
edicts  from  time  to  time.  Such  as  he  copied  from  those  of  his  predecessors  were 
termed  tralalitia;  those  framed  by  himself,  nova.  An  edict  published  at  Rome, 
edictum  urbanum;  in  a  province,  provinciate;  sometimes  named  from  the  province,  as 
edictum  Sicilie?ise.  Other  magistrates  (honorati)  published  edicts  also.  The  law  de- 
rived from  all  the  various  edicts  was  termed  jus  honorarium;  this  term  or  phrase,  in 
later  times,  was  applied  to  a  collection  of  Praetor's  edicts  regularly  arranged  by  order 
of  the  emperor  Hadrian  ;  the  same  was  also  called  edictum  perpetuum. 

Bouchard,  Sur  tes  Edits  des  magistrats  Romains,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxix.  279,  edicts  of  Consuls ;  vol.  xli.  p.  1.  of  Praetors 
xlii.  149,  of  JEdiles;  xlv.  439,  of  Prefects.— D.  E.  Schiader,  Die  PrMorischen  Edicte.  Weim.  1 815. —  Rein,  Das  Romische  Privat 
recht,  &c.    Leipz.  1836. 

§  244.  JEdiles  were  the  magistrates,  whose  principal  duty  was  the  care  of  the 
buildings  (ase/es).  They  were  of  two  classes,  pkbeii  and  curules,  two  of  each. 
The  former  were  created  first,  B.  C.  493;  the  latter,  B.  C.  266.  At  a  later 
period,  Julius  Caesar  added  two  others,  called  Cereales  who  had  the  oversight 
■>f  the  stores  of  grain  and  provision.  In  the  Roman  provinces,  also,  there  were 
Ediles  whose  office  was  usually  but  for  a  year. — The  office  seems  to  have  con- 
tinued until  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

1  u.  The  JEdiles  Plebeii  had  originally  the  care  of  the  public  and  Drivate  buildings , 
and  were  required  to  make  arrangements  for  the  public  games,  see  .o  tne  nrrsrp'au.'u 

20 


£50  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

of  the  public  roads,  regulate  the  markets,  prove  the  justness  of  weights  an!  measures, 
rind  in  .-hurl  attend  to  the  police  of  the  city. 

2  u.  1  hi-  JEdiles  CuruUt  were  distinguished  from  them  by  the  toga  preetexta,  and 
tin-  .«»//<;  eurulis,  Tiny  were  at  first  taken  solely  from  the  patricians,  but  afterwards 
also  from  the  pi  ople.  Their  chief  care  was  of  the  great  public  games.  They  had  also 
the  oversight  of  the  temples,  except  that  of  Ceres,  which  always  belonged  to  the 
£diles,  with  whom  the  Curules  probably  shared,  without  distinction,  the 
business  oi  the  police. 

For  the  hiilory,  dulies,  *c  of  the  iEdiles,  lee  Schubert,  De  Romanorum  .Sdilibui.   Regiom.  1828.  8. 

15.  Of  the  Tribunes  there  were  different  kinds.  The  Tribunes  of  the 
people  (tribuni  plebis)  were  the  most  remarkable.  The  office  originated  from 
the  <_"  ih  nil  disaffection  and  secession  of  the  plebeians,  B.  C.  493.  The  number 
was  first  two,  then  five,  finally  ten.  One  of  them  always  presided  at  the  Com- 
iti;i  for  electing  tribunes.  Their  proper  object  was  the  protection  of  the  people 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Senate  and  Consuls.  In  order  to  obtain  this 
affice,  patricians  allowed  themselves  to  be  adopted  into  plebeian  families.  In 
the  earliest  times,  the  tribunes  could  not  enter  the  Senate,  but  had  their  seats 
before  the  door  of  the  Senate-room,  where  they  heard  all  the  deliberations,  and 
could  hinder  the  passage  of  any  decree  by  the  single  word  veto.  By  the  Atinian 
law,  B.  C.  131,  it  was  decreed  that  the  Tribunes  should  be  of  the  rank  of  Sena- 
tors. Their  power  and  influence  constantly  increased,  although  it  was  confined 
to  the  city  and  the  circuit  of  a  mile  around  it,  beyond  which  they  could  not  be 
absent  over  night. 

1  u.  The  Tribunes  had  no  lictors,  nor  any  insignia  of  office,  except  a  kind  of  beadles 
called  viatores,  who  went  before  them.  Their  persons  were  regarded  as  inviolable. 
Sylla  abridged  their  power;  he  took  from  them  the  right,  which  they  had  exercised,  of 
assembling  the  people  by  tribes,  and  thereby  passing  enactments  (plebiscitu)  binding 
upon  the  whole  nation,  and  left  them  only  the  power  of  their  negative  or  intercession 
[intercedere).  Their  authority,  however,  was  afterwards  elevated  again,  but  under 
Julius  Caesar  it  was  small ;  it  became  still  more  insignificant  under  the  emperors  (cf. 
J  24'2),  who  appropriated  to  themselves  the  tribunitial  power,  so  that  the  tribunes  an- 
nually elected  had  but  merely  the  name  and  shadow  of  it.  The  office  was  abolished 
in  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

2.  The  office  of  the  Military  Tribunes  was  highly  important,  but  is  not  ranked  among  the 
permanent  offices.     Cf.  J  248. 

§  246.  The  Quaestors  were  among  the  earliest  magistrates  of  Rome,  first  ap- 
pointed by  the  kings,  then  by  the  consuls,  afterwards  by  the  people.  They 
were  charged  with  receiving  and  managing  the  revenues,  and  with  the  scrutiny 
of  certain  kinds  of  bloodshed.  Those  for  the  city  were  called  Quaeslnres  urbani ; 
those  for  the  provinces,  Quxstores  provinciates ;  and  those  for  the  examination  of 
capital  offences,  Quaestores  rerum  cnpitalium,  or  parricidii.  Originally  there 
were  hut  two,  afterwards  four,  and  then  eight;  Sylla  raised  the  number  to 
twenty,  and  Julius  Caesar  to  forty. 

1  u.  The  Quaestors  had  also  the  oversight  of  the  archives,  the  care  of  foreign  am- 
Dassadors,  the  charge  of  monuments,  presents  and  other  tokens  of  respect  publicly 
authorized,  and  the  preservation  of  the  treasures  acquired  in  war.  They  were  at  first 
taken  only  from  the  Patricians,  but  afterwards  partly  from  the  Plebeians. 

Under  the  emperors  there  was  a  kind  of  quaestors,  called  quo-stores  cavditlati,  who 
were,  properly  speaking,  nothing  more  than  imperial  messengers  or  secretaries,  and 
were  afterwards  called  juris  interpretes,  precum  arbitri,  &c,  from  their  employment. 
Stili  later  ibere  was  another  kind,  of  considerable  importance,  styled  Quastores  palatii, 
f.r  Magigtri  officiorum. 

2.  The  requisite  for  the  Quaestor  was  30,  or  at  least  25,  until  reduced  by  Au- 

riiMus  in  22.  The  office  was  one  of  the  first  steps  to  preferment  in  the  commonwealth, 
although  sometimes  held  by  those  who  had  been  Consuls. 

rb*liixll,  de  (luaiiur*  obeund*  tempore  legitime*,  in  his  Prselut.  Acad.  p.  36"2,  ai  cited  P.  V.  §  542.  7.- Walter,  Gwchichle  Je. 
t'tii  Rrrhli. 

§  247.  The  office  of  the  Censors  (Censores)  was  established  at  an  early  period, 
H.  C.  442.  There  were  two  at  a  time,  holding  their  office  originally  for  five 
years,  bnt  afterwards  only  a  year  and  a  half.  Their  duties  were  various;  the 
following  were  some  of  the  principal ;  to  take  the  census  of  the  people,  an  ac 
•  urate  account  of  the  age,  property,  and  descent  of  each  head  of  a  family,  to 
divide  the  people  into  their  tribes  and  rectify  existing  errors  in  the  distribution. 


P.1II.  CIVtL    AFFAIRS.       MAGISTRATES.  251 

to  decide  the  taxes  of  each  person,  to  enroll  those  who  were  obligated  to  military 
service,  to  make  account  of  the  revenues  in  the  provinces,  to  inspect  the  morals 
of  the  citizens,  to  superintend  the  leasing  of  public  lands,  to  attend  to  contracts 
respecting  public  works,  such  as  streets,  bridges,  aqueducts  and  the  like. 

]  u.  The  censors  were  authorized  to  inflict  marks  of  disgrace  (nolo  censoria,  ignominia), 
from  any  evidence  and  for  any  cause,  which  appeared  to  them  suitable.  The  luxury 
of  the  Romans,  which  in  later  times  became  so  excessive,  was  considerably  restrained 
by  the  censors.  In  order  to  escape  the  censorial  rebukes  or  punishments,  the  office 
seems  to  have  been  left  vacant  for  some  time. 

2.  The  censorial  power  was,  however,  vested  in  Julius  Caesar,  first  with  the  title  of 
Prafectus  morinn,  afterward,  for  lite,  with  the  title  of  Censor.  Augustus  also  assumed 
the  power,  although  lie  declined  the  title.  The  same  was  done  by  several  of  his  suc- 
cessors down  to  the  time  of  Decius,  A.  D.  250,  when  the  corruption  of  morals  was 
too  great  to  allow  any  magistracy  or  power  of  the  kind. 

De  Valm,  On  the  Roman  Censors,  in  the  Man.  Acad.  Inter,  vol.  i.  p.  63.— tfieLuhr's  Hist,  of  Rome,  vol.  ii.  p.  296,  ed.  Phil.  1S3S. 

§  248.  The  Roman  magistrates  were  variously  divided.  A  common  division  was 
into  ordinary  and  extraordinary  {Magistratus  Ordinarii  and  Extraordinarii).  The 
chief  of  the  former  have  been  noticed  :  Consuls,  Praetors,  ^Ediles,  Tribunes  of  the 
people,  Quasstors,  and  Censors. — The  chief  of  the  extraordinary  magistrates  (whose 
office  was  not  permanent,  but  occasional,  being  necessary  only  in  particular  circum- 
stances) were  the  following;  Dictator,  Decemvirs,  Military  Tribunes,  Praelect  of  the 
City,  and  Interrex. 

1  u.  The  first  Dictator  was  created  on  occasion  of  the  same  sedition  or  insurrection 
which  occasioned  the  appointment  of  tribunes  of  the  people  (§  245);  and  similar  dis- 
turbances, difficult  wars,  and  other  important  emergencies  occasioned  the  appointment 
of  the  subsequent  Dictators.  Sometimes  they  were  appointed  lor  less  important  reasons, 
e.  g.  for  regulating  the  public  games  and  sports  in  the  sickness  of  the  Praetor,  not  by 
the  people,  but  by  one  of  the  Consuls.  The  Dictator  was  indeed  always  appointed  by 
the  consul  by  order  of  the  people  or  senate,  and  must  be  a  man  of  consular  rank.  The 
power  of  the  Dictator  was  very  great,  in  some  respects  supreme.  War  and  peace,  and  the 
decision  of  the  most  important  affairs,  depended  on  him.  Citizens,  who  were  condemned 
to  death  by  him,  could  appeal  to  the  people  (cf.  Liv.  viii.  33).  The  power  and  office  of 
the  Dictator  was  limited  to  six  months.  He  could  not  appropriate  without  consent  of 
the  senate  or  people  any  of  the  public  money.  As  commander  of  the  army,  he  was 
confined  to  the  limits  of  Italy.  No  one  ever  abused  the  power  of  this  office  so  much 
as  Cornelius  Sylla.  Caesar  by  this  office  opened  his  way  to  absolute  power,  and  after 
his  death  the  dictatorship  was  abolished.  It  was.  however,  offered  to  Augustus,  who 
refused  the  odious  name  or  title,  although  he  exercised  all  the  power. 

2.  Plutarch  and  Polybius  state  that  the  Dictator  was  attended  by  twenty-four  lictnrs  ;  but  in 
the  epitome  of  die  89th  hook  of  Livy,  Sylla  is  said  to  have  Unwarrantably  assumed  (Ins  number 
(fCenvett,  p.  123).  The  Dictator  appointed  (usually  froin  among  those  of  consular  or  pranorian 
dignity)  an  officer,  styled  Magister  equitum,  whose  business  was  to  command  the  cavalry,  and 
execute  the  orders  of  the  Dictator  ;  but  this  officer  was  so:;ietimes  appointed  by  the  senate,  or 
the  people  ;  he  was  allowed  the  use  of  a  horse,  but  the  Dictator  could  not  ride  without  the  order 
of  the  people. — Sometimes  a  Consul,  or  other  existing  magistrate,  was  invested  with  the  power 
of  Dictator,  by  decree  of  the  senate  (ne  quid dctrimenti  capiat  respublica). 

3  u.  The  discontent  of  the  people  under  the  use,  which  the  Consuls  made  of  their 
power,  led  to  the  creation  of  a  new  office  in  the  year  B.  C.  451,  that  of  the  Decemviri, 
with  consular  authority  {decemviri  consular!  pot  estate,  s.  legibus  ferendis).  They  were 
appointed  for  the  special  purpose  of  forming  a  code  of  laws.  This  gave  rise  to  the  laws 
of  the  twelve  tables  (cf.  i  265).  As  they  soon  began  to  abuse  their  great  power,  the 
office  was  abolished,  B.  C.  449,  and  that  of  Consul  restored. 

4  u.  From  the  same  cause  (the  popular  discontent)  originated  the  office  of  Military 
Tribunes  (tribuni  militum  consulari  potestate),  who,  in  the  year  B.  C.  445,  were  ap 
pointed  in  the  place  of  Consuls;  but  were  dismissed  after  three  months.  Originally 
they  were  six  in  number,  three  patricians  and  three  plebeians ;  afterwards  the  number 
varied,  sometimes  three,  sometimes  four,  six,  or  eight ;  sometimes  military  tribunes  and 
sometimes  consuls  were  elected,  as  the  plebeian  or  the  patrician  interests  prevailed, 
until  the  year  P>.  C.  366,  when  the  plebeians  were  quieted  by  the  choice  of  a  consul 
from  among  themselves. 

5  m.  The  Praefect  of  the  city  (Pr&fect 'us  urbi)was  the  officer  to  whom  the  Consuls  in 
their  absence,  especially  in  war,  intrusted  the  charge  of  the  police.  Under  the  emperora 
this  became  a  regular  and  permanent  office  of  great  influence. 

6.  The  Interrex  was  an  officer  created  to  hold  elections  when  there  was  no  consul  *i 
magistrate,  to  whom  it  properly  belonged.  The  name  was  drawn  from  the  title  of  the 
temporary  magistrate  appointed  by  the  senate,  when  there  was  a  vacancy  in  the 
throne  under  the  regal  government. 

§249.  Less  important  occasional  magistrates  were  the  following;  the  Prmfectui 
unnmce,  charged  with  the  procuring  and  distributing  of  grain,  in  cases  of  scarcity":    the 


252  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Duinquevtri  memarii,  whose  chief  business  was  to  reduce  public  expenses  (trinuendii 
-  sumlibus);  1I1*1  Quinqueviri  maris  turribusque  reficiendis,  to  see  to  repairs  in 
the  wuli-  and  fortifications  ;  the  Triumviri  eedibus  sacru  n Jim  /nlis,  to  repair  the  sacred 
buildinm;  Triumviri  monetales,  having  charge  of  the  mint;  Triumviri  noctumi,  to 
superintend  ihe  nightly  watch  ;  Duumviri  navales  {classis  ornanda  reficiendceque  causa).. 
,.r,  rig  the  fleet,  &c. — Some  of  these,  however,  were  not  magistrates 

they  were  chosen  from  among  the  most  respectable  men. 
The  servants  or  attendants  of  magistrates  were  called  in  general  apparitores;  under 
«-,  re  included  scribae.   notani,  actuarii,  accensi,  coactores,  preecones,  interpre- 
ters  lictores,  viatores,  &c — The  Carnifex  was  the  executioner  or  hangman. 

§  -250.     Besides   the  magistrates   which    have   been  named,   permanent  or 

-i  mil,  there  were  various  others  whose  authority  pertained  to  the  provinces 

>i    Rome,   puovincial  magistrates.     These  were  in  part  such  as  have  been 

nami  d.   Among  them  were  the  proconsuls,  propraetors,  proquaestors,  the  legates, 

conquisitors,  &c. 

Proconsuls  were  either  (1)  such  as  being  consuls  had  their  office  prolonged  beyond 

the  time  fixed  by  law  ;  or  (2)  such  as  were  raised  from  a  private  station  to  govern  some 

e  or  to  command  in  war;  orp)  such  as  having  been  consuls  went,  immediately 

,  ih<  1'  nil  i  xpiration  of  their  consulship,  into  provinces  assigned  to  their  charge  under 
the  commonwealth;  or  (4)  such  as  were  appointed  governors  of  the  provinces  under 
th<  empire;  as  all  these  were  called  proconsuls.  But  the  name  and  dignity  properly 
iged  to  the  third  of  these  classes. — The  senate  decided  from  year  to  year  what 
provinces  should  be  consular;  and  then  the  consuls,  while  only  designate  {cL  $241),  agreed 
i,v  lol  whuh  ot  them  each  should  take  on  the  expiration  of  his  consulship.  A  vote  of 
•  ople  afterwards  conferred  on  them  the  military  command  in  their  provinces.  Their 
departure  to  their  provinces  and  return  to  the  city  was  often  attended  with  great  pomp. 
Tin  v  enjoyed  very  absolute  authority  both  civil  and  military,  but  it  was  limited  to  a 
year,  and  they  were  liable  to  a  rigid  trial  on  their  return ;  the  offences  most  commonly 
charged  were  (1)  crimen  peculates,  ill  use  of  the  public  money,  (2)majestatis,  treachery 
"i  assumption  of  powers  belonging  to  the  senate  or  people,  and  (3)  repetundarum,  ex 
tortion  or  oppression  towards  the  inhabitants. 

The  Propralors  were  such  as,  after  their  praetorship,  received  provinces,  in  which 
lor  a  year  they  had  supreme  command,  usually  both  civil  and  military.  Their  creation, 
administration,  and  responsibility  were  similar  to  those  of  the  Pr  consuls;  only  they 
bad  but  six  lictors  instead  of  twelve,  and  the  praetorian  provinces  were  usually  smaller 

than  the  consular  ;  cf.  §  260.  3.  (4). The  Legal i  were  the  chief  assistants  of  the  Pro- 

tls  and  Propraetors.  The  number  depended  on  the  rank  of  the  chief  officer,  and 
the  circumstances  of  the  provinces.  They  at  length  obtained  important  authority  as 
military  commanders. One  Quastor  or  more  attended  each  Proconsul  or  Proprae- 
tor. His  business  was  to  superintend  the  public  accounts,  and  the  supplies  of  the 
army.  Proquaestors  were  such  as  the  chief  officer  appointed  temporarily,  on  the  ab- 
or  death  of  the  provincial  Quaestor  (cf.  v>  246).     The  duties  of  the  Quaestor  were 

led  under  the  emperors  to  the  otficerstyled  Procurator  Ccssaris. The  conqui- 

giiores  were  interior  officers  not  properly  civil,  who  were  employed  to  raise  soldiers, 
and  by  force  if  necessary. 

§  251.  We  may  notice  here  the  division  or  classification  of  ihe  people,  which 
had  throughout  an  important  influence  on  the  government. — At  the  beginning, 
Romulus  divided  the  city  itself  and  the  whole  people  into  three  tribes,  and  each 
of  thes<-  into  ten  Curias,  The  tribes  were  the  Rhamnensis,  consisting  of  native 
Romans,  thf  Tatiensis,  of  Sabir.es.  and  the  iribus  Lucerum,  of  all  other  foreigners. 
— Servius  Tullius  altered  this  division  and  made  thirty  tribes,  4  of  the  city 
(Iribus  urbanas),  and  2G  for  the  territories  (tribus  rusticae).  The  latter  at  length 
gained  the  precedency  of  the  former,  and  were  considered  as  more  honorable. 
Five  tribes  were  added  at  a  later  period ;  and  also  others,  which  were  not 
permanent. 

The  four  city  tribes  were  Suburana  or  Snccusana,  Esqnilina,  Collina,  Pal.-itina;  the  rustic 
tribei,  Rmnilia,  Lemonia,  Pup'ina,  Galeria,  Pnllia,  Vollinia,  Claudia,  JSmilia,  Cornelia,  Fabia, 
Hnratia,  Menenia,  Papiria,  Sergia,  Veturia,  Crustumina ;  these  belonged  to  the  proper  Uoimin 
territorj  ;  in  addition  there  were  tin'  Etrurian  tribes,  Vejentina,  Stelliitina,  Tromentina,  Saba- 
tina,  irniensia,  Pnmplina,  Publilia  or  Papilia,  Mcecia,  Scaptia,  Ufentina,  Falerina;  and  the 
/'/<-,  \nlenels,  Terentina,  Velina,  Quirina;  making  thirty-one. 

floitin,  On  it..  Ibe item.  Jcod.  buer.  vol   i.  72.— 0.  C.  T.  Fmnchc,  De  Tribuum  Curhrum,  tlqns  Centuriarum 

Hallow-.    ScblMwr.  1824.—  Rapading  the  building!  termed  Curta,cf.  P.  L§  61. 

I,  Si  rvius  Tullius  also  divided  the  Roman  citizens,  for  the  sake  of  an 
equitable  distribution  of  the  public  burdens,  into  six  classes  according  to  pro- 
oeily     These  classes  were  subdivided  into  centuries  amounting  in  all  to  193     In 


J».  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       PATRICIANS.     PLEBEIANS.  253 

order  to  preserve  this  distribution,  an  ordinance  was  established  requiring  the 
census  and  valuation  to  be  taken  every  five  years  (cf.  §  247). 

"  The  first  class  consisted  of  those  whose  estates  in  lands  and  effects  were  worth  at 
least  100,000  asses,  or  pounds  of  brass;  or  10,000  drachma  according  to  the  Greek 
way  c  f  computing  ;  which  sum  is  commonly  reckoned  equal  to  £222,  18s.  4d.  sterling  ; 
but  if  we  suppose  each  pound  of  brass  to  contain  24  asses,  as  was  the  case  afterwards, 
it  will  amount  to  £7750.  This  first  class  was  subdivided  into  eighty  centuries  or  com- 
panies of  foot,  forty  of  young  men  {junior um),  from  seventeen  to  forty-six  years  of  age, 
who  were  obliged  to  take  the  field  {ut  foris  bella  gererent),  and  forty  of  old  men  (se- 
niorum),  who  should  guard  the  city  (ad  urbis  custodiam  ut  prmsto  essent).  To  these 
were  added  eighteen  centuries  oi  Equites,  who  fought  on  horseback;  in  all  ninety- 
eight  centuries. —  The  second  class  consisted  of  twenty  centuries,  ten  of  young  men, 
and  ten  of  old,  whose  estates  were  worth  at  least  75,000  asses.  To  these  were  added 
two  centuries  of  artificers  (fibrum),  carpenters,  smiths,  &c.  to  manage  the  engines  of 
war. — The  third  class  likewise  contained  twenty  centuries;  their  estate  was  50,000 
asses. — The  fourth  class  likewise  contained  twenty  centuries;  their  estate  was  25.000 
asses.  To  these  Dionysius  adds  two  centuries  of  trumpeters  (vii.  59). — The  filth  class 
was  divided  into  thirty  centuries;  their  estate  was  11,000  asses,  but  according  to  Dio- 
nysius 12,500. — The  sixth  class  comprehended  all  those  who  either  had  no  estates,  or 
were  not  worth  so  much  as  those  of  the  fifth  class.  The  number  of  them  was  so  great 
as  to  exceed  that  of  any  of  the  other  classes  ;  ye;  they  were  reckoned  as  but  one  century. 
— Thus  the  number  of  centuries  in  all  the  classes  was,  according  to  Dionysius,  193. 

Each  class  had  arms  peculiar  to  itself,  and  a  certain  place  in  the  army  according  to 
the  valuation  of  their  fortunes. — Those  of  the  first  class  were  called  Classici;  all  the. 
rest  were  said  to  be  Infra  Classem;  hence  classici  auctores,  for  the  most  approved 
authors  (A.  Gell.  vii.  13.  xix.  8). 

By  this  arrangement  the  chief  power  was  vested  in  the  richest  citizens  who  com- 
posed the  first  class,  which,  although  least  in  number,  consisted  of  more  centuries 
than  all  the  rest  put  together;  but  they  likewise  bore  the  charges  of  peace  and  war  (rnimia 
pads  el  belli)  in  proportion.  For  as  the  votes  of  the  Comitia,  so  likewise  the  quota  of 
eoldiers  and  taxes,  depended  on  the  number  of  centuries.  Accordingly  the  first  class, 
which  consisted  of  ninety-eight,  or,  according  to  Livy,  of  one  hundred  centuries, 
furnished  more  men  and  money  to  the  public  service  than  all  the  rest  of  the  state 
besides.  But  they  had  likewise  the  chief  influence  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people  by 
centuries.  For  the  Equites  and  the  centuries  of  this  class  were  called  first  to  give 
their  votes,  and  if  (hey  were  unanimous  the  matter  was  determined  ;  but  if  not,  then 
the  centuries  of  the  next  class  were  called,  and  so  on.  till  a  majority  of  centuries  had 
voted  the  same  thing.  And  it  hnnlly  ever  happened  that  they  came  to  the  lowest 
{Liv.  i.  43.  Dio?n/s.  vii.  59)."     {Adam.) 

Huschke.  Die  Verfassuna  flea  Senilis  Tullius.  Leipz  1838.— Zumpt,  Ueher  die  Atatinimung  des  ROm.Volkes  in  Centuriat  Comitiea. 
—Unterholznrr,  [>  Muiata  Centuri  •tnrum  Comit  a  Ser».  'full   Re?,  instituiorum  Ratione.    Brest.  1835. 

§  253.  Another  division  of  the  Romans,  existing  from  the  earliest  times,  was 
into  Patricians  and  Plebeians,  according  to  family  descent.  The  Patricians 
were  the  descendants  of  the  Senators  appointed  by  Romulus,  the  Fathers,  Patres, 
of  whom  he  selected  three  from  each  tribe,  and  three  from  each  curia,  making 
ninety-nine;  to  these  he  added  a  man  of  distinguished  merit,  so  that  the  Senate 
originally  consisted  of  100  members.  Afterwards  the  Sabini  were  admitted 
into  it,  and  the  number  was  doubled.  Tarquinius  Priscus  increased  this  num- 
ber by  a  third  hundred  from  the  Plebeians,  who  were  termed  Patres  minnrum 
gentium,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  original  Senators,  and  their  descendants 
were  called  Patricii  minorum  gentium. 

I  u.  The  word  populus  had  among  the  Romans  a  more  general  meaning  than  plebs; 
tne  former  signified  the  whole  body  of  the  Roman  people ;  the  latter,  a  particular  por- 
tion distinct  from  the  senators  and  the  knights,  and  called  also,  ordo  plebeius.  In  early 
times,  this  order  consisted  of  such  as  were  proprietors  of  land,  but  in  the  times  of  the 
republic  it  was  composed  mainly  of  the  lowest  class,  which  we  denominate  the  pvpulace. 

2.  There  is  some  disagreement  as  to  the  time  when  the  formal  distinction  between 
Patricians  and  the  Plebeians  really  commenced.  The  existence  of  Plebeians  in  the 
time  of  Romulus  is  implied  in  some  passages  of  ancient  authors  (cf.  Liv.  i.  8.  Dionyx. 
i.  8.  ii.  9).  But  Niebuhr  and  others  have  maintained  that  the  Plebeian  commonality 
arose  out  of  the  removing  to  Rome  of  the  citizens  of  Alba,  after  its  destruction  in  the 
reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius ;  that  before  that  time  the  Patricians  included  the  whole  body 
of  the  populus  Romanics;  that  in  the  time  of  Servius  the  Plebeians  were  established 
in  their  distinctive  character  as  free  hereditary  proprietors  ;  and  that  from  this  time  the 
Roman  nation  consisted  of  two  estates,  the  populus  or  body  of  burghers,  and  the  pltbs 
or  commonality. 

See  Niebuhr,  Hist,  of  Rome,  vol.  i.  p.  234,  309.  ed  Phil.  1835.— Rein,  .i.  Erich  und  Grtlber,  Encyciop.'  ne;  «nd  fSckmih.  ,d 
Smith's  Diet,  of  Aniiq.  p.  726,  765. 


254  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

§  254.  The  patricians  and  plebeians  were  from  the  beginning  greatly  at 
variance.  The  former  at  first  held  all  the  public  offices  exclusively.  The 
plebeians  gained  a  share  in  them  B.  C.  493,  as  has  been  already  mentioned 
(el'.  §  245).  After  this  the  patricians  often  allowed  themselves  to  be  adopted 
into  plebeian  families,  in  order  the  more  easily  to  secure  offices,  which  were 
common  to  both  ranks,  or  confined  to  plebeians,  as  was  the  office  of  tribunes. 
The  power  of  the  people  rose  to  a  great  height  during  the  time  of  the  republic, 
and  often  was  perverted  to  the  greatest  abuses. 

1  a.  Intermarriage  between  the  two  classes  took,  place  first  B.  C.  445.  Previously 
to  intermarriages  the  only  mutual  relation  was  that  of  patron  and  client ;  in  which  the 
plebeian  made'iree  choice  of  some  patrician  as  his  guardian  and  patron,  and  this  pa- 
trician  in  turn  was  obligated  by  certain  duties  to  the  plebeian  as  his  client.  At  last 
ibis  relation  existed  chiefly  between  masters  and  f'reedmen. 

■_\  ft  was  esteemed  highly  honorable  for  a  Patrician  to  have  many  clients,  both 
hereditary  and  acquired  by  bis  own  merit.  The  duties  of  this  relation  (clientela)  were 
considered  as  ot  solemn  obligation.  Virgil  {JEn.  vi.  G05)  joins  the  crime  of  injuring  a 
client  with  that  of  abusing  a  parent  ;  the  client  on  the  other  hand  was  expected  to  serve 
his  patron,  even  with  life  in  an  extremity.  Amidst  all  the  dissensions  which  mark 
the  Roman  history,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  mutual  and  faithful  observance  of  these 
duties.  In  later  times  cities  and  nations  chose  as  patrons  distinguished  families  or 
individuals  at  Rome. 

§  255.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  Patrician  rank,  and  what 
was  called  Roman  nobility  {nobilitas  Romano),  The  latter  was  a  dignity  result- 
ing from  merit,  either  personal  or  derived  from  ancestors,  and  acquired  espe- 
cially by  holding  a  curule  office.  Patrician  descent  was  not  necessary  for  this, 
although  when  united  with  merit  it  heightened  the  nobility.  Such  as  acquired 
this  nobility  themselves,  were  styled  novi  homines. 

1  u.  One  of  the  principal  distinctions  of  those  possessing  this  nobility  {mobile s)  was 
the  jus  imaginum,  which  allowed  them  to  form  images  or  busts  in  painted  wax  of 
their  ancestors,  placing  them  in  cases  in  their  halls  {atria),  and  carrying  them  in  funeral 
processions  (cf.  $  340.  3),  and  at  other  solemnities.  The  right  was  sometimes  conferred 
asareward,  by  an  assembly  of  the  people,  and  received  with  public  thanks.  The  Roman 
history  is  filled  with  contests  between  the  old  and  the  new  nobility. 

2.  A  curule  office  was  one  which  entitled  the  person  holding  it  to  use  the  sella  curulis 
or  chair  of  state.  Such  was  the  office  of  dictator,  consul,  praetor,  censor,  and  curule  aedile. 

The  chair  was  composed  of  ivory,  or  at  least  highly  adorned  with  it,  commonly  being  a  sort 
of  '-stool  without  a  hack,  with  four  crooked  feet,  fivt-d  to  the  extremities  of  cross-pieces,  joined 
by  a  common  axis,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  the  letter  X,  and  covered  with  leather  ;  so  that  it 
might  be  folded  together,"  and  thus  easily  carried  by  the  magistrate  in  "lis  chariot ;  hence  the 
epithet  curulis  \.inl  (/ill.  iii.  18.)  In  our  Plate  XXXI.  fig.  9  is  a  representation  of  one  an- 
swerini;  the  above  description.  But  the  sella  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  of  a  less  portable 
form  and  size,  a-;  seen  in  fig.  2  ot  this  plate.  These  two  figures  are  from  monuments  found,  the 
one  at  Pompeii,  the  other  at  Herculanetlm. — —The  chair  above  described  must  be  distinguished 
from  the  sella  portatoria,  or  cathedra  ;  this  was  a  sedan  in  which  a  person  sat  and  was  carried 
hv  Blaves,  in  the  manner  still  common  in  the  east.  They  were  used  by  private  persons  as  well 
as  rulers  and  officers  They  were  very  frequent  in  the  time  of  Cesar.  (Suet.  Ctes.  43.  Claud.  28.) 
— Fis  10,  in  Plate  XXXI.  is  Iron,  an  Egyptian  monument,  and  serves  well  to  illustrate  the  sel- 
la portatoria.  Then'  are  four  bearers  ;  a  fifth  attendant  bears  a  staff  in  his  riL'ht  hand,  perhaps 
the  badge  of  his  office  as  conductor  of  the  palanquin.  A  sort  of  parasol  richly  embroidered  is 
Bt retched  behind  the  occupant  of  the  chair,  on  a  frame  for  the  purpose.  The  sedan  itself  is  of 
elegant  carved  work,  adorned  with  lotuses  and  other  devices. — The  magistrates  in  the  colonies 
and  municipal  towns  sat  on  public  occasions  in  a  large  chair  called  biseUium ;  two  of  these 
have  I n  found  at  Pompeii,  made  of  bronze,  inlaid  with  silver,  of  extraordinary  work- 
manship 

Borbonico,  cittil  P.  IV.  §  213.  vol.  ii.  lav.  31.  vi.  tav.  28.— Pompeii,  p.  265,  as  oiled  P.  IV.  §  226. 

§  256.  The  Equites  formed  a  distinct  body  of  high  rank  in  Rome  (nrdo  equesfer). 
They  were  originally  composed  of  100  young  men  taken  from  each  of  the  three 
trues,  thus  making  three  centuries  (300).  Their  number  was  greatly  increased 
by  the  kings,  so  that  therewere  eighteen  centuries  under  Servius  Tullius.  They 
became  at  length  a  distinct  order,  not  including  all  who  served  on  horseback, 
but  only  Bucll  as  were  chosen  into  the  rank.  In  the  year  124  B.  C,  the  order 
received  some  important  prerogatives,  being  chosen  to  act  as  judges,  and  to 
farm  the  revenues.  The  property  requisite  to  qualify  one  for  election  as  a  knight, 
at  this  period,  was  100  thousand  sesterces  (census  equester);  the  age  about 
eighteen;  nobility  of  descent  was  not  sufficient  to  secure  it.  The^CenSors 
wer;  intrusted  with  the  scrutiny,  and  they  presented  to  those  found  worth) ,  a 


PLATE    XXXI. 


256  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

norse  at  the  public  expense;  hence  the  phrase,  equo  publico  merere  The  ordei 
was  under  the  constant  supervision  of  the  Censors. 

1.  Plebeians  as  well  as  Patricians  were  eligible  to  this  order.  The  term  Muslret 
was  applied  to  those  descended1  from  ancient  tamilies.  The  number  of  equites  greatly 
increased  under  the  early  emperors.  Persons  were  admitted  into  the  order,  if  they 
posssssi  '1  the  requisite  property,  without  inquiry  into  their  character,  or  the  free 
birth  o\  their  father  and  grandfather. 

2  u.  The  knights  were  distinguished  by  a  golden  ring  {annulus  aureus)  or  rings,  and 
by  the  tunica  angusticlavia,  a  white  tunic  with  its  purple  stripe,  or  border,  narrower 
than  that  of  the  senators.  At  the  spectacles,  their  seat  was  next  to  the  senators,  who 
were  frequently  chosen  from  the  equestrians.  They  made  annually,  on  the  15th  ol 
July,  a  splendid  procession  {transvectio)  through  the  city  to  the  Capitol. 

Marquardi,  Hbloria  Equitum  Romanoruin.  Berl.  1940.— Zumpt,  Ueber  die  Ronuscheu  Rilter  und  den  Kitterstand  in  Rom.  Beri, 
1840.— Bybeniiu,  He  OrJ.  equettfi  Vet  Romanorum,  in  Salknsrc,  vol.  i.— P.  Burmann,  as  cited  §  338.  2. 

§  257.  The  Senate,  as  has  been  already  stated  (§  253),  originally  consisted 
of  100  members,  afterwards  of  '200,  and  finally,  before  the  regal  office  was 
abolished,  of  300.  Sylla  added  300  Equites,  raising  the  whole  number  to  600. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  republic,  the  number  was  as  great  as  1000.  Augustus 
reduced  it  to  600.  Under  his  successors  the  number  was  not  uniformly  the 
same. — The  Senators,  when  assembled  in  council,  were  called  Palres  Corner ipti. 
Their  election  was  at  first  made  by  the  kings,  next  by  the  consuls,  afterwards 
by  the  censors,  and  in  one  instance,  after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  by  a  Dictator. 
Under  the  emperors,  a  Triumvirate  was  sometimes  formed  to  attend  to  the 
election.  In  the  choice  of  senators,  regard  was  had  to  character,  property,  and 
age,  which  must  not  be  less  than  twenty-five. 

1  u.  The  Senators  were  distinguished  in  their  dress  particularly  by  two  things;  the 
tunica  laticlavia,  a  tunic  or  waistcoat  with  a  broad  stripe  of  purple  [latus  clavus)  at- 
tached to  it,  and  high  black  buskins {calcei  or  ncrem  nigri  coloris),  which  had  the  lettei 
C  marked  on  them.  At  public  spectacles  the  Senators  also  sat  in  the  foremost  part 
of  the  Orchestra. 

2  u.  The  Senate  was  assembled  by  the  Kings,  Consuls,  Dictators,  Praetors,  or 
Tribunes  of  the  people,  by  public  summons  (edictum),  or  by  means  of  a  herald.  In 
the  former  case  the  object  of  assembling  was  specified.  There  were,  besides,  certain 
days  fixed  for  regular  meetings  of  the  senate,  the  Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides  of  every 
month.  On  festivals  and  in  time  of  the  Comitia  when  the  whole  people  were  as- 
sembled, the  senate  could  not  meet.  Augustus  restricted  the  regular  meetings  to  the 
Calends  and  Ides.  The  place  of  assembling  was  not  exclusively  fixed,  but  it  must  be 
set  apart  and  consecrated  for  the  purpose  by  the  Augurs.  The  temples,  and  the  Ca- 
pitol amongst  them,  were  usually  selected,  excepting  always  the  Temple  of  Vesta. — 
The  number  of  members  necessary  {numt  rus  legitimus)  to  pass  a  decree  (Senatus 
consult  a  in)  was  100;  and,  from  the  year  B.  C.  (57,  200.  The  meetings  were  opened 
early  in  the  morning  and  continued  until  near  or  after  midday  ;  before  and  after  the 
light  of  the  sun  no  lawful  decree  could  be  enacted.  Sacrifices  were  always  offered 
and  the  auspices  taken  by  the  magistrate,  who  was  to  hold  the  senate,  before  entering 
the  place  of  meeting.  The  magistrate,  then,  Consul,  Praetor,  or  whoever  assembled 
the  senate,  proposed  the  business,  and  the  members  gave  their  opinions  usually  in  an 
established  order.  In  important  or  interesting  cases,  questions  were  decided  by  the 
Senators  separating  into  two  parts  (itio  in-partes).  The  emperors  had  the  right  of  pro- 
posing  questions  to  the  senate,  not  propeny,  but  at  first  only  by  special  permission. — 
A  distinction  was  made  between  a  decree  of  the  Senate,  Senatus  consultum,  and  a 
judgment  or  opinion,  Senatua  auctoritae;  the  latter  term  was  applied,  when  the  sen- 
tence was  less  decisive,  or  was  not  passed  without  some  person's  intercession  or  veto, 
or  was  attended  with  some  informality;  decrees  were  ratified  by  being  engrossed  or 
written  out,  and  lodged  in  the  treasury  {in  JErarium  condebantur)  in  the  place  of  public 
records (tnhularium),  in  the  temple  of  Saturn. 

3.  "  Although  the  supreme  power  at  Rome  belonged  to  the  people,  yet  they  seldom 
enacted  any  thing  without  the  authority  of  the  Senate.  In  all  weighty  affairs,  the 
method  usually  observed  was.  that  the  Senate  should  first  deliberate  and  decree,  and 
then  the  people  order.  But  there  were  many  things  of  great  importance  which  the 
Senate  always  determined  itself,  unless  when  they  were  brought  before  the  people 
by  the  intercessions  of  the  Tribunes.  This  right  the  Senate  seems  to  have  had,  not 
from  anv  express  law.  but  by  the  custom  of  their  ancestors. — 1.  The  Senate  assumed 
o  themselves  guardianship  of  the  public  religion  ;  so  that  no  new  god  could  be  intro- 
duced, nor  altar  erected,  nor  the  Sibylline  books  consulted,  without  their  order. — 
2.  The  Senate  had  the  direction  of  the  treasury,  and  distributed  the  public  money  at 
pleasure.  They  appointed  stipends  to  their  ircnerals  and  officers,  and  provisions  and 
ulo'.hing  for  their  armies. — 3.  They  settled  the  provinces,  which  were  annually  assigned 


P.  III.       CIVIL  AFFAIRS.       SENATE.     ASSEMBLIES  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  257 

to  the  Consuls  and  Pnetors;  and,  when  it  seemed  fit,  they  prolonged  their  command 
They  nominated  out  of  their  own  body  all  ambassadors  sent  from  Rome,  and  gavf 
to  foreign  ambassadors  what  answers  they  thought  proper. — 5.  They  decreed  all  public 
thanksgivings  for  victories  obtained  ;  and  conferred  the  honor  of  an  ovation  or  triumph, 
with  the  title  of  Imperator,  on  victorious  generals. — 6.  They  could  decree  the  title  of 
King  to  any  prince  whom  they  pleased,  and  declare  any  one  an  enemy  by  a  vote. — 
7.  They  inquired  into  public  crimes  or  treasons,  either  in  Rome  or  other  parts  of 
Italy,  and  heard  and  deiermined  all  the  disputes  among  the  allied  and  dependent  cities. 
— 8.  They  exercised  a  power,  not  only  of  interpreting  the  laws,  but  of  absolving  men 
from  the  obligation  of  them,  and  even  of  abrogating  them. — 9.  They  could  postpone  the 
assemblies  of  the  people,  and  prescribe  a  change  of  habit  to  the  city,  in  cases  of  any 
imminent  danger  or  calamity.  But  the  power  of  the  Senaie  was  chiefly  conspicuous 
in  civil  dissensions  or  dangerous  tumults  within  the  city,  in  which  that  solemn  decree, 
Ullimum  or  Exlremum,  used  to  be  passed  (cf.  §  248.  2),  That  the  cofistils  should  take 
care  that  the  republic  should  receive  no  harm."   {Adam.) 

C.  Middlelon,  Treatise  on  Rom.  Senate.  Lond.  1747.  8  Also  in  his  ItaetU.  Works.  Lond.  1755.  5  vols  S.— T.  Chapman, 
Essay  on  Ihe  Ron).  Senate.  Cambr.  1750.  8.— N.  Hooke,  Observations  on  the  Roman  Senate,  as  treated  by  Middleton,  Chapman,  ftc. 
Lond.  1758  8  —Spdman,  Dissertation,  fcc.  in  his  Trans,  of  Dionyt.  Hal.  cited  P.  V.  §  247.  4.— Bletterie.  as  cited  §  242.— IValtrr, 
Geschichte  des  Rom.  Rechts.— Bach,  Zrmmerin,  &c.  cited  P.  V.  §  571. 

§  258.  Assemblies  of  the  whole  Roman  people  were  termed  Comitia.  The 
word  comitium  originally  signified  the  place  of  assembling,  which  was  an 
open  space  in  the  Roman  forum,  in  front  of  the  court-house  of  Hostilius;  it  was 
afterwards  applied  to  the  assembly  itself,  consisting  of  three  ranks  or  orders  of 
the  Roman  people,  and  held  at  that  place,  or  the  Campus  Martins,  or  the 
Capitol.  Assemblies  of  one  or  two  orders  were  called  Concilia  ;  and  less  formal 
ones,  where  merely  notices  or  addresses  were  given  to  the  people,  and  nothing 
was  decided,  were  termed  Condones.  The  Comitia  were  appointed  only  by  the 
higher  magistrates,  a  Consul,. Dictator,  or,  in  the  Consul's  absence,  a  Praetor. 
The  most  important  subjects  were  considered  in  these  assemblies,  some  of  which 
have  been  already  mentioned  incidentally. 

§  259.  The  days  of  the  year,  on  which  such  assemblies  could  be  held,  184  in 
number,  were  called  dies  comitiales.  Romulus  established  the  Comitia  Curiata, 
in  which  the  votes  were  given  by  Curipe.  (§  251);  Servius  Tullius  the  Comitia 
Centuriata,  in  which  the  people  voted  by  centuries,  and  which  were  the  most 
important;  and  the  Tribunes,  B.  C.  491,  instituted  the  Comitia  Tributa,  in 
which  the  votes  were  given  by  tribes.  The  decrees  passed  at  the  last  mentioned 
were  termed  Plebiscite,  and  at  first  were  binding  only  on  the  plebeians. — The 
election  of  officers,  which  became  the  principal  business  of  the  Comitia,  was 
chiefly  made  at  the  Comitia  Centuriata.  These  were  held  in  the  Campus 
Martius,  where  more  than  50,000  persons  might  assemble. 

1  u.  The  consul  or  presiding  magistrate  at  the  Comitia  of  Centuries  occupied  an 
elevated  wooden  erection,  called  Tribunal.  There  were  193  small  slips  or  narrow 
passages  (pontes,  ponliculi)  raised  for  the  193  centuries  to  ascend  upon  as  they  went  to 
vote.  Both  these  and  the  tribunal  were  surrounded  by  a  balustrade,  forming  what 
was  called  the  Septa  or  Ovile.  Outside  of  this  the  people  stood  until  they  were  called 
in  {intra  vocals')  to  vote  century  by  century  through  the  six  successive  classes.  The 
order,  in  which  the  centuries  voted,  was  determined  by  lot  {sortitio),  the  names  being 
thrown  into  a  box  (sitella)  and  drawn  out  by  the  presiding  magistrate.  The  votes 
were  by  means  of  ballots  {tabellee),  which  were  given  to  each  citizen  by  persons  {diri- 
bitores)  standing  at  the  entrances  of  the  passages  just  named,  and  were  cast  by  the 
citizens  into  a  box  or  chest  (cista)  at  the  end  of  the  passage.  The  manner  of  voting 
was  the  same  in  the  case  of  elections,  of  enacting  laws,  and  of  passing  decrees  or 
judicial  sentences.  Only  persons  between  17  and  60  years  of  age  were  allowed 
to  vote. 

2.  "By  the  chests  were  placed  some  of  the  public  servants,  who,  taking  out  the 
tablets  of  every  century,  for  every  tablet  made  a  prick  or  point  (punctum)  in  another 
tablet,  which  they  kept  by  them.  Thus  the  business  being  decided  by  most  points 
gave  occasion  to  the  phrase,  Omne  tulit  punctum,  and  the  like."  (Kennetl.) — It  is  ob- 
vious, that  in  the  Comitia  Centuriata  the  mode  of  voting  must  give  the  higher  classes 
an  enure  preponderance  over  the  others. 

Respecting  the  Com  itia,  ace  Hiuchke,  Zitmpt,  &c.  cited  §  2i2  —Walter,  Geschichte  d.  Rom.  Rechts. Respecting  the  Cunpu 

Martius,  cf.  P.  I.  §  65.— G.  Piranesi,  Campus  Martius  antique  Urbis.     Rom.  1762.  fol. 

§  260.  The  rights  of  Roman  citizenship  included  several  important  privileges, 
especially  during  the  freedom  of  the  state.  The  life  and  property  of  a  citizen 
were  in  the  power  of  no  one  but  of  the  whole  people  appealed  to  thereon:  no 


258  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

magistrate  could  punish  him  by  stripes ;  he  had  a  full  right  over  his  property, 
liis  children,  and  his  dependents  ;  he  had  a  voice  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people 
and  in  the  election  of  magistrates ;  his  last  will  and  testament  had  full  authority 
after  his  death.  The  rio-ht  of  voting  was  the  most  valued  ;  full  citizenship  in- 
cluding this  could  be  bestowed  only  by  the  people;  citizenship  embracing  the 
other  rights  could  be  conferred  by  the  senate  also.  All  freedmen  and  their 
childrenVere  excluded  from  this  right,  which  is  what  was  properly  meant  by 
the  Jus  Quiritium. 

1  u.  Who.  ver  once  acquired  Roman  citizenship,  could  not  be  deprived  of  it,  even 
by  banishment ;  it  was  lost  only  by  voluntary  resignation  or  by  taking  a  foreign  alle- 
i  .  The  Jus  Quirilium  privatum,  conferred  on  the  colonies  and  municipal  towns, 
comprehended  in  it  fewer  or  less  important  privileges;  in  the  case  of  the  Latin  colonies 
it  was  called  Jus  Latiior  Latinitalis;  of  the  Italian,  Jus  Italicum.  Still  more  limited 
were  the  privileges  included  in  the  Jura  provinciarum  and  Jura  prafecturarum. 

2.  The  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen  have  been  divided  into  private  and  public;  both 
are  included  under  the  common  designation  Jus  Quiritium,  and  sometimes  under  that 
of  Jus  civiiatis;  and  someiimes  these  phrases  seem  to  be  limited  respectively  to  the 
rights  termed  private  or  public. — To  the  private,  belonged  the  following;  1.  Jus 
lilu  rtatis,  which  secured  to  each  the  control  of  his  person  ;  .  2.  Jus  gentis  et  families, 
which  secured  the  peculiar  privileges  of  his  descent ;  3.  Jus  patrium,  the  entire  control 
over  his  children;  1.  Jus  rfominii  legitimi,  the  possession  of  legal  property;  5.  Jus 
lestamenti  and  heereditatis,  the  righF  to  inherit  or  bequeath  property  by  will;  6.  Jus 
luti  Iif,  i  be  right  to  appoint  by  will  guardians  lor  his  wife  and  children.  To  the  public, 
belonged  the  following;  I.  Jus  census,  the  right  of  being  enrolled  by  the  censor; 
2.  Jus  milUicB,  none  but  citizens  being  enlisted  at  first,  a  restriciion  which  was  after- 
wards abolished  ;  3.  Jus  tributorum,  which  secured  to  the  citizen  taxation  proportioned 
to  his  wealth;  4.  Jus  suffrazii,  the  right  of  voting,  so  highly  valued  ;  5.  Jus  honorum, 
eligibility  to  public  offices,  a  right  originally  confined  to  patricians,  but  filially  extended 
to  plebeians  also  ;  (i.  Jus  sacrorum,  which  included  certain  rights  in  relation  to  religious 
worship. — Those  who  did  not  possess  the  rights  of  citizens  (cives)  were  generally 
termed  foreigners  (perrgrini)  wherever  they  resided. 

3.  This  is  a  proper  place  for  a  brief  view  of  the  rights  ana  privileges,  which  were 
allowed  by  the  Romans  to  the  cities  or  nations  conquered  by  them.  The  forms  of 
government  established  in  such  cases  may  be  divided  into  four. 

(1.)  The  Colonim  or  colonies  were  cities  or  tracts  of  country,  which  persons  from  Rome  were 
sent  to  inhabit.  These  persons,  although  mingling  with  the  conquered  natives  and  occupants, 
gained  the  whole  power  in  the  administration  of  affairs.  In  the  later  periods  of  the  republic 
and  under  the  emperors,  many  colonies  were  planted  with  soldiers,  who  had  served  out  their 
leeal  lime  (twenty  years,  in  the  foot,  or  ten  in  the  horse,  cf.  J  277),  and  who  after  thus  laboring 
for  their  country  were  permitted  to  receive  possessions  in  a  colony,  and  spend  their  age  in  ease 
and  plenty. — The  colonies  were  scattered  over  the  empire,  and  governed  by  laws  prescribed  to 
thrill  by  the  Romans. 

JViefcu/lr'.  Rome  (ed.  Phil.  1935),  vol.  ii  p.  32.— Frontimtl,  De  Coloniis.— Essay  in  Madvidgii  Opuscula  (Hauniae,  1834),  De 
Jure  si  Condilione  Coloniarum  Pop.  Romani.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Antiq.  p.  256. 

(2.)  The  Munieipia  were  cities,  which  enjoyed  the  richt  of  governing  themselves  by  their  own 
laws;  retaining,  if  they  chose  it,  such  as  were  in  use  before  their  subjection  to  the  Romans. 
They  were  in  some  respects  like  the  corporate  cities  of  our  country,  and  their  inhabitants  had 
the  name  and  some  of  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens.  Originally  confined  to  Italy,  they  were 
subsequently  formed  even  in  the  provinces.  The  colonist  and  munieipia  had  similar  magis- 
trates; the  Duumviri  were  the  chief  officers  ;  the  senators  were  called  Decuriones. 

Savigiiy.  Geschichte  des  Rom.  Rechls.—  Savigny,  Uebrr  das  Jus  Italicum,  in  the  Zeitschrift,  &c.  ?ol.  v.—  Smith,  Diet,  of  Anliq. 
p.  259.— Nubithr.  as  above  cited,  vol.  ii.  p.  37. 

(3.)  The  Prafeeturat  were  certain  towns  in  Italy,  whose  privileges  were  curtailed  for  offences 
against  the  Roman  government.  They  were  not  suffered  to  frame  their  own  laws  as  did  the 
munieipia,  nor  to  choose   ilieir  own    magistrates,  as  did   both  the  munieipia  and   the   colonite. 

They  were  governed  by  a  prefeel  sent   annually  from   Rome. All  the  other  cities  of  Italy, 

which  Hen-  mil  either  colonim,  munieipia,  or  pr&fectum,  were  called  civitatea  faderata,  enjoying 
their  own  riuiits  ami  customs,  and  joined  to  the  Romans  only  by  confederacy  or  alliance. 
Zurnpt,  iienrhied  der  Benennungeri  Municipium,  Colonia,  Fnefectura.    Berl   1S40  8. 

(4  )  The  Provincial  were  foreign   countries  of  larger  extent,  which,  when   conquered,  were 

r odeled    as  to  their  governments,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Romans.     They  were  compelled  to 

pa)  such  taxes  as  were  demanoed,  and  subjected  to  the  authority  of  governors  annually  sent 
out  from  Home      The  provinces  were  termed  Prsstorian  or  Proconsular  according  as  Prtetors  or 

Proconsuls  wire  governors  ;  provinces  belonging  to  the  emperors  were  governed  by  proprietors ; 
those  belonging  In  Hie  senate,  by  proconsuls  (cf  #250).  These  governors  were  often  tyrranni- 
cal  md  always  oppressive  j  ami  the  provincial  system  became  one  of  the  most  odious  features 

in  Hie  K an  ndmii.istral  Ion. 

For  llholmt i  Ibli  i clal  tyranny,  cf.  Cicero's  Orations  against  Verres. — Middlclon't  Life  of  Cicero,  vol.  i.  p.94,ascitec 

■>,  V    |  404    I. On  Hie  Roman  provinces,  cf.  C.  St'ffOnitU,  De  antiquo  Juie  Provinciarum.     Ven.  1568.  4.  contained  in  Grsvius, 

»ol.  II.— Burigny,  OH  0o«   "f  Rom    Provinces,  in  the  Man.  Acad.  Itucr.  XXVli.  64. On  the  general  subject  of  Roman  rights 

rtoller,  r.iv'nchtc  des  Romischen  Rechts.-  Zimmtrn,  cited  P.  V.  5  571— C.  6'igoniw,  De  Antiquo  Jure  Foputi  Poniaci  Sob 
IV4.  hi.     Also  iu  his  Opera  Omnia.    Media.  1737.  6  vols.  fol. 


P.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       JUDICIAL    PROCEEDINGS.  259 

§  261.  The  judicial  proceedings  of  the  Romans  included  trials  of  public  and 
private  cases,  criminal  and  civil.  The  former  involved  the  general  peace  and 
security;  the  latter,  the  claims  and  rights  of  individuals.  The  public  or  crimi- 
nal trials  (judicia  publica)  were  either  ordinary  or  extraordinary. — The  lattej 
were  such  as  belonged  not  to  any  regular  jurisdiction,  or  fixed  time  or  place, 
but  had  a  special  day  of  trial  assigned,  or  a  special  assembly  of  the  people  ap- 
pointed for  them.  Sometimes  the  people  selected  certain  persons,  as  a  sort  of 
commissioners  in  cases  of  this  kind  ;  such  were  the  Duumviri  perduc/lionis  or 
Qusesitores. — The  ordinary  public  trials  were  also  called  quuestiones  perpetuie, 
and  were  first  established  in  the  year  B.  C.  149,  for  the  most  common  state 
offences.  In  these  the  Praetor  presided  (cf.  §  243),  by  whom  assistant  judges 
(judices  assessores)  were  chosen  annually,  originally  from  the  senate,  then  from 
the  knights,  and  at  last  from  all  conditions-.  The  judges  were  divided  into 
several  decuriae,  from  which  the  requisite  number  of  them  were  taken  by  lot 
for  each  trial.     Under  the  emperors, the  judges  were  appointed  by  them. 

1  u.  In  all  public  trials  a  certain  order  of  proceeding  and  a  series  of  established  usages 
were  observed.  The  plaintiff  (actor,  accusator)  commonly  spoke  against  the  defendant 
(reus) ;  the  witnesses  were  then  heard  ;  the  opinion  of  the  judges  was  given  orally  or 
in  writing,  and  judgment  was  pronounced.  1  he  person  acquitted  could,  when  he  had 
ground  for  it,  bring  his  accuser  to  trial  for  slander  (calumnia) ;  the  person  condemned, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  punished  according  to  the  law. 

2.  Public  trials  of  a  capital  kind  were  held  before  the  Comitia  Ce?ituriala;  such  as 
involved  only  the  question  of  some  minor  punishment,  before  the  Comitia  Tributa. 
In  these  cases  some  magistrate  must  be  the  accuser.  Having  called  an  assembly,  he 
announced  that  on  a  certain  day  he  should  accuse  the  person  of  a  certain  crime  ;  doing 
this  was  expressed  by  the  phrase  dir.ere  diem;  the  person  named  must  procure  bonds- 
men (vades,  prcedes)  or  be  kept  in  custody  to  the  day  named  ;  on  that  day  the  ma- 
gistrate made  his  accusation,  which  was  repeated  three  times,  each  after  one  day  in- 
tervening;  then  a  bill  (rogatio),  including  the  charge  and  the  punishment  proposed, 
was  posted  up  for  three  market-days;  on  the  third  market-day,  the  accuser  again 
repeated  the  charge,  and  the  criminal  or  his  advocate  (advocatus,  putroni/s)  made  a 
defence  ;  after  which  the  Comitia  was  summoned,  for  a  certain  day,  to  decide  the  trial 
then  by  suffrages. 

On  the  judicial  affairs  of  the  Romans,  the  fullest  authority  is  C.  Sigonius,  tie  judiciis,  in  his  Opera  Omnia,  cited  %  260.  vol.  iii.  ; 
also  in  2d  vol.  of  Grievins.  cited  §  197.— Cf.  Beaufort,  Ripublique  Romaiue.  2d  vol.— Dunlop,  Rnm  Lit.  vol.  ii  p.  Ill,  as  cited  P.  V. 
e  299.  S.—H.  F  Salmon,  De  Judiciis  et  Pa-nis  Ronunorum,  in  Sallenp-e,  vol.  iii  —  Walter.  Geschiclite  des  Rnin.  Rechis.-G8(lnii», 
Geschi'-hte  der  Rom.  Staatsverfassung. — Tigerstrom,  De  Judicious  jpud  Romanos.  Rerl.  1&26.  "  Valuable  only  for  the  collec'iOL 
of  the  original  authorities." 

§262.  In  private  affairs,  the  accusation  was  commonly  called  petitio-,  the 
plaintiff  petitor,  and  the  defendant,  is  unde  petitur.  The  plaintiff  could  compel 
the  other  party  to  appear  at  court,  not  usually,  however,  without  calling  in  some 
one  as  witness  to  the  step  (antestatio).  If  the  defendant  chose  not  to  go,  he 
must  give  security  or  bail  (satisdare).  The  plaintiff  himself  stated  the  matter 
or  object  of  his  complaint  (causa);  if  the  defendant  denied  the  thing  charged,  it 
led  to  a  formal  trial  (actio). — There  were  two  principal  kinds  of  actions;  viz. : 
actioncs  in  personam,  which  related  to  the  fulfilment  of  obligations  ;  and  actiones 
in  rem,  which  related  to  the  recovery  of  property  in  possession  of  another.  The 
proceeding,  in  a  case  of  the  latter  kind,  was  termed  vindication  of  the  former 
kind,  condictio.     All  private  trials  belonged  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Praetor. 

1  u.  The  Praetor  named  the  judges,  who,  when  the  dispute  was  about  the  restitution 
of  property,  were  called  recuperatores.  Often  for  this  purpose  a  hundred  or  a  hundred 
and  five  were  appointed  from  the  different  tribes,  called  centumvirale  judicium.  '1  he 
judges  or  jury,  as  well  as  the  litigating  parties,  were  put  under  oath.  '1  hen  the  action 
was  carried  forward  orally,  and  after  examination,  judgment  was  pronounced,  and 
provision  made  for  its  execution. It  may  be  important  to  distinguish  judges  pro- 
perly so  called  from  arbitrators  (abitri  causarum),  who  made  awards  in  cases  which 
were  not  to  be  decided  on  the  exact  principles  of  law  but  to  be  adjusted  by  accommo- 
dation, or  by  their  best  discretion  ;  such  cases  were  termed  causce  jidei  bona  et  arbi- 
traria. 

2  n.  The  usual  places  for  trials  were,  in  public  cases,  the  Forvm  or  the  Campu* 
^Iartius;  and  in  private  actions,  other  free  places,  or  more  frequently  the  Basilica 
(cf.  P.  I.  <?>  61). 

§  263.  Among  the  principal  penal  offences,  which  demanded  public  trials 
were  the  following:  Crimen  majestatis,  or  an  offence  against  the  dignity  and 


2r)0  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

security  >(  the  state  and  its  maa-istratos;  perduellionis,  high  treasc  n  against  the 
freedom  of  the  people;  peculatus,  embezzling  in  any  way  the  punlic  property, 
sacrilege,  c it.- rt"*-i : i m lt  money,  or  falsifying  records;  ambitus,  bribery  or  cor- 
ruption of  the  people  to  procure  votes  in  an  election;  repetundarum,  extortion, 
when  a  Praetor,  Quaestor,  or  other  provincial  magistrate,  made  unjust  exactions, 

for  which  c ipensation  was  demanded;  vispublicse,  public  violence,  including 

conspiracies,  personal  assaults,  and  various  similar  offences. — There  were  vari- 
ous more  private  offences  of  which  cognizance  was  taken  in  public  trials;  e.  g. 
crimen  inter  ticarios,  assassination ;  crimen  venejwii,  poison;  parricidii,  parri- 
cide;  falsi,  forgery  ;  adulterii  and  plagii,  adultery  and  man-steal incr. 

§  264.  The  punishments  (poena;)  inflicted  on  those  found  guilty  were  various. 
The  following  were  the  principal;  damnum,  mulcla,  fines,  which  at  first  never 
c  sceeded  thirty  oxen  and  two  sheep,  or  the  value  of  them,  but  afterwards  were 
increased  ;  vinculo,  imprisonment  with  bonds,  which  were  cords  or  chains  upon 
the  bauds  and  feet;  verbera,  blows  inflicted  on  the  freeborn  with  the  rods  of 
the  Lictnrs  (virgis),  upon  slaves  with  whips  (JIagellis) ;  ta/io,  satisfaction  in 
kind,  i.  e.  the  punishment  similar  to  the  injury,  e.  jr.  an  eye  for  an  eye;infamia 
or  ignominiu,  disgrace  or  infamv.  which  generally  rendered  the  person  incapa- 
ble of  enjoying  public  offices;  exilium,  banishment,  which  was  either  voluntary 
or  inflicted,  and  was  attended  with  a  deprivation  of  all  honors.  When  the 
person  was  banished  to  no  particular  place,  he  was  said  to  be  interdiclus  ,•  when 
banished  to  a  certain  place,  relegatus.  The  form  termed  deportatio  was  the 
most  severe,  as  the  persons  were  then  sent  into  perpetual  exile  in  distant  and 
desolate  pi. ices  or  islands.  Two  other  punishments  should  be  noticed  ;  servikis, 
slavery,  into  which  offenders  of  a  certain  class  were  sold;  and  mors,  death,  in- 
flicted for  heinous  crimes. 

1.  Under  the  term  vincula  were  included  several  varieties ;  as  catena,,  chains  ;  hoice, 
cords  or  thongs  ;  ma /lira-,  manicles  for  the  hands;  pedicce,  fetters  tor  the  feet  ;  nervics, 
iron  shackles  for  the  neck  ;  columbar,  a  sort  of  stocks,  a  wooden  frame  with  holes  in 
which  the  feet  were  fastened  and  sometimes  the  hands. The  confinement  of  crimi- 
nals was  either  in  prison,  or  in  private  custody  under  a  soldier  or  officers  (cf.  Acts 
xxviii.  16);  the  right  wrist  of  the  prisoner  being  fastened  by  a  chain  to  the  left  wrist 
of  the  keeper;  the  prisoner  was  someiimes  chained  to  two  soldiers. — The  ancient 
state-prison  of  Rome,  by  the  name  of  the  JLimcrti/ie  Prison,  is  still  pointed  out  to 
travelers. 

In  our  Plate  XXX!.,  ti».  A,  is  a  cut  showing  a  kind  of  stocks  now  used  in  the  East,  in  which 
the  criminal  |in>*i  i  ate  "n  his  back  is  confined  by  his  feet  and  hands  ;  it  may  serve  to  illustrate 
the  Roman  storks  above  named. — Fi^.  B.  of  the  same  Plate,  is  a  cut  representing  one  of  the 
stories  of  the  Mamertiue  Priam.  The  structure  is  under  a  small  edifice  called  the  Church  of  St. 
Joseph  ;  it  consists  nf  two  stories  ;  the  lower  one  is  railed  Titllianum.  after  Servius Tllllius,  who 
is  -ml  to  have  built  it  ;  this  is  formed  of  heavy  Mocks  of  stone,  arched  over  without  cement,  and 
defying  Hie  assaults  of  time;  here  Jusurthn  was  stoned  to  death;  and  here,  according  to  tra- 
lition,  l''inl  and  Peter  were  imprisoned  ;  the  dungeon  presents  a  most  appalling  appearance. 

Cf  EiLilaa,  Tour,  &c.  cited  P.  IV.  5  190.  1.—  F isk.  Travels,  He  p  300,  as  cited  P.  IV.  $  186  6. 

2.  The  jlci'ji  Hum  (jtaanQ  was  made  of  leathern  thongs  (lora)  or  twisted  cords  (fu?ies) 
fastened  to  the  end  of  a  stick,  and  sometimes  loaded  with  pieces  of  iron  or  lead.  The 
gcutica  was  a  simple  thong  or  strap,  and  the  ferula  a  mere  rod  or  stick.  Cf.  Hor.  I. 
iii.  119. — The  punishing  of  Roman  citizens  by  the  virga  ((><ii3fos)  was  prohibited  by 
the  Lex  Porcia,  many  years  before  the  time  of  Christ  (cf.  Acts  xvi.  22). 

3.  The  modes  of  inflicting  death  were  various.     Slaves  were  usually  crucified  (cruci 

i;  others  il  was  customary  at  first  to  hang  [arbori  suspendere),  afterwards  to 
behead  [securi  percntere),  or  to  strangle  in  prison  (str angular e),  or  to  throw  from  'the 
Tarpeian  rock  [de  saxo  Tarpeio  dejicere),  or  cast  into  the  sea  or  a  river  (projicere  in 
profiuentem).  The  latter  modi  was  used  in  the  case  of  parricide,  or  the  murder  of 
any  near  relative.  The  criminal  was  first  whipped,  then  sewed  up  in  a  leather  sack 
[euleus,  cf,  Dionys  Hal.  iv.  (I-.'),  sometimes  along  with  a  serpent,  or  an  ape,  or  a  do» 
ami  a  cock,  and  then  thrown  into  tin-  water. — The  bodies  oi  executed  criminals  we 
not  burned  or  buried,  unless,  as  was  sometimes  permitted,  their  friends  purchased  '  b 
privilege  of  doing  it ;  but  were  usually  exposed  before  the  prison,  on  certain  stairs 
[realm]  called  :•<■,„„„;,/■  or;.,/,,,,,,,,'  gradtis  ;  down  which  they  were  dragged  with  a 
hook  aid  casl  into  the  Tiber.  The  innocent  victims  of  popular  violence  or  civil  war 
were  sometimes  thrust  down  these  steps  of  infamy  (Tar.  Hist.  iii.  74).  Three  other 
m  ides  ol  capital  punishment  were  also  practiced,  especially  under  the  emperors;  ad 
Indus,  in  winch  th.-  criminals  were  obliged  to  fight  with  wild  beasts  in  the  amphithea- 
eatiarii  .  or  with  each  other  as  gladiators;  ml  met  alia,  in  which  the  offenders 
A'ere  eondi  tnned  to  work  in  mines;  ml  bestias,  in  which  they  were  thrown  to  wild 


P    III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       SYSTEM    OF    LAWS.  261 

beast*'  *o  be  devoured.  These  forms  were  often  inflicted  on  those  who  embra'-ed  and 
would  not  renounce  Christianity.  There  was  also  another  form,  still  more  horrid, 
which  was  to  wrap  'he  offender  in  a  garment  covered  with  pitch  and  set  it  on  fire  ; 
thus  ISevo  murdered  the  Christians,  on  whom  he  charged  his  own  crime  of  burning 
Rome. 

§  265.  The  system  of  laws  was  in  general  very  loose  and  indefinite  in  the 
early  times  of  Rome.  The  kings,  and  likewise  the  first  consuls,  decided  all 
cases  according  to  their  own  judgment,  or  according  to  usage  in  similar 
instances.  The  abuses  growing  out  of  this  state  of  things  occasioned,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  accounts,  the  sending  of  three  commissioners,  B.  C.  455,  to 
Athens  and  Sparta  in  order  to  collect  th^  laws  of  Solon  and  Lycurcrus.  They 
returned  B.  C.  453;  and  in  the  year  following,  ten  patricians  (cf.  §  248.  3) 
were  appointed  to  devise  and  propose  a  body  of  laws. 

1  u.  The  laws  proposed  by  the  Decemviri  were  embodied  at  first  in  ten,  then  in 
tvielve  tables,  and  by  the  people  in  the  Comitia  Centuriata  were  adopted  and  esta- 
blished as  the  ground  and  rule  of  all  judicial  decisions  (cf.  P.  V.  §  561). — To  these 
were  afterwards  added  many  particular  laws,  which  were  usually  named  from  their 
authors,  the  consuls,  dictators,  or  tribunes  who  proposed  them  ;  e.  g.  Lex  Atinia,  lex 
Furia,  &c. ;  also  from  their  contents ;  e.  g.  Leges  agrarim,  frumentaria,  &c. 

2  u.  It  was  necessary  that  every  law  proposed  for  enactment  should  be  previously 
posted  up  in  public  for  seventeen  days  (per  trinundinum),  and  then  be  submitted  to 
the  decision  of  the  people  in  the  Comitia  Centiriata,  that  they  might  adopt  it  (legem 
jubere,  accipere),  or  reject  it  (legem  antiquare).  When  a  previous  law  was  abolished, 
they  were  said  to  abrogate  it  (legem  abrogare).  Laws  thus  adopted  were  engraved  on 
brass,  and  lodged  in  the  archives. — Under  the  emperors,  however,  their  own  ordi- 
nances had  the  force  of  laws,  called  Conslitutio?ies  principales,  and  including  not  only 
their  formal  edicts  (edicta).  but  answers  io  petitions  (rescripta,  or  epistola),  judicial 
decisions  (deer eta),  and  commands  to  officers  (mandata). 

3.  Originally  laws  were  enacted  by  the  people  in  the  Comitia  Curiafa  ;  such  laws 
were  termed  in  general  Leges  Curiata.  But  afterwards  the  Comitia  Curiafa  fell 
almost  into  disuse,  and  laws  were  enacted  in  the  Comitia  Centuriata,  and  thence  were 
termed  Legts  Centuriata.  Enactments  in  the  Comitia  Tribula  were  termed  Phbisri- 
ta  (cf.  §  259).  Decrees  of  the  Senate  were  called  Senatus  consulta  (cf.  §257).  Under 
the  early  emperors,  these  decrees  were  often  based  on  proposals  made  by  the  empe- 
rors, called  orationes  priacipum,  which  were  sometimes  delivered  orally,  but  generally 
were  sent  in  written  messages;  in  later  times  the  orationes  seem  to  have  been  syno- 
nymous with  the  const  it  utiones; — The  Roman  law  included  the  Leges,  the  Plebiscita, 
the  Senatus  consulta,  and  the  Const  it  utiones  Principales ;  and  also  besides  these,  the 
various  edicts  forming  the  Jus  honorarium;  and  likewise  several  early  collections  of 
laws  and  usages,  viz.  the  Jus  Papirianum,  the  Tabula  Duodecim,  Jus  Flavianum, 
and  Jus  JElianum,  of  which  some  account  is  given  under  the  history  of  Roman  Lite- 
rature (cf.  P.  V.  §  561).  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  in  the  lapse  of  years  the  sys- 
tem of  laws  must  have  become  exceedingly  cumbrous  and  perplexing.  The  emperor 
lustinian  first  reduced  the  Roman  law  to  something  like  order  (cf.  P.  V.  §  569). 

Respecting  the  Orationes  prinerpum,  cf.  DirLien,  Ueber  die  Reden  der  Roni.  Kaiser,  in  the  Rhemisch  Afitv.  Or  Jurispr. — —On 
the  general  subject  of  the  Roman  Law  and  Jurisprudence,  we  may  refer  to  ffeineccitu,  Antiquitatum  Rnmanamm  Jurisprudential!] 
iLlustrantiuiu  Syntagma.  Argent.  1765.  8 — Sanigny,  System  des  heutieen  Rom.  Rechts — Brinkmann,  Instt'utiones  Juris  Roinaui 
—Hu^o,  Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte  des  Rom.  Rechts.     Berl.  1832.  8.— See  also  in  this  Manual,  P.  V.  §§  558-571. 

§  266  u.  One  thing 'especially  noticeable  in  the  legislation  and  regular  policy  of  the 
Romans  was  their  care  to  provide  sufficient  supplies  of  grain.  A  general  scarcity,  as 
m  the  year  B.  C.  440  and  at  other  times,  occasioned  the  appointment  of  a  special  offi- 
cer to  attend  to  the  subject,  called  Prafectus  Annona,  althi  ugh  the  iEdiles  had  pre- 
viously been  charged  with  this  care,  and  it  continued  afterwards  to  be  a  duty  of  their 
office  (cf.  §  244).  Augustus  ordained,  that  two  men  should  be  annually  elected  to 
perform  this  duty,  duumviri  dividundo  frumentu.  The  annual  contributions  in  grain, 
which  were  exacted  of  the  provinces,  served  likewise  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  a 
scarcity  of  bread,  and  the  provincial  officers,  especially  the  Quastors  (cf.  %  246),  were 
required  to  attend  carefully  to  the  business. — In  this  respect.  Egypt  was  the  most 
productive  province,  and  it  was  on  account  of  its  grain,  that  the  annual  voyage  was 
made  by  the  Alexandrine  fleet,  with  which  the  African  fleet  was  afterwards  joined. 
The  distribution  of  grain  among  the  people,  at  a  low  rate,  was  practiced  in  Rome 
from  the  earliest  times. 

§  267.  The  sources  of  income  to  the  Roman  treasury  (serarium),  and  after- 
wards to  the  imperial  exchequer  (fscus),  were  the  tribula,  taxes  imposed  ot. 
the  citizens  according  to  their  property,  or  on  the  provinces  as  an  annual  tribute, 
and  the  vectigalia,  which  included  all  the  other  forms  of  taxes.  There  were 
three  principal  kinds  or  branches  of  the  vectigalia}  the pvrlurium,  duties  on  ex 


2(52  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

ports  and  imports,  the  person  taking  lease  of  which  was  called  manceps  portuum ; 
decums\  tithes  or  tenth-parts  of  the  produce;  and  'the  scriptura,  or  pasture  tax, 
,iaid  for  feeding  cattle  on  ihe  puhlic  lands.  There  were  also  taxes  on  mines, 
and  on  salt  works,  which  yielded  considerable  revenue.  Less  important  were 
the  taxes  on  roads,  on  the  value  of  freed  slaves  (vicesima,  a  twentieth),  en 
aqueducts,  on  artisans,  and  the  like. 

1  u.  The  vectigalia  were  let  by  auction  (locabantur  sub  hasta/.  Those  who  hired  or 
farmed  them  were  called  publicani,  the  rent  or  hire  paid  being  called  publicum;  they 
wi  re  usually  Roman  knights,  who  of  course  possessed  property,  and  on  taking  the 
lease  advanced  a  large  sum.  or  gave  landed  securities  [preedes).  Leases  of  the  reve- 
nues  of  whole  kingdoms  and  provinces  were  often  taken  by  several  knights  associ- 
ated {societas  or  corpus),  who  had  in  Rome  a  superintendent  of  the  concern  (magister 
societatis  publicauorum),  with  a  subordinate  one  in  each  province  or  region  (promagis- 
ter),  and  a  multitude  ot  subalterns  to  collect  the  revenue,  keep  the  accounts,  &c. 

The  publicans  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  were  of  the  class  of  subaltern  collectors  above  described,  who  were 
e/nilly  ol'ereal  eitorlinn  in  all  ihe  provinces.  Zacchtus,  described  by  Luke  (six  2),  as  "chief  among  the  publicans" (apxiTiAiii'ijc), 
was  probably  a  promagitter.—Bunchaid.  Sur  les  Publicains,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr  xxxvii.  241. 

2.  Salt-works  'tulina)  are  said  to  have  been  established  first  at  Ostia,  by  Ancus  Martins  (Plin. 
Hist.  Nat.  xv\i  41).  In  later  times  they  were  numerous  in  Italy,  and  in  the  provinces.  Rock- 
salt  (fiXfj  dpVKTti)  was  known  to  the  ancients  ;  salt  was  also  gathered  from  springs  and  lakes, 
where  ii  whs  formed  by  a  natural  process;  yet  most  of  the  salt  used  was  made  by  artificial 
evaporation  of  sea-water.  The  salt-works  were  usually  public  property,  and  were  let  by  the 
government  to  the  highest  bidder. Anions  the  most  productive. mines  belonging  to  the  Ro- 
mans, were  the  gold  mines  near  Aquileia  (.Polyb.  xxxiv.  10)  ;  the  gold  mines  of  Ictimuli  near 
Vercelii,  in  which  25,000  men  are  said  to  have  been  employed  (Plin.  II.  Nat.  xxxiii.  4)  ;  and  the 
silver  mines  of  Spain  near  Carthago  Nova.  In  Dacia  were  gold  mines  and  silver  mines  belong- 
ing to  the  Romans.  Macedonia,  Illy riciim,  Thrace,  also  Sardinia,  and  Africa,  contained  mines 
from  which  the  Romans  derived  an  income.  Those  in  Daciaare  said  to  have  yielded  in  the  time, 
of  Nero  fifty  pounds  of  gold  daily. 

On  the  mines  of  Dacia,  of.  Lmid.  Quart.  Rev.  Oct.  1841,  p.  10.— On  those  of  Spain,  RoUin,  Anc.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  32,  ed.  N.  York, 
I83T.— On  the  ancient  mines  generally,  B.  CaiyophUus,  De  antiquis  Auri,  Argenti,  Stanni,  .Eris,  Ferri,  Pluinbique  Fodinis.  Vienn. 
1757.  4. 

3.  Besides  the  taxes  above  named,  we  may  mention  under  the  Vertigttlia,  lUe  following:  a 
tax  on  the  value  of  things  sold  (.cetitesima  rerum  venalium)  }  a  tax  on  liberti  living  in  Italy  (called 
oaavie)  ;  a  tax  on  the  doors  of  houses  (ostiariumX  sometimes  on  the  pillars  (eolumnarium)  ;  a 
tax  on  bachelors  (.uxorium),  first  imposed  A.  I)    103. 

4.  After  the  conquest  of  Macedonia,  the  revenue  from  the  provinces  became  so  great  that  the 
tribute  previnuslj  assessed  on  Roman  citizens  were  abolished.  They  were  renewed  again  by 
Augustus,  and  continued  by  his  successors.  Caracal  la  bestowed  the  name  and  privilege  of  Ro- 
man citizens  on  all  free  inhabitants  of  the  empire,  in  order  to  increase  the  income  from  these 
taxes  ;   ilns  was  dune  without  lessening  the  taxes  levied  on  them  as  provincial  subjects. 

5.  Respecting  the  amount  of  income  to  the  Roman  treasury  at  different  periods  not  much  is 
known  <<f  Pliny,  llisi  Nat,  xwiii.  17).  The  annual  revenue  is  said  to  have  been  fifty  millions 
of  drachms  before  the  time  of  Pompey,  and  to  have  been  by  him  increased  to  eighty-five  mil- 
lions (Plat.  Pomp.  45).  In  later  times  vast  sums  must  have  been  required  to  meet  the  various 
expenses  of  the  civil  government,  the  army,  the  navy,  the  public  buildings,  the  aqueducts,  the 
great  roads,  and  other  works.— It  does  not  appear  that  regular  annual  salaries  were  given  to 
public  officers  Until  the  time  of  Augustus  ;  but  afterwards  they  were  common.  Alexander  Se- 
vern* is  said  to  have  established  a  salary  (salarium)  for  rhetoricians,  grammarians,  physicians, 
haruspices,  mathematicians,  mechanicians,  and  architects.  The  term  salarium  was  derived 
from  sal:  salt  being  one  of  the  things  essential  in  supporting  human  life. 

D  H.  fiegtwifen,  Hisior.  Versuch  nbet  die  Romischen  Finanzen.  Allona,  1804.  8.— R.  Basse,  Grundzlge  des  Finanzwesens  im 
Roni.  si.ia'e.  Braunschweig,  1803-4.  2  Bde  8  — Cf.  Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch  vi.  ivii  —  P.  Burmann,  Vectigalia  Pupuli  Romani. 
Leid   1734.  4. 

§  268*.  In  connection  with  the  Civil  Affairs  of  Rome,  we  may  speak  of  the 
principal  employments  and  regular  pursuits  which  were  publicly  authorized  or 
sanctioned. 

1.  Under  the  heads  of  Teacher,  Priest,  Lawyer,  and  Physician,  may  be  included 
whatever  among  the  Romans  corresponded  to  the  learned  professions  of  modern  times. 
— Respecting  the  business  of  instruction,  conducted  by  grammarians,  rhetoricians, 
nnd  philosophers,  we  only  refer  to  the  notices  given  in  other  parts  of  this  work  (ct.  P. 
IV.  $$  123—128.  P.  V.$v>407— 412,  41G— 422,  44(i— 455).— The  established  system  of 
idolatry  ret|itired  a  lame  number  of  priests  of  different  grades;  a  sufficient  account  has 
been   given   in    former   sections  of  their  business  (cf.  $$  207 — 219)  and   emoluments 

;$  219  b). The  employment  of  the  lawyer  was   highly  honorable   and   profitable. 

The  jurisconsult  or  the  pleader,  who  could  distinguish  himself  by  his  knowledge  of 
law  or  Ins  'ah  ins  and  skill  in  managing  causes,  was  sure  to  obtain  honor  and  wealth ; 
although  exposed,  of  course,  the  orator  especially,  to  suffer  in  the  violence  of  party 
revolutions  (cf  P.  V.  $$  390 — 106,  558 — 571). — The  profession  of  medicine,  at  first  not 
•iiucli  encouraged,  had  great  patronage  from  the  time  of  Augustus  (cf.  P.  V.  §§  543— 
Sonic  statements  of  Pliny  [His/.  Nat.  xxix.  5)  show  that  the  employment  was 
»erv  lucrative;  a  ohysician,  named  Quiuius  Siertinius,  received  from  the  emperor 


P.  III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.  ,    COMMERCE    AND    ARTS.  2G3 

500,000  sesterces  per  annum,  yet  represented  himself  as  making  a  sacrifice  thereby, 
as  lie  could  have  obtained  600.000  by  private  practice. 

We  may  here  remark  thai  a  number  of  surgical  instruments  were  found  in  1819,  in  a  house  in  Pompeii ;  among  them  were  th« 
probe  (specillum,  pijXn),  the  cautery  (Kavrijpiov).  the  forceps  \vuiselia),  the  catr.eter  (KaBtriip,  X'lea  fistula),  different  sorts  ol 
knives,  &c. — An  account  of  them  is  given  in  KUhn,  in  the  Opuscula  Academ.  Med.  el  Philolog.     Lips.  1828.  2  vols.  8. 

2  u.  Although  commerce  could  not  flourish  much  at  Rome  in  early  times,  when  the 
spirit  of  war  and  conquest  engrossed  every  thing,  yet  there  existed  a  body  of  mer- 
chants, who  were  Roman  citizens.  The  Roman  commerce  was  also  extended,  on  the 
expulsion  of  the  kings,  by  a  treaty  with  the  Carthaginians.  Yet  commercial  pursuits 
were  regarded  as  unbecoming  for  the  higher  classes,  who  nevertheless  covertly  and 
through  agents  not  unfrequently  engaged  in  them  and  indulged  in  speculations.  They 
did  this  especially  in  connection  with  the  slave-trade,  which  was  very  lucrative.  The 
merchants  at  Rome  were  styled  mercatores ;  those  abroad  in  the  provinces,  negotia- 
tor eg.  There  were  also  brokers  and  bankers  {argentarii  and  mensarii),  and  contract- 
ors of  various  kinds,  besides  the  publkani  (mentioned  in  the  preceding  section),  whose 
contracts  may  be  viewed  as  a  sort  of  commercial  transactions.  Yet  Rome  never 
acquired  a  high  rank  among  the  statesaf  antiquity  in  point  of  commerce. 

The  argevtarii  were  ordinary  brokers  ;  they  were  divided  into  corporations  (societates,  corpora). 
The  viensitrii  were  public  bankers,  appointed  by  (he  state,  who  loaned  money  from  the  public 
treasury  to  such  as  could  give  security  for  it.  Both  classes  had  their  offices  in  the  buildings  by 
the  forum. 

On  Commerce,  &c.  among  the  Romans,  Gibbon,  Fall  of  Rom  Emp.  ch.  ii.— The  Hist,  of  Rom.  Emp.  (given  in  Lardner's  Cab* 
Cyclopaedia)  bk  iii  ch.  9,—De  Pastoret,  Sur  le  commerce  et  le  luie  des  Romanies  tte.  in  the  Mem.  de  t'lnstitut,  C  1  asse  d'Hitt. 
el  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  iii.  p.  285 ;  vol.  v.  p.  76  ;  and  vii.  p.  125.  —  Ernesti,  De  negotiatoribus  Rom.     I'.ips.  1772.  8. 

3  u.  Other  trades  were  still  less  reputable  than  commerce.  The  mechanics  and  arti- 
sans were  slaves,  or  foreigners,  although  they  sometimes  acquired  Roman  citizenship. 
Under  Numa  there  were  formed  certain  corporations  of  them,  or  colleges  {collegia), 
which  afterwards  became  more  respectable  and  numerous.  Of  this  kind  were  the 
collegia  fabrorum,  tignariorum,  dendrophororum,  sagariorum,  tabulariorum,  &c.  The 
overseer  of  such  a  body  was  called  ■prasfectus  ;  they  had  also  tluir  decur tones  and  ma- 
gistri,  whose  office  was  usually  for  five  years.  They  performed  work  for  the  state, 
or  for  individual  citizens,  who  were  not  able  to  hold  slaves. 

Respecting  these  corporations,  see  G.  Pancirollus,  De  corporibus  Artificum,  in  2d  vol.  of  Grmvius,  cited  §  197. 

4.  Among  the  various  arts  and  trades  pursued,  the  following  should  be  here  noticed 
more  particularly. 

(a)  The'making  of  glass  (vitrum,  {iaXoc).— It  has  been  a  question  of  some  interr st  how  far  the 
ancients  understood  the  making  of  glass.  Pliny  (Hist  Nat.  v.  19.  xxxvi.  26)  slates  that  the  art 
originated  in  accident,  on  the  hanks  of  the  river  Bel  us  ;  and  that  glass  vessel-  were  tirst  made  in 
Sidon.  It  was  known,  however,  in  Egypt,  for  pieces  of  blue  glass  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  at 
Thebes,  and  some  of  the  mummies  are  decorated  wilh  glass.  Lachrymatories  and  patera;  of 
glass  have  been  discovered  in  the  catacombs  of  the  Greek  island  Milo(cf.  J  186.  1).  The  allusions 
and  comparisons  of  Virgil  and  Horace  (cf.  Virg.  JEn.  vii.  759.  Hor.  Od.  I  xvii.  20.  Sat  n  iii. 222) 
indicate  an  acquaintance  wilh  glass  (vitrea)  in  a  state  of  at  least  considerable  perfection.  Colored 
glass  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  mosaic  decorations  (cf  P.  IV.  J  220.  2)  in  the  time  of  Augustus. 
Imitations  of  gems  were  formed  also  hy  means  of  glass  (cf.  P.  IV.  I)  210).  The  slory  related  by 
Tacitus  (Jinn.  v.  42)  of  a  vase  of  malleable  glass  shown  to  Tiberius,  however  incredible,  shows 
that  glass-making  had  been  introduced  at  Rome.  Numerous  vessels  of  glass,  and  even  panes 
of  glass  in  a  window,  have  been  found  at  Pompeii  (cf  J  325).  The  celebrated  Portland  Vase  has 
lately  heen  pronounced  to  be  glass  (cf.  P.  IV.  J  173);  this  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  Alexander 
Severus,  in  whose  reign  a  special  tax  was  laid,  A.  D.  220,  upon  the  glass-makers  of  Rome,  who 
vere  then  so  numerous,  it  is  said,  as  to  require  the  assignment  of  a  particular  quarter  of  the  city 
for  the  place  of  their  labors. 

See  Wilkinson,  Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  iii.  p.  S8,  as  cited  P  I  §  177.— Boudet,  Sur  l'Art  de  la  Verrerie,  &c  in  the  Description  dt 
VEgyple  vol.  ix.  p.  213.— Belzoni,  cited  P    IV.  5  231.  1.— Mazois,  Ruines  de  Pomp&.     Par.  1830. 

(6)  The  making  of  earthenware  (fictile,  xepdntov,  ucrrpairivov)  or  the  art  of  pottery  (ars  figli- 
na).— This  was  early  known  anions  the  Jews  (Jerem.  xviii.  3,  4).  The  vessels  found  at  Volaterrm 
and  other  places  (cf.  P.  IV.  J  173.  3)  prove  its  existence  among  the  Etrurians  and  the  Greeks  in 
Italy.  There  can  be  no  doubt  it  was  early  introduced  among  the  Romans.  The  wheel  (rpox^s, 
rota  figularis)  of  the  potter  (figalus,  KCpapevc.)  is  a  subject  of  allusion  in  Plautus  (F.pid.  iii.  2.  35). 
Molds  (rtjjrui,  forma)  were  used  to  decorate  the  vessels  with  figures  in  bas-relief  (cf.  P.  IV. 
#}  158,  188)  and  for  forming  the  images  on  the  architectural  appendages  called  ontefixa  made  of 
terra  cotta  (cf.  P.  IV.  $#239,241);  some  specimens  of  these  molds  have  been  found  near  Rome.' 
According  to  Viiruvius  the  Romans  made  their  water-pipes  of  potter's  clay.  They  established 
potteries  in  England;  vestiges  of  which,  it  is  said,  are  still  discernible  in  some  parts  of  the 
island,  especially  in  Staffordshire.  If  their  rasa  murrhina  were  porcelain  (cf  P.  IV.  {  195.  4) 
the  art  must  have  reached  a  high  degree  of  perfection  ;  some  have  attempted  to  show  that  these 
vessels  were  made  of  a  transparent  stone  dug  from  the  earth  in  the  eastern  part  of  Asia.— The 
manufacture  of  bricks  (lateres  coctiles)  was  well  understood.  Bricks  are  found  in  very  am  ien. 
Roman  ruins,  which  are  said  to  be  superior  to  the  modern  both  in  solidity  and  beauty. 

hardness  Cab.  Cyclopedia,  the  vol  on  Porcelain  and  Glaes.-S.  Parka,  Chemical  Essays,  &c.  Lond.  1830.  p.  304,  346.— 
Notices  of  Roman  earthen  vessels  are  found  in  W.  Skerry,  Description  of  the  discoveries  at  Heraclea, translated,  &c.  Lond.  1750.  H. 
— Cf.  Seroux  d?Agmc<mrt,  Recueil  de  Fra»mens. 

(e)  The  I  iking  of  bread  (ponificium,  ars  pistoria). — The  bakers  (pistores)  at  Rome  formed,  I  k* 
prisons  of  ither  trades,  a  collegium.     No  one  had  made  baking  a  trade   it  is  said,  until  B  C 


2P>4  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

173  In  a  bakehouse  (pistrinvm,  or  pistrilld)  discovered  at  Pompeii,  were  found  several  loavei 
of  bread  apparently  baked  in  nn  );  they  were  flat  and  about  eight  inches  in  diame- 

ter. Before  i  he  \n\  eni  ion  of  I  he  mill  (tnoto) ,  corn  was  pounded  in  a  sort  of  mortar  imortarimn) 
ittum  ;  whence  the  name  ptstor,  and  pialrinum.  Two  varieties  uf  the  hand-mill  (inula 
manuaria)  were  found  in  the  rulna  of  a  bakehouse  at  Pompeii  ;  grinding  with  this  was  done  by 
■laves,  i  hieflj  females.  I  he  "  cattle-mill"  mola  urinaria,  u.i\<>{  oVocds,  cf  Matth.  xviii.  fii  was 
also  used;  likewise  the  water-mill  (mola  aquaria,  i6pa\irns),  having  above  the  stones  a  hoppel 
[infundibulum)  from  which  the  corn  fell  down  between  them.  In  the  later  periods  there  appear 
to  have  been  public  noils  turned  by  the  water  of  the  aqueducts.  When  Rome  was  besie-ted  by 
the  Goths,  \  l>  536,  and  the  aqueducts  were  intercepted,  Belisarius  is  said  to  have  constructed 
floating  mills  upon  the  Tiber. 

.    tnisiiu.  I.  5  —■■)""  '>'<"■  hem.  iii.  10. — Pncopnu,  tie  Bello  Cothico,  i.  15  (cf.  P.  V.  5  257).— Mcmgex,  Sur  lea  mculej  do 
Dioulio.  *c.  as  cited  5  i'J.—F.  L.  Qottznu,  De  Media  et  Pistrinia  Veteran,  and  C.  L.  Hoheuel,  De  Molis  Manuahbus,  &c  ,  in  Ugoli- 
xxn.  aiciled  5  197.  I. 

(rf)  The  business  of  the  fuller  (fnllo,  yvaipcvs).  the  dresser  of  cloth  and  washer  of  clothes. — 
The  fullers,  like  the  hikers  and  other  tradesmen,  formed  a  collegium.  A  fuller's  establishment 
wa<  termed  ftdlonica  or  fullonium  ;  the  mode  of  (performing  the  work  was  sometimes  a  subject 
,,i  attention  fr the  censors  (cf.  Pliny,  Hist.  N.  xxxv.  5).  On  the  walls  of  a /u/tonica  at  Pom- 
peii were  found  paintings  «  hich  serve  to  explain  the  way  in  which  dresses  were  cleansed.  It 
u  mi. i  seem  thai  the  Romans  in  the  cities  sent  their  clothes  to  the  fuller,  instead  of  having  them 
v.  i  shed  at  home. 

Thepainiinsiabovement.nnel  are  e,iven  in  the  Muieo  Borbmuca,  cited  P.  IV.  §212.  vol.  iv.— Some  of  them  in  Geil,  Poinpeiaoa, 
u  cited  P.  IV.  5  243.  2;  also  in  Smith,  Diet,  of  Antiq.  p.  432.— Cf.  FhHttgen,  Ao'iquitates  Tritura  et  Fulloniae.    Traj.  ad 

!!'.•    .  1727. 

(e)  The  art  of  dyeing  (ars  tinetoria,  tinetura). — This  seems  to  have  been  a  subject  of  special 
regard  in  the  lime  of  the  empire      Establishments  for  dyeing  were  supported  in  various  places  ; 

at  Tarentum,  e  g    celebrated  for  its  woolei inufactures,  there  was  an   imperial   dye-house 

(bavhium,  (iatpeTov);  these  establishments  were  tinder  a  superintendent  (bn]iltiis  propositus).  The 
whole  work  of  making  the  cloth  appears  to  have  been  performed  in  them,  both  the  spinning 
(lanificium)  and  the  business  of  weaving  (textrina).  A  dye  much  used  was  the  purple  obtained 
from  the  shell  of  the  Murex.  Dyers  from  various  places  resorted  to  Phoenicia  to  improve 
themselves  in  the  art. 

See  JhntiVun,  Sur  la  teinture  des  AncieDs,  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnstitut,  C I  a  s  s  e  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Art),  vol.  i.  p.  549 ;  vol.  iii. 
p.  357.— Cf.  notice  of  the  color  of  the  toga,  §  31)2.  2. 

§  -2M)  u.  Agriculture  was  in  much  higher  estimation  than  commerce  or  any  of  the 
trades;  and  the  fields  of  the  wide  Roman  territory,  as  well  as  those  taken  in  war, 
were  chiefly  possessed  by  respectable  Roman  citizens.  Many  noble  Romans  lived 
upon  their  own  lands,  and  made  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  them  a  special 
study.  The  ornamenting  of  their  estates  proved,  in  the  flourishing  periods  of  the 
m  important  part  ol  Roman  luxury. 

1.  The  grain  chiefly  cultivated  was  wheat,  but  of  various  kinds;  tritkum  was  a 
common  name;  far  is  put  for  any  kind  of  corn,  and  farina  for  meal.  Barley,  hordeum, 
and  oats,  avt  mi.  were  also  raised.  Flax,  linum,  was  an  article  cultivated  considerably. 
Meadows,  prata,  were  cultivated  for  mowing;  they  seem  to  have  yielded  two  crops 

of  hay.  faenum The  breeding  of  cattle  was  an  object  of  attention  usually  included 

under  husbandry  ;  chiefly,  oxen,  horses,  sheep,  and  goats.  Much  care  was  also  be- 
Btowed  on  bees  [apes).  Trees,  also,  boh  forest,  fruit  and  ornamental,  received  their 
share  of  attention.  The  Romans  were  acquainted  with  most  of  the  various  methods 
now  practiced  for  propagating  the  different  species  and  varieties. — But  the  culture  of 
the  vine  finally  took  the  precedence  of  all  other  cultivation  (cf.  §  331  b). 

Respecting  the  attention  paid  by  the  Romans  to  agriculture  as  a  science,  and  the  care  taken 
in  defining  the  boundaries  of  lands  by  means  of  professional  surveyors  (agrimensores),  see  P.  V. 
6  183—489.  cf.  P.  II.  $91.  1. 

2.  Among  the  agricultural  instruments  the  plow,  aratrum,  ranks  first;  its  chief 
parts  were  the  temo,  beam,  to  which  the  jugum  or  yoke  for  the  oxen  was  attached: 
ttiva,  plow-tail  or  handle,  having  on  its  end  a  cross-bar  (manicula)  oi  which  the 
plowman  took  hold  to  direct  the  instrument;  burin,  a  crooked  piece  oi  wood  between 
tin  beam  and  plowshare;  dentale  ox  dens,  the  piece  of  timber  which  was  joined  to 
the  hurts  and  received  on   its  end  the  share;  vomer,  the  share;  aures,  affixed  to  the 

.  and  answering  lo  mold-boards  to  throw  the  earth  back  ;  culler,  the  colter.  The 
rallum  was  a  staff  used  tor  cleaning  the  plow,  or  beating  off  clods  from  it.  In  some 
plows  wheels  were  attached ;  but  the  plow  most  commonly  used  was  more  simple, 

having  neither  colter  nor  mold-boards. Other  instruments  were  the  Vigo,  spade  ;  ba- 

tillns-.  shovel :  rostrum,  rake  •,  sarculum,  hoe  or  weeding-hook  ;  bidens,  a  sort  of  hoe, 
with  two  hooked  iron  teeth  ;  OCCa  and  irpex,  different  kinds  ot  harrows;  marra.  a  mat- 
tock  or  hoe  lor  cutting  out  weeds;  dolabra,  a  sort  of  adz;  securis,  ax;  falx,  pruning- 

knife;   /'../'  messoria  and  falcula,  sickle. The  implements  for  beating  out  grain 

were  the  pertica,  a  Bori  Ot  llails;  traha,  a  sort  of  sledge;  trihula,  a  board  or  beam, 
set  with  Btones  or  pieces  ol  iron,  with  a  great  weight  laid  upon  it,  and  drawn  by  yoked 
qalth .  The  e  were  till  used  upon  the  threshing-floor,  ana,  which  was  a  round  space, 
ei.vate. i  in  the  center;  sometimes  paved  with  stone,  but  commonly  laid  with  clay 
carefully  smoothed  and  hardened.  Sometimes  the  threshing  was  done  by  merely 
driving  oxen  ot  hora  B  over  the  grain  spread  on  this  floor,  as  among  the  Greeks  and 


PLATE     XXXII. 


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260  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

In  Plate  XXXM     fig.  ii-  exhibits  Ihe  Roman  plow  ;  T  is  the  temo  ;  B,  the  stira  ;  A,  points  U 

•u  on  Hi.    burial  D,  to  the  dentalt  ;  V,  is  the  vomer;  C,  ihe  culler.     In  tig.  iii.  are  seen 

forms  of  the  Syrian  plow,  cf.  J  172.  3.— On  the  Roman  plow,  cf.  Dickson,  as  cited  P.  \  .  $  469.  3. 

pi-  Q  ,„  piate  \X.\ll.  is  a  cut  showing  varieties  of  the  falx,  pruning-knife,  and  sickle. 

Fit'  5  is  from  an  Egyptian  monument,  and  shows*  the  use  of  the  sickle  in  cutting  wheat  in  ihe 

n,.",l pig   7  j8  B  Persian  drag,  foi  the  purpose  of  threshing  grain;  a  roller  with  leeth,  tilled 

a  be  drawn  b»  cattle  over  the  grain  ;  it  is  taken  fr.nn  Sir  H.  K.  Porter.— Pig.  iv.  is  another 
Instrument  for  the  same  purpose,  taken  from  Jfiebuhr ;  it  has  three  wheels  with  iron  teeth,  or 
with  s.rr  tied  .  dges  drawn  t>v  cattle,  the  driver  sitting  on  it.  These  figures  may  partially  -lliis- 
trate  the  Roman  traha  and  tribula. Pontedera,  Antiquitaium  Rusticarum,  &.c.     Patav.  1736. 

3.  The  carriages  used  tor  agricultural  purposes  were  chiefly  the  plauslra  or  what, 
which  had  usually  two  w  heels,  sometimes  iour,  and  were  drawn  commonly  by  oxen, 
but  also  bj  asses  and  horses.  These  often  had  wheels  without  spokes,  called  tym 
nana.  '1  he  body  of  these  carriages  (and  indeed  of  any  carriage)  was  termed  captain, 
and  (he  draught-tree  or  beam.  temo.  The  jugum  was  the  yoke,  fastened  to  the  beam 
and  also  to  the  cattle  by  thongs,  lora  svbjugia — '1  he  sarracum  was  a  cart  or  wagon 
used  i"  conveying  wood,  and  t he  various  products  of  the  farm. — Pack-horses  (caballi) 
wen  sometimes  used  tor  carrying  burdens ;  more  frequently  asses  or  mules;  called 
ditellarii,  from  the  packages  (clitelhe)  on  their  backs. 

We  may  remark  in  this  connection,  that  the  Romans  had  various  carriages  tor  con- 
1  amusi  ment. — The  chariot,  currus,  was  the  most  common  :  always  with 
two  whi  els,  but  either  two,  three  or  four,  or  even  six  horses.  Those  with  two  were 
termed  bigm  ;  those  with  t<>ur,  quadriga;  in  the  races,  the  horses  were  always  yoked 
abreast.— The  carruca  was  a  sort  of  private  coach  of  the  rich,  sometimes  of  solid  sil- 
ver, curiously  carved. — The  pilentum,  was  an  easy  soft  vehicle  with  tour  wheels, 
used  m  conveying  women  to  public  games  and  rites.  The  carpentum  was  a  carriage 
with  two  wheels  and  an  arched  covering.  The  thensa  was  a  splendid  carriage  with 
tour  wheels  and  four  horses,  in  which  the  images  of  the  gods  were  taken  to  the  pul- 
vinaria  in  the  Circus,  at  the  Circensian  games  ($  233).  The  cis ium  was  a  vehicle 
with  two  wheels,  drawn  by  three  mules,  used  chiefly  for  traveling.  The  rheda  was  a 
larger  traveling  carriage  with  four  wheels.. — The  horses  were  guided  and  stimulated 
by  the  bit  (franum)  and  reins  (Jiabena)  and  whip  (Jlagellum).  Bells  (tintinnabula) 
were  sometimes  attached  to  the  necks  of  the  chariot-horses  in  a  string  similar  to  those 
now  used. 

Fij  6,  In  our  Plate  XXXI.  is  an  ancipnt  bin-a,  preserved  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome;  it  is  covered 
with  leather.  Fig.5shows  a  iri<ra.  Fig.  4  is  a  quadriga,  which  very  nearly  corresponds  to  a 
representation  on  a  medallion  (nummus  moduli  maximi)  belonging  lo  the  Royal  Cabinet  at  Paris, 
on  which  Augustus  appears  holding  a  standard  with  the  eagle  at  its  top,  and  driving  four  horses, 
ft'  Movtfavcon,  Sup.  vol.  i.  p.  64. 

Conveyance  «a~  alsu  made  on  horseback,  in  which  rase  the  spur  (cnlenr,  xivrpov,  cf.  Virg. 
h'.n  \i  71 1)  was  the  stimulus  Saddles  of  some  kind  (ephippia,  ilpiniruiv)  were  used  ;  sometimes 
perhaps  merely  of  cloth  (tutu  slragulaYj  yet  sometimes  consisting,  as  is  now  supposed  to  be 
show  n  by  Borne  monuments*,  of  a  wooden  'frame,  stuffed  and  covered  w  ith  a  sofl  material,  and 
fastened  by  a  L'irili  (civgulvm,  :i>na).  Siirrnps  (stiipia!)  weVe  also  known*,  in  later  tin.es  at  least. 
—It  has  l.een  questioned  whether  the  ancients  used  to  slu  c  their  horses  Hut  the  allusions  of  the 
classical  writers  Beem  to  indicate  clearly  ilie  fact  that  they  did»,  although,  in  the  remains  of 
mi  i.M  an  the  Bhoe  is  s.  arcelj  found,  if  ever,  in  the  representations  of  the  horse.  Seme  have 
supposed  thai  a  plate  of  metal  was  attached  lo  the  hoof,  not  by  nails,  bin  by  some  oilier  means. 

i  SeeQinzrot   Uebei  WUen  ("a  valuable  work  on  the  history  of  Carnages"). —  »  Cf.  ArchmAogia,  vol.  viii    pill    as  cited 

M.  5.  —  u  .Irchxnlogia,  vol.  in    p.  35  —See  Ihe  pasa;e  Com  Johnson,  given  in  §  329.  3. Respecting  bridles,  bits,  Stc. 

:r.  B  Clark,  Chalcography.     Lond.  1S35. On  the  vehicles  of  the  ancients,  Sclirffcr,  lie  Re  Vehicul. 

§  270.  Here  will  be  the  place  to  notice  what  is  most  important  respecting 
the  weights  and  circulating  coins  of  the  Romans. 

1.  The  principal  Roman  weight  was  the  libra  or  pound.  This  was  divided  like  the 
ax,  into  twelve  ounces;  and  the  parts  bore  the  same  names  with  those  of  the  as,  men- 
tioned below.  \  arious  weights,  both  parts  and  multiples  of  the  pound,  were  used  in 
transacting  business.  They  were  often  made  of  a  black  stone  which  some  have 
called  Lydius  lapis.  Scales  (libra)  and  steelyards  (trutince),  like  the  modern,  were 
employed  in  weighing. 

Various  Bpei  Imens  of  Roman  weights  are  given  by  Mnnlfnucov,  vol  iii  p.  lfib,  as  cited  0  13. 
Borne  are  rectangular  solids;  but  most  of  them  are  in  a  degree  spherical.— Fig  7.  in  our  Plate 
X\\l  i-  a  nteelj  tr.l  found  ai  Pompeii ;  the  original  has  an  inscription,  bearing  a  date  which  cor- 
responds In  \  l»  77,  and  asserting  that  the  instrument  had  been  legally  tested  and  proved  in  the 
* " .- 1 j n i ■ .  1  Fig  S  is  the  movable  weight  belonging  to  another  steelyard  found  at  the  same  place 
—  Roman  steelyards  and  weight!  have  been  found  also  in  England.  Cf.  Arclunolugia,  cited  P.  IV. 
t  3-2.  5.  vol.  ix.  p.  131. 

2  n.  Servius  'I  ullius  was  the  first  who  caused  money  to  be  coined  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  134), 
by  Btamping  on  brass  the  image  of  cattle  (pecudes  whence  the  term  pecunia).  Pre- 
inously,  e.\i  bam'cs  were  made  by  barter,  or  by  means  of  uncoined  metal.  'J  he  most 
"oninioti  brass  coin,  the  as,  was  originally  a  Roman  pound  in  weight  and  was  divided 
like  that  into  twelve  ounces  (uncus).  Two  unci  at  made  a  sextans  ;  three,  a  quad  rans  ; 
foui .  B  '"'  nt  ;  live,  a  quincunx  ;  six.  a  semis  ;  seven,  septunx ;  eight,  bes  {bis  triens)\ 
'inn;.  d'»lntns  ;  ten,  dtcunx  ;  and  eleven,  deunx.     Afterwards  the  as  was  gradually 


P.   III.  CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       MONEY.  26? 

reduced  (Plin.  H.  N.  xxxiii.  3)  to  an  ounce  in  quantity,  and  finally  even  to  a  half- 
ounce.  Silver  coin  was  first  stamped  B.  C.  269;  the  most  common  coins  were  the 
Denarius,  Quiuarius,  and  Sestertius.  The  De?iarius  was  originally  reckoned  as 
equal  to  ten  pounds  of  brass,  and  marked  X,  or  \,  but  after  the  reduction  of  the  as 
to  an  ounce,  B.C.  217,  it  passed  as  equal  to  sixteen  asses.  The  proper  value  of  it 
also  varied  at  different  times.  The  Quiuarius  was  half  the  Denarius,  and  marked 
V.  The  Sestertius  was  a  fourth  part  of  the  Denarius,  and  originally  equal  to  2^ 
asses  (hence  its  name  semis  tertius),  and  marked  LLS,  i.  e.  Libra  Libra  Semis,  abbre- 
viated IIS  or  HS.  After  the  reduction  of  the  as  to  one  ounce,  the  Sestertius  passed 
for  four  asses.  The  Sestertius  was  often  called  Nummus. — Gold  coin  was  first  stamped 
at  Rome  B.  C.  207;  the  most  common  coin  was  the  Aureus  or  Solidus,  equal  in 
weight  to  two  Denarii  and  a  Quinarius,  and  in  value  to  twenty-five  Denarii. 

/.  Ward,  De  Aase  et  Partibus  ejus.     Lonl.  1719.  8. — Cardiodl,  Lectures  on  the  Coinage  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

3.  The  temple  of  Juno  Moneta  was  the  place  of  the  Roman  mint,  where  their  mo- 
ney was  coined  ;  the  term  moneta  (whence  money)  referred  originally  to  the  image,  or 
stamp,  impressed  on  the  coin  and  reminding  one  of  the  person  or  thing  represented. 
The  mint  was  under  the  care  of  the  Triumviri  monelales ;  the  coins  were  examined 
by  the  Num/nularii.  The  impression  on  the  As  or  Assipondium  was  a  Janus  bifrons 
on  one  side  and  on  the  reverse  the  rostrum  of  a  ship ;  on  the  Semis  and  Quadrans 
(called  also  Semliella  and  Terxnicius)  was  a  boat  instead  of  the  rostrum.  The  silver 
coins  Denarius,  Quinarius,  and  Sestertius,  often  had  on  one  side  a  chariot  with  two 
or  four  horses,  and  on  the  other  the  head  of  Roma  with  a  helmet ;  but  other  devices 
were  sometimes  impressed  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  139.  2). — The  value  of  the  Denarius  was 
about  15  cents,  as  deduced  from  the  experiments  of  Lelronne,  who  carefully  weighed 
1350  co7isular  denarii ;  that  of  the  Sestertius,  being  one-fourth  of  it,  was  therefore 
about  3  cents  and  8  mills. — The  ratio  of  gold  to  silver  in  the  republic  was  about 
10  to  1. 

E.  Brerewood,  De  Ponderibus  et  Pretiis  Veterum  Nummorum.  Lond.  I6t4.  4. — Mongez,  sur  l'art  du  Monnoyage  chez  les  ancienl 
et  chez  les  moderns,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  I "Institut,  Classe  d'Hist.  et  L\l.  Anc.  vol.  ix.  p.  187.— Conger,  BVckh,  as  cited  §  174.— 
Hvssey.  as  cited  §  274.  2. 

4.  The  usual  rate  of  interest  {fienus)  was  one  as  for  the  use  of  a  hundred  a  month, 
or  12  per  cent,  a  year,  and  was  paid  monthly  on  the  Calends.  It  was  called  usura 
ce?itesima,  as  in  a  hundred  months  the  interest  would  equal  the  capital  (caj)ut  or  sors). 
Horace  speaks  (Sat.  i.  iii.  12)  of  a  usurer,  who  took  60  per  cent.  For  money  invested 
in  property  exposed  at  sea  (fuznus  nauticum)  the  lender  might  demand  any  interest  he 
liked  while  the  vessel  was  out ;  but  after  she  reached  harbor,  only  the  usual  rate  of 
12  per  cent. — When  a  person,  borrowing  money,  pledged  himself  and  property  in  the 
form  of  a  sale,  he  was  said  to  beMe.r us  ;  a  person  failing  to  discharge  his  debt  within 
the  legal  term  was  by  the  law  consigned  to  the  creditor,  and  was  then  said  to  be 
addict  us. 

See  Niebuhr,  Hist  of  Rome,  ed.  Phil.  1835.  vol.  i,  p.  iSL—Hudtwalker,  De  fcen.  nautico  Rom.    Hamt,   1810.  4. 

§  271  u.  The  Romans  usually  reckoned  money  by  Sestertii.  The  sum  of  1000 
Ses'ertii  they  called  Sestertium  ;  duo  Ststertia,  e.  g.  signifies  the  same  as  bis  milie 
sestertii.  When  the  sum  was  ten  hundred  thousand  or  over,  they  used  the  word  Ses- 
tertium in  the  case  required,  prefixing  only  the  numeral  adverb  to  the  first  number, 
ten,  twenty,  &c,  and  leaving  the  hundred  to  be  supplied  by  the  mind  ;  e.  g.  Decies 
St itertium  signified  10.00,000  Sestertii ;  Quadragies  Sestertium  signified  40,00,000, 
or  4  million  Sestertii. — They  sometimes  reckoned  by  talents,  in  case  of  large  sums. 
The  talenl.inn  was  equal  to  60  libra  or  pounds. 

1.  Kennet  gives  the  following  rule  for  interpreting  the  Latin  expressions  for  sums  of  money: 
if  a  numeral  ai'ree,  in  case,  number,  and  gender,  with  Sestertius,  then  it  denotes  precisely  and 
simply  so  many  sesterces  ;  if  a  numeral  of  another  case  be  joined  with  the  genitive  plural,  Ses- 
tertium, il  denotes  so  many  thousand  sesterces  ;  if  a  numeral  adverb  be  joined  to  the  same,  or  be 
used  alone,  it  denotes  so  many  hundred  thousand  sesterces. 

We  have  on  record  some  statements,  from  which  we  may  form  a  notion  of  the  Roman  wealth 
anil  luxury  Crassns,  for  instance,  is  said  to  have  possessed  lands  to  the  value  of  bis  millies,  i.  e. 
by  the  above  rule.  2000X100,000=200.000,000  sesterces  ;  taking  the  value  of  the  sesterce  obtained 
as  mentioned  in  the  preceding  section,  we  have  3  8  X  200,000,000-:- 1000=§7,600,000,  for  the  value 
of  the  land  owned  by  Crassns  ;  he  is  said  to  have  had,  in  slaves,  building*,  furniture,  and  money, 
as  much  more. — Caligula  laid  out  upon  a  single  supper,  centies,  i.  e  lOOXI^O.OOO  sest>jrces  = 
3  8x  10. 000. 000-:-1000=$'380,000— Cleopatra  is  said  to  have  swallowed,  at  a  feast  with  Antony, 
a  pearl  worth  the  same  sum,  centies  HS. — Cicero  is  said  to  have  had  a  table  which  cost  centum 
sestertium,  i.  e.  100X1.000  sesterces— $3800. 

Cf.  Adam,  Rom.  Ant.  (ed.  Boyd)  Edinb.  1834.  p.  432. — Perhaps  these  sums  would  be  much  larger,  if  due  allowance  were  mad4 
for  the  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  precious  metals.    Cf.  Say's  Polit  Economy,  bk.  i.  ch.  ixi.  sect.  7. 

2.  In  the  Roman  svstem  of  notation,  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  were  employed  for  express- 
ing numbers  ;  viz  I  for  1,  V  for  5,  X  for  10.  L  for  50,  C  for  100,  D  for  500,  and  M  for  1000.  Instead 
of  D.  t'ley  sometimes  used  1C  to  signify  500 ;  and  instead  of  M,  they  also  used  ¥,  or  CIC,  or  O  C, 
to  signify  1000.  Sometimes  a  line  drawn  over  a  letter  indicated  that  it  was  to  be  multiplied  by 
1000;  e.  g.  X  stood  for  10,000;  L,  50,000;  C,  100,000.— Combinations  of  these  letters  usually  sig- 
nified the  *u»«  of  the  numbers  represented  by  the  several  letters  separately  ;  e.g.  VIII,  8;  XV,  15  j 


SJ6S  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

I  X,  60;  CX,  110.  But  when  I,  V,  or  X  was  placed  before  a  letter  representing  a  larger  number 
the  combination  expressed  the  difference;  e.  g  IV,  4;  XL,  40;  XC,  90;  and  when  to  IC  anothei 
C  w;is  annexed,  it  indicated  a  multiplication  by  10;  e  g.  10,500;  ICC,  5000;  HOC,  50,000:  in 
order  lo  signify  the  same  multiplication  nf  CIC,  a  C  was  also  prefixed  as  well  as  O  annexed 
e.g.  CIO,  1000;  eel.).).  10,000;  CCC1300,  100,000.  For  any  multiple,  however,  of  this  last, 
100. Ollii.  Hie  Rum  ui-  diil  not  employ  letters  :  but  prefixed  to  this  expression  a  numeral  adverb; 
as  bis,  to  signify  200,000;  ter,  to  signify  300,000;  decies,  to  signify  10,00,000,  &c. 

$  272.  It  may  be  in  place  to  speak  here  of  the  modes  of  acquiring  or  transferring  pro 
rerty  [res  private),  or  methods  of  gaining  the  ownership  (dominium).  The  following 
may  be  named  :  L.  Mandpalio,  when  a  regular  compact  or  bargain  was  made,  and  the 
transfer  was  attended  with  certain  formalities  used  among  Roman  citizens  only  ;  2.  Cessio 
in  ]ttre,  when  a  person  transferred  his  effects  to  another  before  the  Praetor,  or  ruler  of 
a  province;  chiefly  done  by  debtors  to  creditors;  the  cessio  extra  jus  was  when  an 
insolvent  debtor  nave  up  his  properly  to  his  creditors  ;  3.  Usucapio,  when  one  obtained  a 
thing  by  having  had  it  in  possession  and  use  (usus  auctoritale) ;  4.  Emptio  sub  corona, 
the  purchasing  of  captives  in  war,  who  were  sold  at  special  auction,  with  garlands 
(corona)  on  their  heads  ;  5.  .-1  uctio,  public  sale  or  auction  ;  6.  Adjudicatio,  which  referred 
strictly  either  to  dividing  an  inheritance  among  co-heirsor  dividing  stock  among  partners, 
or  settling  boundaries  between  neighbors,  but  is  applied  also  to  any  assignment  of  pro- 
perly by  sentence  of  a  judge  or  arbiter;  7.  Donatio,  when  any  thing  was  given  to  one 
fur  a  present ;  8.  Hareditas,  when  property  was  received  by  inheritance;  and  this  was 
either  by  bequest,  from  a  testator,  who  could  name  his  heirs  in  a  written  will  (testamento) 
or  in  a  declaration  {viva  voca)  before  witnesses ;  or  by  law,  which  assigned  the  property  of  one 
dying  intestate  to  his  children  and  after  them  to  the  nearest  relatives  on  the  father's  side. 

§  273  u.  The  public  sale  of  property  (audio,  also  called  proscript  io)  was  very  common 
among  the  Romans.  In  the  place  were  such  sale  was  held,  a  spear  was  set  up,  whence 
the  phrase  sub  hasta  venire  or  ventlere.  A  notice  or  advertisement  of  the  goods  to  be 
sold  {tabula  proscriptionis,  tabula  auctiunaria)  was  previously  suspended  upon  a  pillar  in 
some  public  place.  Permission  for  such  sales  must  be  obtained  of  the  city  Praetor.  The 
superintendent  of  the  sales  was  termed  magister  auctionain:  in  cases  where  the  sale 
was  to  meet  the  demands  of  debt,  he  was  selected  by  the  creditors,  and  was  generally 
the  one  who  had  the  highest  claim  against  the  debtor.  The  sale  of  confiscated  goods 
was  termed  sectio;  the  money  arising  therefrom  went  to  the  public  treasury. 

Various  distinctions  were  made  of  things  constituting  property.  One,  of  early  origin,  and  con- 
sidered important,  was  into  Res  Mancipi  and  Res  Nee  Mancipi;  the  Mancipi  were  all 
such  as  could  be  transferred  by  Ihe  form  railed  Mancipatio  ;  the  JV>c  Mancipi  were  such  as  could 
n  in  lie  thus  transferred.  Under  the  Res  Mimcipiwere  included  farms  within  Italy  (prwdia  rustica, 
also  urbana),  and  in  any  place  which  had  obtained  the/»s  Italicum  f  also  slaves  ;  and  quadrupeds 
which  were  trained  to  work  with  back  or  neck;  pearls  (margaritCB) ;  and  country  pra;dial  servi- 
tudes (or  servitutes  pradiorum  rvstieorum) .  By  a  prsedial  servitude  was  meant  a  right  of  making 
a  particular  use  of  the  land  of  another,  as  the  right  of  going  through  it  on  font  (servitus  itineris); 
of  driving  a  beast  (acitis);  of  driving  a  loaded  carriage  (vim) ;  of  conducting  water  (aquaductus); 
making  lime  (culcis  coquendw),  Sec. 

On  Ihe  subject  of  property  among;  the  Romans,  see  Unterholztn,  Ueber  die  versehiedenen  Arten  des  Eigenlhums,  &c.  Jo  the  Rhein 
Mui.—Dirkmi,  Ueber  die  ges»-tzlicheu  BeschKinkungen  des  Eigenthums,  in  the  Zeitschrift,  vol.  ii. — Byfiershoek,  Opusculum  de 
Rebus  Mancipi  el  Nee  Mancipi. — Savigny,  Das  Recht  der  Besilzes. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Antiq.  under  Dommium,  Mancipatto,  Prm- 
dium,  Servitus,  &c. On  the  form  in  auctions,  J.  Rabiriits,  De  Hastarum  et  Auclionum  Origine,  in  Grzvius,  vol.  iii. 

§  274.  The  principal  Roman  measures  of  extent  and  capacity  should  be  explained  here. 

lw.  The  measures  of  length  and  surface  were  the  following;  digitus,  a  finger's 
breath;  four  of  which  made  a  palmus,  or  handbreadth  ;  and  sixteen,  a  pes  or  foot; 
5  feet  were  equal  to  a  passus  or  pace;  125  of  the  latter  formed  a  stadium,  and  1,000  of 
them,  or  8  stadia,  a  milliare. — In  land-measures,  the  following  were  the  most  common 
denominations  ;  jugerum,  what  could  be  plowed  in  a  day  by  one  yoke  (jugd)  of  cattle, 
240  feet  long,  120  broad,  or  containing  28,800  square  feet ;  actus  quadratus,  equal  to 
half  the  jugerum,  being  120  feet  square  and  containing  14,400  feet ;  clima,  equal  to  an 
eighth  of  the  jugerum,  60  feet  square,  containing  3,600  feet. 

The  smallest  measure  of  capacity  for  liquid  and  for  dry  things  was  the  ligula,  4  of 
which  made  a  cyalhus.  and  6  an  acetabulum;  the  acetabulum  was  the  half  of  a  quartarius, 
which  was  the  naif  of  a  kemina;  and  the  hemina,  half  of  a  sextarius  nearly  equal  to  our 
pint.  For  dry  things  there  was  also  the  Modius,  equal  to  16  sextarii.  In  liquids  the 
eexiarito  was  a  sixth  of  the  co7igius;  4  congii  made  an  urna;  two  urnae,  an  amphora; 
and  20  amphora,  a  culeus. 

For  a  fuller  view  of  the  subject,  (he  Tables  presented  in  Plate  XXXII  a.  may  be  consulted. 

2.  Various  methods  have  been  adopted  to  determine  the  value  of  the  Raman  foot,  which  ia 
important  in  learning  the  values  of  the  several  measures  of  length,  extent,  and  capacity.  1.  One 
means  is  furnished  by  specimens  of  the  Roman  foot  on  tombstones;  there  are  four  of  these  pre- 
served in  the  Capitoline  Mu«>um.  2.  Several  foot-rules  also  have  been  discovered.  The  foot 
rittes  were  bars  of  brass  or  iron  of  the  length  of  a  pes,  designed  for  use  in  actual  measurements. 
3.  The  length  of  the  Roman  foot  has  likewise  been  deduced  from  the  distances  between  Ihe 
milestones  on  the  Appian  Way.  4.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  Roman  foot 
likewise  from  the  eonffius,  Hie  measure  of  capacity,  of  which  two  are  yet  in  preservalion,  one  at 
Rome,  the  oilur  at  Paris  ;  the  solin  contents  of  the  congius  are  said  to  have  been  the  cube  of 
hull"  a  ves      From  the  same  measure,  it  may  be  remarked  in  passing,  there  have  been  attempts 


PLATE    XXXIIo. 


ROMAN 

MOSEYS,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES. 

The  value  in  our  denominations  is  given  from 
Conger's  Tables. 


Measures  of  Surface. 

1.  Below  the  Versus. 


Pes  Quadratus 

100  |  Decempeda  Quadratus 

400  I     4     I  Sextula 


480  |  4  8  |  1.2  |  Actus  Simpler 


600  |     6     |   I  5  |  1.25  |  Siciliqutu 
24001    24    |    6    |    5    |     4     1  Uncia 
1 3600 1   36    |     9     |  7.5  |     6     |  1.5   |  Clima 


Poles,  iq.ft. 

0  Ou.9, 

•  94.23 

1  104  69 

1  180.08 

2  20.9 
8  83  65 

12  125.48 


lOOOul   100  [    25    1 20.83 1  16.6  |  4  16  I  2.7  I  Versus     34     167.05 


2.  Move  the  Versus. 


Versus         - 
1.44  f  Actus  Quadratus    - 
Jugerum  (As) 

Heredium 


2>S  I 


5.70 


I     1     I 


576  |  400  |  200  |  100  |  Centuria     • 

23114  J   1600  |    BOO   |    400   I     4      |  Sillus 


Acres. r.  poles,  iq.ft 

0  0  34  167.05 

•  1  9  22967 

•  2     19  187.09 

1  0  39  101.83 
.    124  2  17  109.79 

498  I  29  166.91 


Subdivisions  of  the  Jugerum  and  the  Libra. 

The  Uncia  is  a  12th  pirt  of  the  Ltbra  aod  also  of  the  Jugerum; 
and  tea  intervening  divisions  have  the  same  name. 


CTncuB 

Unci* 

Uncix 

17 n  cite 

2      Sr  Xt  .113 

5.  Quincunx 

8.  Bes 

11.  Deunx 

3.  Qua.dra.DS 

6-  Seinis 

9-  Dodrans 

12.  Jugerum, 

4.  Tnens 

7    Sep'uox 

10.   Orxlrans 

and  Libra 

Moneys. 


2 

Sembella  ■ 

4 

„    |  Aasipondium  > 
*    1  As,  Libelia      J 

S 

4    |    2   |  Dupondius 

,0 

5    1  2.5  |l.25|  Sestertius      - 

20 

10  1    5    I  2.5  1    2   J  9u.narius 
I         1         |        I  Viclonatu 

40 

20   1    10  1    5    1    4    1    2    I  Hr„: 

■  00o|  500  J  250  I  ,25  |  100  |  50  |  25  |  A™™' 


Dolls,  cti.  m. 

0  00  3.87 

•  •  7.74 
•       .  I  6.48 

•  3  0.95 

•  3  8.68 

•  7  7.38 

•  15  4.76 
3  S6  8.46 


Weights. 

1.  Below  the  Siciliquus. 

(Troy  Weight.) 
l/wts.  prs. 

Siliqua 0      2.92 

3   I  Obolus •      8.76 

6    I    2    I  Scrupulum •    17.53 

12  I    4    I    2    I  Sernisextiila  •       •        •  I     11.06 

24  j    8    I    4    I    2    I  Septula    .       .       -       -       2    22  13 
36  I    12  I     6    I    3    I  1.5   I  Siciliquus    •        -  4      9.19 


2.  Above  ite  Siciliquus. 

Lbt.  02.  diets,  grs. 
Siciliquus    -       •       •       •       •       •       0      0      4      9  19 

I  3  I  lluella •      .      5    20.26 

4    I    3    I  Uncia         .... 


48  I  36  I  12  I  Libra     - 
4800|3600|l2C0|  100  |  Centumpodii 


•  •     17     12.79 

•  10     10      9.53 
87      7     19     17  06 


Measures  of  Capacity. 


1.  For  Liquids. 


Ligula     .... 
4    I  Cyathui 
6    I  1.5  I  Acetabulum    • 
Quartariui 


12  I   3    I 


24  I    6   j   4    I    2    I  Hemina 


48  1  12 


2*8  I  72  I  48  I 


8   I    4    I    2    I  Seltarius 

Congius 
4  I  Una 


1152   288  I  192  |  96  |  48  I  24 


23041  56  I  3S4  I  192  I  f6  I  48  I  8  I  2  I  Ampho 


Gail.  qtt.  ptt. 
0  0  0.019 
0.079 
0.118 
0.237 
0  475 
0  950 
1.704 
0.819 
1.639. 


2.  For  Things  Dry. 

Ligula  ....••       . 

4    I  Cyalhus 

6    I  1.5  I  Acetabulum         .... 
12  I    3    I    2   I  Quartarius      - 
24  [  6    I   4    I    2    I  Hemina      ■       .       . 
Sextarius        . 
Semimodius 


8   I 


384  j  96  j  64  I  32   I   16  I    8    | ! 


769  I  192  I  128  I  64  I  32  I  16  I  2  I  Modiua       7 

GiU.  qt. 
Twenty  Amphorae  made  a  Culeus  114     0 


0.019 
0.079 
0.118 
0.237 
0  475 
0  950 
1.606 
1.213 


1.  Below  the  Pes. 


Measures  of  Length. 

2.  Move  the  Pes. 


Sextula    ... 
1.5  I  Siciliqutu     • 
3    I    2    I  Semiuncia 


4.5  1    3   I  1.5  I  Digitus       . 
6   I    4    I    2    1  1.3  j  Uncia 


18  I  12  I    6    I    4    I   3    I  Falmus 


72  I  48  I  24  I    16  I    12  I    4    j  Pes 


Inches. 
0  16 
0.24 
0.48 
0.72 
0  97 
2.91 
11.64 


Pes    (11.64  inches  =)      -       . 
1.25  I  Palmipes     .... 
1.5    I     1.2    I  Cubitus         .        - 
2.5  I    2     I    1.6    I  Pes  Sestertiui 
5     I     4         3.3    I     2     I  Passus 


10 


8     I   66    I     4     I     2     I  Decempeda 


120  I    96   I    80     I    48    I    24    I    12   I  Actus 


5000  I  4000  J3333.3|  2000  |  1000  |  500  |  41.6  !  Milliare 

269 


■  ft 

0.97 
1.21 
1.45 
2.42 
1.85 
0  70 
2.49 
2.75 


270  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

lo  deduct  ilie  value  nf  the  Roman  libra,  as  tile  congius  is  said  to  have  held  ten  pounds  of  wine 
:ir  water  5  The  actual  measurement  of  ancient  buildings  now  standing  at  Rome  is  a  method 
which  is  though)  lo  he  most  satisfactory.  By  these  various  methods  the  Roman  foot  is  made 
nearly  equal  to  12  inches. 

Gassendi's  experiment  to  ascertain  the  Libra  from  the  Consul  is  related  in  D£»».  /.  appended  to  vol.  iii  of  Goguet's  Origin  ol 

[juvs.  kc. Among  the  authorities  on  the  Roman  money,  weights,  and  measures,  the  following  may  be  named  in  addition  lo  them 

tited  5  HO—Kattnr.  Uallhim,  and  (Furm,  as  cited  §  174.— G  Sudanis,  De  Asse  et  partibus  ejus,  libri  v.  Lugd.  1551.  8—/.  t. 
Oronov.  De  Ses'crtiis.  L  B.  1691.— R.  Buerini,  Syntagma  de  ponderibus  et  mensuris  Rom.  Leipz.  1714.  8.— The  treatises  of  Pxlu 
»Dd  others  in  the  I  Ith  vol.  of  Grrcius,  cited  $  197.— (J.  Hooper,  S'ate  of  the  Ancient  Measures,  the  Attic,  Roman,  and  Jewish,  witt 
an  Appen  Iii  concerning  the  old  English  Money,  tic  (published  1721).  Also  in  his  works.  Oxf.  1757.  Iol.—J.  Greaves,  Descriptio« 
of  the  Roman  Foot  aud  Denarius.—/.  Arbulhnot,  Tables  of  Ancient  Coins,  &c.  Lond.  1727.  4  —  B.  Langwith,  Observations  on 
Dr.  Arbuthnott  Disserlation  on  Coins,  Weights,  kc.  Lond.  1754.  4.— Of  later  authors  in  Metrology.  Letronne  and  Wurm  (cf. 
1 174)  an  nin-t  eminent.  Cf  Bouiilet's  Dictioimaire  Classique  ;  in  which  (as  also  in  Conger's  Essay)  are  good  tables  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  weigh's  and  measures.-Cf.  also  Frerel,  Les  mesures  longuea  des  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inter,  vol.  miv.  p.  432  — 
Gosulin,  Systemes  metriques  lineares  d'antiquite,  in  the  Mem.  de  I'lmtitul,  Classe  A'Hisl.  et  Lit.  Am.  vol.  vi.  44 —it  Hutsey 
Essay  on  the  ancient  Weights  and  Money,  with  an  Appendix  on  the  Roman  aud  Greek  Foot.    Oxf.  1837.  8. 


III.  AFFAIRS    OF    WAR. 

§  27a.  The  Romans  were  of  all  the.  nations  of  antiquity  pre-eminently  war- 
like; and  by  an  uninterrupted  series  of  great  military  enterprises  made  a  rapid 
and  remarkable  advancement  in  power  and  dominion.  Hence  an  acquaintance 
with  what  pertains  to  their  military  antiquities  must  aid  in  forming  a  just  idea 
of  their  character  and  the  original  sources  of  their  greatness. 

1  u.  This  knowledge  is  to  be  drawn  from  their  chief  historians  as  the  primary  source ; 
particularly  from  the  commentaries  of  Julius  Ctesar,  and  the  historical  works  of  Livy 
and  Tacitus  ;  to  which  we  may  add  the  Greek  writers  on  Roman  history,  Polybius  and 
Appian,  on  account  of  their  constant  reference  to  military  affairs.  Besides  these  sources, 
there  are  the  Roman  writers  who  have  made  it  their  chief  object  to  describe  the  Roman 
art  of  war,  in  its  various  particulars;  viz.  Hyginus,  Froniinus,  and  Vegetius. 

2  u.  It  is  from  these  sources  that  those  who  have  formed  treatises  and  manuals  if 
Roman  antiquities  have  derived  their  materials  on  this  branch  of  the  subject. 

/.  Lijisius,  de  Militia  Romana  (a  comment.on Polybius).  Anlv.  1606.  4.— C.  de  Aquino.  Lexicon  Militare.  Roma;,  1724.  2  vols. 
fol—  Kast  und  Rbttli,  Romische  Krirgsalterthumer,  aus  echten  Quellen  geschopft  Halle,  1782.  S.  A  gnod  manual  on  this  branch 
of  antiquities— The  10th  vol.  of  Grxvus  (cited  5  197)  consists  of  treatises  by  R.  H.  Schelius  and  others,  on  the  military  affairs  of  the 
Romans.— Cf  also  Rollin,  on  the  Art  military,  in  The  History  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  of  the  Ancients  ;  found  in  his  .}.icie;it  His- 
tory. N.  York,  I&1S.  2  vols.  8.— Duncan's  Disc,  on  the  Rom.  Art  of  War,  in  his  Transl.  of  Caesar,  cited  P.  V.  §  528.  7.— C.  GuiJ- 
card,  Memoires  cril.  et  hist,  sur  plus,  points  d'antiquites  inilitaires.  Berlin,  1773.  4  vols.  8.  Cf.  §  42.—  Le  Beau,  Memoirs  on  Runjan 
Legion,  fcc.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  in  different  vols,  from  25th  to  42d. — De  Maizeroi,  to  comple'e  the  design  of  Le  Beau, 
irj  same  Mem.  See.  vol.  xlii  — Htyne,  on  the  Roman  Le  ion,  &c.     Cf.  Class.  Journ.  xi.  169. — Gibbon,  in  his  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  t. 

§  27G.  On  account  of  the  frequent  changes  in  the  military  system  of  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  successive  periods  and  revolutions  of  their  history,  the  antiquary 
must,  in  treating  of  this  subject,  pay  constant  attention  to  the  order  of  time. 
Of  the  Roman  art  of  war  in  its  earliest  state,  we  have  but  imperfect  accounts  ; 
but  we  know  that  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  nation  showed  itself  under  the  kings, 
and  gave  no  dubious  intimations  of  their  future  career. — In  the  division  of  the 
people  into  three  tribes,  made  by  Romulus,  a  thousand  men  for  foot  soldiers  and 
a  hundred  for  horsemen  were  taken  from  each  tribe,  and  thus  originated  the 
first  Roman  legion  [containing  therefore  3,000  foot  soldiers,  besides  the  300 
horsemen].  The  300  horsemen,  called  cekres,  and  constituting  in  time  of 
peace  a  bodyguard  of  the  king,  were  disbanded  by  Nuina,  but  reorganized  by 
Tullus  Hostilius,  and  increased  by  the  addition  of  300  noble  Albani ;  the  whole 
number  of  600  was  doubled  by  Tarquinius  Priscus ;  and  the  body  of  horsemen 
at  last  comprised  2,400  men. 

There  is  tint  a  perfect  agreement  in  the  accounts  given  respecting  the  numher  of  men  in  the 
cavalry  hi  differenl  periods  (cf.  Livy,  i.  30,  36;  Plutarch,  Ron.ul.  13,20;  Cicero,  De  Repuhl.  ii. 
20) ;  and  there  i~  room  for  some  doubt,  whether  the  whole  number  at  Hie  close  of  the  regal  power 
and  in  the  nourishing  times  of  the  republic  should  be  staled  as  21, 00,  or  as  30,00,  or  as  54,00.— See 
Zumpt  :iimI  Marquardt,  as  cited  $  250.  2. 

§  277.  No  one  could  be  a  soldier  under  17,  and  all  between  17  and  45  were 
enrolled  among  the  class  of  younger  men,  and  liable  to  service;  while  those  over 
45  were  ranked  among  the  elder  men,  excused  from  military  duty.  They  were 
always  received  to  service  under  a  formal  oath  (jsacr amentum).  The  regular 
time  of  service  was  16  years  for  foot  soldiers,  and  10  for  horsemen;  it  was  not 
customary,  however,  to  serve  this  number  of  years  in  succession,  and  whoever, 
at  the  age  of  50.  had  no»  served  the  prescribed  number  of  campaigns  was  still 


P.  III.  MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       DIVISION    OF    THE    ARMY.  2?  ' 

excused  from  the  rest.  Persons  of  no  property  (crtpife  censi)  were  not  included 
in  the  rule  of  requisition  as  to  service,  because  having-  nothing  to  lose,  they 
were  not  supposed  to  possess  sufficient  bravery  and  patriotism.  In  protracted 
wars  the  time  of  service  was  sometimes  extended  four  years  longer,  and  under 
the  emperors  20  years  became  the  regular  period,  except  for  the  imperial  guard, 
who  were  required  to  serve  but  16.  As  all  the  soldiers  were  Roman  citizens 
and  free-born,  the  rank  of  soldier  was  in  high  estimation;  and  their  peculiar 
rights  and  privileges  were  termed  jus  militiae.  Freedmen  could  be  admitted 
only  into  naval  service. — In  the  earliest  times  the  Roman  order  of  battle  re- 
sembled the  Grecian  phalanx.  Subsequently  it  was  a  custom  to  form  several 
platoons  or  divisions.  At  a  later  period  the  method  of  three  lines  was  adopted, 
which  will  be  described  below  (§  286). 

§  278.  During  the  freedom  of  Rome,  as  has  been  mentioned,  the  army  was 
usually  commanded  by  one  of  the  consuls.  A  consular  army  commonly  con- 
sisted of  two  legions  of  foot,  and  six  hundred  horse,  all  native  Romans.  For 
two  consuls  a  double  number  was  requisite,  4  legions  and  1,200  horse.  The 
legion  contained  originally  3,000  foot-soldiers,  but  gradually  increased  to  6,000 
and  higher.  In  the  second  Punic  war  it  consisted  of  6,200  foot  with  300  horse; 
and  each  legion  had  at  that  time  six  tribunes,  of  whom  there  were  of  course  as 
many  as  24  in  all.  These  tribunes  were  chosen  by  the  people,  partly  from  the 
equites,  partly  from  the  plebeians. 

1.  The  numhernf  foot-soldiers  in  a  legion  appears  to  have  varied  much  at  different  times. 
Cf.  Linj,  vii.  25;  xxix.  24;  xliv.  21  ;  Polybius,  iii.  12. 

2  u.  In  cases  of  great  urgency,  those  who  had  served  their  time  and  were  over  six- 
and-forty  years  of  age,  were  yet  bound  to  defend  their  country,  and  to  fill  vacancies  in 
the  rily  legions;  in  such  emergencies,  freedmen  and  slaves  were  sometimes  enlisted. 
Soldiers  received  at  such  times  of  sudden  alarm  (tumult  us)  were  called  tumullarii  or 
subitarii;  those  of  them  enlisting  vokiniarily  were  called  volones. 

3  u.  Entire  freedom  1'rom  military  duty  was  enjoyed  only  by  the  senators,  augurs, 
and  others  holding  a  priestly  office,  and  persons  suffering  some  bodily  weakness  or 
defect.  Remission  of  some  part  of  the  legal  term  of  service  was,  however,  often  granted 
as  a  reward  of  bravery  ;  this  was  called  vacatio  konorata. 

§  279.  In  the  levying  of  the  soldiers  (delectus),  the  following  were  the  usages 
most  worthy  of  notice.  The  consuls  announced  by  a  herald  the  time  of  a  levy 
(diem  cdicebant) ;  then  every  citizen,  liable  to  service,  must  appear,  on  peril  of 
his  property  and  liberty,  at  the  Campus  Martius;  each  consul  elected  for  him- 
self two  legions,  assisted  by  the  military  tribunes.  The  common  soldiers  were 
taken  from  all  the  tribes,  which  were  called  successively  and  separately  in  an 
order  decided  by  lot.  Four  men  were  selected  at  a  time,  of  which  the  tribunes 
of  each  legion,  in  rotation,  took  (legerunl)  one.  Afterwards  the  oath  of  fidelity 
{sacramentum)  was  taken,  first  by  the  Consuls  and  Tribunes,  then  by  the  Cen- 
turions and  the  Decuriones,  and  lastly  by  the  common  soldiers.  Then  the  names 
of  the  latter  class  were  placed  in  the  roll  of  the  legion,  and  under  the  emperors 
a  mark  was  branded  on  the  right  hand,  that  they  might  be  recognized,  if  they 
attempted  desertion.  Compulsory  levying,  resorted  to  in  necessities,  was  called 
conquisitio  ,-  the  same  thing  among  the  allies  was  termed  conscriplin. 

§  280.  After  the  levy  was  made,  the  legions  were  directed  to  another  place 
of  assembling,  in  which  they  were  formed  into  divisions  and  furnished  with 
arms.  The  younger  and  feebler  were  placed  among  the  light  troops,  veliles  ,- 
the  older  and  richer  among  the  heavy-armed  ;  to  which  class  belonged  the  hastati. 
principes,  and  iriarii. 

1  u.  The  hasiali  were  young  men  in  the  flower  of  life,  named  from  the  long  spear 
used  by  them  at  first,  and  occupying  the  foremost  line  in  battle;  the  principes  were 
the  men  in  full  vigor  of  middle  age,  standing  in  the  second  line  in  battle;  the  triarii 
the  more  advanced  in  age,  veterans,  constituting  the  third  line  in  battle  and  taking  thence 
their  name.  A  legion,  when  it  consisted  of  3,000,  had  1,200  hastati,  1,200  principes, 
and  600  triarii.  '1  he  last  number  always  remained  the  same;  the  two  former  were 
variously  increased,  and  light-armed  troops  (velites  or  milites  leves)  were  added  ac- 
cording to  pleasure. 

On  the  three  ranks,  hastati,  ftc,  Le  Beau,  as  cited  §  275.  Mem,  IfC.  vol.  xxix.  p.  325. 

2  u    On  this  occasion  when  the  troops  were  formed  into  divisions,  the  colors  or  stand- 


272  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

ards  were  brought  forth  from  the  Capitol  and  treasury,  and  committed  to  the  propei 
officers  (cf.  \  282). 

§  281.  The  subdivisions  were  originally  manipuli  or  centurise,  containing  each 
a  hundred  men;  and  the  leader  and  captain  of  this  number  was  called  Cenlurio 

When  the  legion  was  divided  into  the  three  ranks  of  the  hastati,  principes,  and 

triarii,  each  rank  had  at  first  fifteen  maniples;  and  the  whole  legion,  of  course, 
forty-five  maniples.  These,  maniples  were  all  equal,  consisting  of  60  regular 
privates,  two  centurions,  and  a  standard-bearer.  The  maniples  of  the  hastati 
had  300  men  of  the  velites,  distributed  equally  among  them;  to  the  triarii  also 
were  allowed  thirty  companies  of  the  same;  the  principes  had  none. 

i  u.  At  another  period  the  legion  was  divided  into  30  maniples,  and  each  of  the  three 
ranks  into  10.  The  maniples  ot  the  triarii  contained  still  the  same  number,  60  men  in 
each,  600  in  all;  those  of  the  hasiati  and  principes  contained  double  the  number,  120 
men  in  each,  2,400  in  all  of  both  ranks;  among  these  were  divided  1,200  light-armed 
soldiers;  thus  making  a  legion  of  4,200.  Each  maniple  was  now  divided  into  two  cen- 
turies,  sometimes  called  ordines.  The  tenth  part  of  a  legion,  three  maniples  of  each 
rank,  and  therefore  including  300  men,  was  called  a  cokors,  and  from  the  number  of 
men  contained,  I ricennaria ;  when  the  legion  contained  4,200,  the  cohort  had  420,  and 
was  termed  quadrigenaria ;    so  also  when  larger,  quingenaria  and  sexcenaria. 

On  Ibt  cohorl,  Lt  Beau,  as  cited  §  275.   Mem,  S(C.  vol.  xxxii.  p.  279. 

2  h.  Each  maniple  had  now  two  centurions,  distinguished  as  prior  and  posterior  ;  and 
every  centurion  bad  bis  assistant,  called  uragus,  subcenturio,  and  optio- — The  300  horse- 
men belonging  to  a  legion  were  divided  into  10  turmce,  and  each  turma  into  3  decuria, 
consisting  of  10  horsemen,  whose  head  or  chief  was  called  decurio. 

§  28*2.  Each  maniple  had  its  standard,  placed  in  its  midst  when  in  battle. 
The  chief  standard  was  always  in  the  first  maniple  of  the  triarii,  -vhich  was 
styled  primus  pi/us.  The  images  and  figures  upon  the  Roman  standards  were 
various;  but  the  principal  standard,  common  to  the  whole  legion,  was  a  silver 
eagle  on  a  staff  or  pole,  sometimes  holding  a  thunderbolt  in  his  claws,  an  em- 
blem of  the  Roman  power  or  success.  Those  of  the  infantry  were  usually 
termed  signa,-  those  of  the  cavalry,  vexilla;  the  bearers,  signiftri,  or  vexillarii. 

1.  The  vexillum,  a  flag  or  banner,  was  a  square  piece  of  cloth,  hung  from  a  bar  fixed 
across  a  spear  near  its  upper  end.  It  was  used  sometimes  for  toot-soldiers,  especially 
for  veterans,  who  were  retained  after  their  term  of  service  ;  these  were  by  distinction 
called  vexillarii,  as  they  fought  under  this  peculiar  standard  {sub  vexillo) ;  they  were  also 
called  subsiguani.  On  the  flag  were  commonly  seen  the  abbreviations  tor  Senatus  popu- 
lusque  Romanus,  or  the  name  of  the  emperor,  in  golden  or  purple  letters. — The  signum 
was  originally  a  handful  of  hay,  expressed  by  the  word  manipulus,  and  it  was  from  this 
circumstance  that  a  division  ot  soldiers  came  to  be  so  called.  Afterwards  it  was  a  spear 
or  staff  with  a  crosspiece  of  wood,  sometimes  with  the  figure  of  a  hand  above  it,  in 
allusion  perhaps  to  the  word  manipulus  ;  having  below  the  crosspiece  a  small  shield, 
round  or  oval,  sometimes  two,  bearing  images  ot  the  gods  or  emperors.  Augustus  in- 
troduced an  ensign  formed  by  fixing  a  globe  on  the  head  of  a  spear  or  staff,  denoting 
the  dominion  of  the  world.  When  Constantine  embraced  Christianity,  he  adopted  a 
new  imperial  standard  which  was  termed  the  Labarum  ;  it  is  described  as  a  long  pike 
with  a  transverse  yard  at  the  top,  in  the  form  of  a  cross;  from  this  yard  was  hung  a 
6ilken  veil  or  banner,  of  purple  color,  richly  embroidered  and  ornamented  ;  the  portion 
of  the  standard  above  the  cross-yard  was  wrought  into  a  monogram  for  the  word 
X.pict6{. —  The  standards  and  colors  were  regarded  with  superstitious  veneration  by  all 
classes  of  the  army. 

In  our  Plate  XXXIII.  eleven  different  forms  of  Roman  standards  are  given,  in  the  figures 
marked  by  the  leiler  C—  Fit'-  D  is  the  hand  of  Mohammed,  »  son  of  sacred  standard  or  sign  of  the 
prophet's  power  among  his  followers;  it  is  taken  from  Morie.r  (cited  P.  V.  J  '213.  3),  who  repre- 
sents it  as  carried  in  religions  processions  in  Persia.  Two  forms  of  ancient  Persian  standards 
are  also  given,  in  the  figures  marked  B.— The  eight  marked  A  are  Egyptian. — Several  Roman 
standards  are  seen  also  in  Plate  XXIX  ;  cf.  $  224. 

Respecting  me  Labarum,  see  L.  Coleman,  Antiquities  of  Chr.  Church,  Note  prefixed  to  Explanation  of  Plates.— Cf.  Cias$.  Juurn. 
vol.  iv.  p  222. 

2.  Near  the  standard  was  usually  the  station  of  the  musicians. — "  The  Romans  used 
only  wind-music  in  their  army  ;  the  instruments  which  served  for  that  purpose  may  be 
distinguished  into  the  tuba,  the  cornua,  the  buccina,  and  the litui. — The  tuba  is  supposed 
t;>  have  been  exactly  like  our  trumpet,  running  on  wider  and  wider  in  a  direct  line  to 
the  orifice. — The  cornua  were  bent  almost  round  ;  they  owe  their  name  and  original 
to  the  horns  of  beasts,  put  to  the  same  use  in  the  ruder  ages. — The  buccinee  seem  to 
have  had  the  same  rise,  and  may  derive  their  name  from  bos  and  cano.  It  is  hard  to 
dutintruUih  these  from  the  cornua,  unless  they  were  something  less  and  not  quite  so 


PLATE     XXXIII. 


274  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

crooked. — The  litui  were  a  middle  kind  between  the  cornua  and  t  ;bcs,  being  almoal 

nt,  only  a  little  turning  in  at  the  top,  like  the  lituus  or  sacred  rod  of  the  aujjurs; 

whence  they  borrowed  their  name. — These  instruments  being  all  made  of  brass,  the 

playi  ra  on  them  went  under  the  name  of  cencatores,  besides  the  particular  terms  of 

ornidnes,  buccinator  es,  &c. ;  and  there  seems  to  have  been  a  set  number 

every  manipulus  and  turma  ;  besides  several  of  higher  order,  and  common 

to  the  whole   le<rion.     In   a  battle,  the  former   took   their  station  by  the  ensign  and 

-  oi  their  particular  company  or  troop  ;  the  others  stood  near  the  chief  eagle  in  a 

ring,  hard  by  the  general  and  prime  officers;  and  when  the  alarm  was  to  be  given,  at 

toe  word  of  the   general,  these  latter  began  it,  and  were   followed  by  the  common 

sound  ol  the  rest,  dispersed  through  the  several  parts  of  the  army.— Besides  this  clns 

tinim.  or  alarm,  the  soldiers  gave  a  general  shout  at  the  first  encounter,  which  in  latei 

ley  called  barrilus,  from  a  German  original."     (Kennet.) 

A  form  of  the  Roman  cornu  is  seen  in  Pla'e  XXVI.  lis  B  :  of  the  liluvs,  probably,  in  fig.  n. See  Galand,  La  Trompette  chej 

leaanciens,  in  Ihe  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  I.  p.  104.— Galand,  De  Tuba:  origine  et  usu  apud  Veleres,  in  Ugolinus,  vol.  izxii.  as  cited 
5  197. 

§  283.  The  weapons  of  the  soldiers  differed  according  to  the  class  to  which 
they  belonged.  The  velites  had  a  round  shield  (par ma),  about  three  feet  in 
diameter,  a  spear  for  hurling-  (hasta  velitaris),  a  helmet  of  ox-hide  (cudo),  or  of 
the  skin  of  a  wild  beast  (galerus),  and  in  later  times  a  sword. — The  hastati  bore 
a  large  shield  (scutum),  three  and  a  half  and  four  feet  long  and  over,  of  thin 
boards  covered  with  leather  and  iron  plate ;  a  short  but  stiff  and  pointed  sword 
(gladius),  on  the  right  hip;  two  javelins  of  wood  with  iron  points  (pi/a),  one 
longer  and  the  other  shorter;  an  iron  or  brazen  helmet  (galea),  with  a  crest 
adorned  with  plumes  (crista) ;  greaves  for  the  legs,  plated  with  iron  (ocrese), 
used  in  later  times  only  for  the  right  leg;  a  coat  of  mail  (lorica),  formed  of 
metal  or  hide,  worked  over  with  little  hooks  of  iron,  and  reaching  from  the 
breast  to  the  loins,  or  a  breastplate  (thorax)  merely. — The  principes  and  triarii 
used  weapons  of  the  same  kind ;  excepting  that  the  triarii  had  longer  spears, 
called  Iristu-  longse,  in  later  times  lanceae,  and  long  swords,  called  spathas,  or 
when  of  smaller^ize,  semi-spathas. — The  shield  was  marked  by  the  name  of  the 
soldier  and  the  number  of  the  legion  and  maniple  to  which  he  belonged.  Who- 
ever returned  from  battle  without  his  shield,  forfeited  his  life. — The  weapons 
of  the  cavalry  were  similar  to  the  Grecian  (cf.  §  138):  a  war  cap  (cassis),  a 
coat  of  mail,  an  oblong  shield,  greaves  or  boots,  a  lance  or  javelin,  and  sword 
and  dagger,  which  last  was  used  only  in  close  fight. 

The  horsemen  in  fig.  1, of  Plate  XXX. have  a  small  round  shield.  Cf.  $235.3.  A  sort  of  shield 
is  also  seen  in  fig.  2  of  the  same  Plate  ;  whieh  represents  a  Roman  knight  attacking  a  barbarian 
soldier  ;  from  an  antique  gem.  Boih  these  figures  show  the  horseman's  spear. — The  scutum  and 
fUidius  of  ihe  soldier  are  seen  in  Plate  XXXIII.  fig.  1,  which  is  a  Roman  legionary,  taken  from 
Trajan's  Pillar  (cf.  P.  IV.  #  188  2).— The  shield  is  likewise  seen  in  fig.  2,  which  represents  a 
legionary  with  the  accouterments  and  baggage,  which  he  was  obliged  always  to  carry  in  march- 
ing' (cf  j  2(J8.  2).— The  lorica  or  coat  of  mail  may  he  seen  in  Plate  XXII.  fig.  5,  in  which  Ihe  legs 
a-  well  as  the  bod)  are  defended  by  mail;  this'  is  the  figure  given  in  Calmet  to  illustrate  the 
armor  of  Goliath,  the  Philistine  ;  il  presents  also  his  shield-bearing  attendant.  Cf.  1  Sam.  xvii. 
4-7. — In  fig.  8,  a  cnat  of  mail  covers  the  arms  ;  tin-  helmet  here  seen  extends  down  behind  to 
defend  the  neck  as  well  as  head  ;  the  figure  is  drawn  from  Trajan's  Column.  In  Plate  XXX. 
fie.  k,  is  a  Dacian  horseman  completely  covered  with  scale  armor;  as  is  his  horse  also. — For 
other  articles  of  armor,  see  Plates  XVII.  and  XXII.     Cf.  }}  45  and  139. 

On  tne  Romas  armor,  me  Meyrick,  as  cited  §  139.— Also,  Le  Beau,  (as  cited  §  275)  in  the  Men.  de  VAcad.  $c.  vol.  zxx\x.  p  43J 

§  284.  According  to  the  common  accounts,  the  Roman  soldiery  received  no 
pay  during  the  first  three  hundred  years  of  the  city,  and  wages  (stipendium) 
were  first  given  to  foot-soldiers  B.  C.  405,  and  to  horsemen  three  years  after.  Each 
soldier  had  a  monthly  allowance  (demensum)  of  about  two  bushels  of  wheat, 
and  a  Stipend  of  three  asses  per  day.  The  stipend  was  afterwards  greater; 
Julius  Cffisar  doubled  it,  and  under  the  emperors  it  sometimes  rose  still  higher. 
The  wages  were  sometimes  doubled  to  particular  soldiers  or  bodies  of  them  as 
t)  reward  ;  such  were  balled  tMplicarii.  Certain  days  were  fixed  for  the  distri 
bution  of  the  allowance  of  com.  Whatever  any  one  saved  of  his  pay  was  called 
peculium  castrensei  half  of  which  was  always  deposited  with  the  standards, 
until  the  term  of  service  expired. 

1  ».  Various  extraordinary  rewards  were  given  to  those  who  distinguished  them- 
Bolvi  s  in  war,  called  dona  militaria.     Donatives,  donativa,  on  the  oilier  hand,  were 

gil     [(     es  distributed  to  the  whole  army  on  particular  occasions,  as  e.  g.  in  cases 

ol  success,  when  also  sacrifices  ami   games  were  celebrated.     Among  the  rewards, 
'»lden  and  gilded  crowns  were  particularly  common;  as,  the  corona  castrensis  or  val~ 


P.  Ill  MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       REWARDS.       PUNISHMENTS.  275 

laris  to  him  who  first  entered  the  enemy's  entrenchments;  corona  muralis,  to  hin; 
who  first  scaled  the  enemy's  walls ;  and  corona  navalis,  for  seizing  a  vessel  oi  tha 
enemy  in  a  sea-fight;  also  wreaths  and  crowns  formed  of  leaves  and  blossoms;  as 
the  corona  civica.  of  oak  leaves,  conferred  for  freeing  a  citizen  from  death  or  captivity 
at  the  hands  of  the  enemy ;  the  corona  obsidionalis,  of  grass,  for  delivering  a  besieged 
city;  and  the  corona  triumphalis,  of  laurel,  worn  by  a  triumphing  general. 

The  various  frowns  above  named  are  exhibited  in  Plate  XVI.  Fie.  1  is  the  civica;  fie  2,  the 
castrensis  ;  3,  the  obsidionalis  ;  4,  the  muralis  ;  5,  the  navalis  ,*  7,  the  triumphalis. — Fig.  6  is  the 
radiata,  such  as  appears  to  have  been  worn  by  the  emperors. 

2.  "  There  were  smaller  rewards  (prtsmia  minora)  of  various  kinds  ;  as  a  spear  with- 
out any  iron  on  it  (hasta  pura) ;  a  flag  or  banner,  i.  e.  a  streamer  on  the  end  of  a  lance 
or  spear  (vexillum),  of  different  colors,  with  or  without  embroidery  ;  trappings  (phalera), 
ornaments  for  horses,  and  for  men ;  golden  chains  (aurece  torques),  which  went  round 
the  neck,  whereas  the  phalerce  hung  down  on  the  breast;  bracelets  (armillai),  orna- 
ments for  the  arms  ;  comiytla,  ornaments  for  the  helmet  in  the  form  of  horns  ;  cat  tilts 
or  catenults,  chains  composed  of  rings;  whereas  the  torques  were  twisted  (fortes)  like  a 
rope;  fbula,  clasps  or  buckles  for  fastening  a  belt  or  garment."  (Adam).  Another 
form  of  reward  was  an  exemption  from  service  (vacatio)  by  release  before  the  legal 
term  was  finished  (cf.  $  278.  3).  At  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  service,  the  soldiers 
received  a  bounty  or  donation  in  land  or  money,  which  was  sometimes  called  emeritum  ; 
those  who  had  served  their  time  out  being  also  called  emeriti. 

The  tarqua  is  seen  on  the  Dying  Gladiator  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  IS6.  9).— See  Archsologia  (as  cited  P.  IV.  §  32.  5),  vol.  xxii.  p.  2S5,  od 
an  ancient  bronze  bracelet. 

§  285.  The  punishments  inflicted  for  misdemeanors  and  crimes  were  very 
severe,  both  in  garrison  and  in  camp.  Theft,  false  testimony,  neglect  of  watch, 
leaving  a  post  assigned,  or  cowardly  flight,  was  visited  with  the  punishment 
called  fustuarium,  in  which,  on  a  signal  from  a  tribune,  the  whole  legion  fell  to 
beating  the  offender  with  sticks,  usually  until  his  death  ;  if  he  escaped,  his  dis- 
grace was  scarcely  preferable  to  death.  When  a  whole  maniple  had  fled,  this 
punishment  was  inflicted  on  every  tenth  man,  being  taken  by  lot,  and  the  rest 
were  chased  from  the  camp,  and  received  only  barley  instead  of  wheat  for  their 
allowance.  Often  disgrace  was  inflicted  in  other  ways,  as  by  loss  of  pay 
(stipendin  privari),  or  loss  of  rank,  e.  g.  when  a  soldier  of  the  triarii  was  de- 
graded into  the  hastati.  The  tribunes  could  inflict  punishmenis  only  after  in- 
vestigation of  the  case;  the  general,  on  the  other  hand,  could  immediately  and 
absolutely  pronounce  sentence,  even  to  death.  The  latter  was  the  sentence  for 
wilful  disobedience  oi  orders,  for  insurrection  and  desertion.  The  mode  of  in- 
flicting death  was  not  uniform. 

§  286.  Of  the  Roman  order  of  battle  (acies)  a  general  idea  may  be  given  here  ; 
a  minute  detail  would  belong  rather  to  a  system  of  tactics.  The  legions  were 
commonly  ranged  in  three  lines,  the  foremost  occupied  by  the  hastati,  the  next 
by  the  principes,  and  the  last  by  the  triarii.  Between  each  two  maniples  a 
space  was  left,  so  that  the  maniples  of  the  second  line  stood  against  the  spaces 
of  the  first,  and  the  maniples  of  the  third  against  the  spaces  of  the  second. 
These  spaces  were  termed  rectae  vix,  and  were  as  broad  as  the  maniples  them- 
selves. 

1  u.  This  arrangement  was  calleW</» incttnx.  It  had  the  advantage  both  of  stability 
and  of  being  easily  changed;  it  avoided  all  confusion  and  interruption,  and  was  espe- 
cially put  in  opposition  to  the  Grecian  phalanx  (§  142),  which  it  could  easily  penetrate 
and  route.  It  was  less  fitted  to  resist  a  violent  onset,  and  therefore  was  often,  in  anti- 
cipation of  attack,  changed  so  as  to  close  up  the  spaces.  But  in  this  form  of  arrange 
ment  the  soldiers  were  mutually  sustained  and  relieved  by  being  in  different  lines,  and 
by  means  of  their  separate  maniples  could  easily  change  the  positions  for  attack  and 
defence.  Originally  the  lines  were  ranged  six  feet  apart,  and  the  men  in  the  maniples 
three  feet  from  each  other;  in  later  times  the  space  was  diminished  till  the  soldier  had 
scarcely  more  than  room  for  his  shield. 

2.  To  the  disposition  of  the  soldiers  in  the  thtee  lines  of  hastati,  principes,  and  triarii, 
as  above  described,  some  have  applied  the  phrase  triplex  acies  (cf.  Sallust.  Bell.  Jug. 
49) ;  others  consider  the  phrase  as  sometimes  at  least  meaning  simply  an  arrangemen" 
in  three  lines;  an  arrangement  in  two  lines  being  called  acies  duplex.  Other  methods 
of  drawing  up  the  army  for  battle  were  occasionally  used.  We  mention  here  the 
cuneus,  in  which  the  army  was  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  wedge  in  order  to  pierce  anc 
break  the  enemy's  lines ;  the  globus,  in  which  the  troops  were  collected  into  a  close, 
firm,  round  body,  usually  adopted  in  case  of  extremity ;  the  forfex,  in  which  the  army 
Wok  a  form  something  like  that  of  an  open  pair  of  shears  or  the  letter  V,  in  order  to 


276  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

receive  the  enemy  when  coming  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge  ;  the  serra,  in  which  the  tinea 
were  extended,  and  in  making  the  engagement  some  parts  of  the  front  advanced  before 
the  other  parts,  thus  presenting  an  appearance  a  little  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 

§  287.  The  first  attack  in  a  battle  was  customarily  made  by  the  light-armed 
troops,  which  in  earlier  times  were  ranged  in  front  of  the  first  line;  but  after- 
wards they  were  stationed  in  the  intervals  between  the  maniples,  behind  them, 
or  on  the  wings,  and  made  attack  in  connection  with  the  hastati.  A  considerable 
part  of  the  light-armed  were  stationed  behind  the  triarii,  to  support  them.  The 
attack  commenced  when  the  legion  was  at  the  distance  of  an  arrow-shot  from 
the  enemy.  As  the  light-armed  now  discharged  their  arrows,  the  hastati  ad- 
vanced, hurled  their  javelins,  and  fought  with  their  swords.  If  the  enemy  were 
not  forced  to  give  way,  or  they  were  themselves  pressed  hard,  the  signal  was 
given  for  retreat;  on  which  the  light-armed  and  the  hastati  drew  back  through 
the  intervals  of  the  second  line,  and  the  principes  advanced  to  the  fight.  In 
the  mean  while,  the  triarii  continued  in  a  stooping  posture,  leaning  on  their 
right  knee  with  the  left  foot  advanced,  covering  themselves  with  their  shields, 
and  having  their  spears  stuck  in  the  ground  with  the  points  upwards;  the  line 
thus  presented  the  appearance  of  a  sort  of  wall.  If  the  principes  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat,  the  triarii  then  rose,  and  both  the  principes  and  the  hastati 
being  received  into  their  intervals,  renewed  the  action  with  close  ranks  (com- 
pressis  ordinibus)  and  all  three  in  a  body  (uno  continente  agmine).  This  united 
attack  was  then  sustained  by  the  light-armed  troops  in  the  rear  of  the  whole. 

§  288.  Of  the  light-armed  troops  a  few  things  further  may  be  noticed.  They 
were  commonly  called  velites  ,•  in  early  times,  however,  rorarii  and  accensi, 
sometimes  also  adscriptitii,  optiones,  and  ferentarii.  They  carried  no  shields, 
but  slings,  arrows,  javelins,  and  swords.  They  were  usually  divided  into 
fifteen  companies  (expediti  manipuli,  or  expedites  cohortes),  and  besides  these 
there  were  300  usually  distributed  among  the  hastati  of  the  old  legions.  The 
light-armed  often  sat  behind  the  horsemen,  and  when  these  approached  the 
enemy,  sprang  off  and  sought  to  wound  and  push  them  by  the  javelin  and  sword. 

1  u.  They  were  sometimes  distributed  among  the  maniples  of  the  three  lines,  about 
forty  being  joined  to  each  maniple. — They  were  of  three  different  classes,  designated 
by  their  principal  weapon  ;  jacidatores,  who  hurled  the  javelin;  sagittarii,  who  shot  the 
arrow  ;  and  funditores,  who  cast  stones  or  balls  with  the  sling.  There  were  also 
afterwards  Iragularii  and  balistarii,  who  threw  siones  by  the  a"id  of  machines. 

In  Plate  XXXIV.  fig.  a,  is  a  Roman  fuvditor ;  fig.  b,  a  Sagittarius. 

2  m.  Those  called  antesignani  were  not  the  light-armed,  but  probably  were  the 
soldiers  of  the  first,  or  of  the  first  and  second  line. — The  position  of  the  light-armed 
during  battle  was  often  changed  ;  but  it  would  seem  that  most  commonly  they  stood  in 
three  lines  behind  the  hastati,  the  principes,  and  ihe  triarii,  and  rushed  forward  to  their 
attacks  through  the  intervals  between  the  maniples. 

§  289.  The  Roman  cavalry  was  the  most  respected  part  of  their  army,  espe- 
cially as  long  as  it  was  composed  wholly  of  knights,  and  this  class  of  citizens  en- 
joyed a  high  estimation  and  rank  already  noticed  (§250).  Even  before  the  regular 
establishment  of  this  order  in  its  full  privilege^  B.  C.  124,  the  cavalry  consisted 
chiefiy  of  the  noble  and  respectable  young  Romans ;  such  indeed  was  the  case 
on  the  first  creation  of  the  cavalry  by  Romulus,  who  received  the  most  noble 
youth  among  his  300  horsemen  called  celeres;  the  same  was  true  under  the  fol- 
lowinir  kings,  who  increased  their  number.  Towards  the  end  of  the  republic, 
the  Roman  knights  began  to  leave  the  military  service,  and  thus  the  cavalry 
of  the.  later  armies  was  made  up  almost  wholly  of  foreigners,  who  were  taken 
into  pay  in  the  provinces  where  the  legions  were  stationed.  The  knights  of 
later  times  served  only  among  the  Frastvrians,  or  the  imperial  bodyguard 
(cf.  §  309). 

§  290.  At  that  period  also,  the  cavalry  was  often  separated  from  the  legions, 
while  previously  they  had  been  regarded  as  the  same  army,  and  been  stationed 
especially  on  the  wing. — The  forces,  commonly  called  a/as  were  different  from 
the  legionary  cavalry;  they  were  bodies  of  light-horse,  composed  of  foreigners 
and  employed  to  guard  the  flanks  of  the  army. — The  number  of  horsemen  con- 
nected wiib  a  legion  has  already  been  named  (cf.  §§  276,  278,  281)  ;  commonly 
300:  sometimes  400.     The  legions  of  the  auxiliaries  (cf.  §  292)  had  the  same 


P.  III.  MILITARY   AFFAIRS.       ORDER   OF    BATTLE.  SJ77 

number  of  foot  soldiers  as  the  Roman  legions,  but  a  greater  number  of  horsemen  ,- 
although  the  ratio  was  not  always  the  same. 

1  u.  The  cavalry  was  divided  by  the  tribunes  into  10  turmm,  corresponding  to  the 
number  of  cohorts  in  each  legion,  and  30  decurice,  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
maniples.  For  every  maniple  there  were  therefore  ten  horsemen.  Each  turma  had 
three  Decurioncs,  the  first  of  whom  was  commander  of  the  whole  turma;  three  ura"i 
(dvpayol)  were  under  them.  In  how  many  lines  the  cavalry  used  to  be  drawn  up  for 
battle  is  not  known.  In  an  attack,  the  first  line  of  turmcs  endeavored  to  break  the 
ranks  of  the  enemy  ;  and  were  supported  therein  by  the  second.  If  the  enemy  were 
arranged  in  the  wedge-form,  the  cavalry  dashed  upon  them  at  full  speed. 

2  u.  The  horses  were  protected  by  leather  on  their  bodies  and  plates  of  iron  on  their 
heads  and  breasts.  In  general,  the  Roman  cavalry  were  of  principal  service  in  pro- 
tecting the  flanks  of  the  infantry,  reconnoitering  the  enemy,  collecting  forage,  occupy- 
ing remote  defiles,  covering  retreats,  and  pursuing  the  routed  foe.  Where  the  ground 
was  uneven,  the  horsemen  dismounted  and  fought  on  foot. 

On  the  Roman  cavalry,  Le  Beau,  as  cited  §  275,  Mem.  SfC  vol.  Jtiviii. —Zumpt,  cited  §  256  2. 

§  291.  In  early  times,  when  the  line  in  battle  was  not  yet  threefold,  but  the 
foot  were  ranged  in  a  single  line,  the  horse  were  placed  in  a  second  to  support 
them.  In  the  year  of  the  city  500,  B.  C.  252,  the  threefold  arrangement  of  the 
legion  seems  to  have  been  adopted.  The  cohorts  have  already  been  mentioned 
(§  281);  these  also  had  their  particular  arrangement,  which  probably  waa 
formed  originally  by  uniting  the  maniples,  a  things  not  common  until  later  times, 
since  in  the  second  Punic  war  the  separate  position  of  the  maniples  was  still 
practiced.  Towards  the  end  of  the  republic,  the  threefold  division  of  the  le- 
gionaries was  abolished  ;  and  the  legion  now  consisted  of  ten  cohorts,  each  of 
which  contained  400  or  500  men.  After  the  time  of  Caesar,  the  more  frequent 
order  of  battle  was  to  place  four  cohorts  in  the  front  line  and  three  in  each  of 
the  two  others. — Generally  the  Roman  tactics  became  gradually  more  and  more 
like  the  Greek.  Under  Trajan  the  arrangement  for  battle  was  a  single  compact 
line.  Under  later  emperors,  the  use  of  the  Macedonian  phalanx  was  adopted, 
but  it  was  renounced. 

§  292.  Of  the  legions  of  auxiliaries  we  only  remark  further,  that  th(  se  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  inhabitants  of  the  Italian  states,  which  at  an  early  period ,  either 
of  choice  or  after  subjection,  entered  into  treaty  with  the  Romans,  and  bound 
themselves  to  furnish  for  the  field  as  many  foot-soldiers  as  the  Romans,  with 
more  than  the  Roman  proportion  of  cavalry.  The  auxiliary  legions  occupied 
the  two  wings  when  drawn  up  in  battle-array. 

1  u.  A  complete  consular  army,  comprising  the  full  quota  from  the  allied  states,  con 
tained  eight  legions ;  although  the  number  of  allies  was  not  always  exactly  the  same 
When  in  process  of  time  the  allies  {socii)  were  admitted  to  Roman  citizenship,  the  dis 
tinction  made  between  them  and  the  Romans  ceased. 

2.  The  number  of  legions  enrolled  and  assembled  for  service  was  different  at  dif- 
ferent times.  "During  the  free  state,  four  legions  were  commonly  fitted  up  every 
year,  and  divided  between  the  two  consuls ;  yet  in  cases  of  necessity  we  sometime* 
meet  with  no  less  than  sixteen  or  eighteen  in  Livy. — Augustus  maintained  a  standing 
army  of  23  or  (according  to  some)  of  25  legions."     {.Kennett.) 

Respecting  the  military  establishment  of  the  emperon,  see  Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  i. — Cf.  §  309. 

3.  The  forces  of  the  allies  were  termed  alee,,  from  the  circumstance  of  being  usually 
placed  on  the  flanks.  They  were  under  command  of  officers  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose, called  prcrfecti.  A  portion  of  the  foot  and  horse  of  the  allies,  called  exlraordi- 
narii,  were  stationed  near  the  consul,  and  one  troop,  called  ablecli,  served  him  as  a 
special  guard. 

§  293.  Besides  its  proper  members,  each  legion  had  its  train  of  attendants, 
and  baggage  and  machines  of  war.  Among  the  numerous  attendants  were  the 
following;  the  fabri,  mechanics,  workers  in  wood  and  metal;  lixae,  sutlers, 
holding  a  sort  of  market;  chirurgi,  field-surgeons,  of  which  Augustus  allowed 
ten  to  a  legion;  metatores,  whose  business  was  to  mark  out  and  fix  the  ground 
for  encampments ;  frumentarii,  who  had  the  care  of  furnishing  provisions ; 
librarii  and  scribse,  who  were  charged  with  duties  such  as  fall  under  the  care 
of  a  quarter-master. — The  proper  baggage  of  the  army  (impedimenta.}  consisted 
partly  of  the  bundles  or  knapsacks  of  the  soldiers  (sarcinae),  partly  of  weapons, 
military  engines,  stores,  provisions,  and  the  like,  which  were  carried  in  wagons 


fc78  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

ani  on  beasts  of  burden.  Each  person  in  the  cavalry  had  a  horst  and  a  servant 
(agasu)  to  carry  his  baggage.  The  servants  and  waiting  boys  of  the  legions 
were  termed  calones.  Originally  there  were  but  few  persons  of  this  class,  but 
in  later  times  they  were  often  so  many  as  to  surpass  the  number  of  proper 
soldiers. 

§  294.  The  order  of  march,  when  a  Roman  army  moved  to  the  field  or  into 
the  camp,  was  usually  as  follows.  The  light-armed  went  in  advance;  then 
followed  the  heavy-armed,  both  foot  and  horse;  then  the  persons  needed  to 
pitch  and  prepare  the  camp,  to  level  the  grounds  and  perform  other  necessary 
work ;  then  the  baggage  of  the  general  (dux)  and  of  his  lieutenants  (legal?), 
guarded  by  horsemen;  then  the  general  himself  under  his  usual  escort;  then 
124  horsemen;  after  which  came  the  military  tribunes  and  other  officers.  After 
these  followed  first  the  standards,  next  the  choice  men  of  the  army,  and  last 
the  servants  and  muleteers  or  managers  of  the  beasts.  This  seems  to  have  been 
the  usual  order  of  march ;  but  it  was  of  course  changed  and  modified  in  different 
cases  in  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  the  country,  and  other  circum- 
stances. The  order  in  marching  out  of  camp  was  also  somewhat  different. 
And  in  order  to  equalize  the  exposure  to  danger,  both  the  wings  and  the  legions 
also  were  required  to  relieve  each  other  in  position. 

§  295.  Besides  the  arrangements  for  battle  mentioned  already  (§  286),  some 
others  adopted  particularly  in  marching  should  be  mentioned.  The  agmen 
quadratum  was  when  the  army  was  disposed  in  a  compact  form,  usually  that 
of  a  square,  with  the  baggage  in  the  centre,  either  in  expectation  of  the  enemy, 
or  on  a  retreat;  the  agmen  pilatum,  or  justum,  was  a  close  array  in  marching. 
Urbis  signified  not  a  circular  form,  but  such  a  four-sided  arrangement  as  pre- 
sented a  front  on  every  side.  The  testudo  was  also  an  arrangement  of  the  sol- 
diers, in  which  they  stood  close  together,  raising  their  shields  so  as  to  form  a 
compact  covering  over  them  (like  the  shell  over  the  tortoise),  and  in  which  they 
approached  the  walls  of  the  enemy,  or  waited  to  receive  the  enemy  at  a  certain 
distance.  The  turris  was  an  oblong  quadrangular  form,  with  the  end  or  narrow 
side  presented  to  the  foe;  laterculus  was  the  same,  considered  only  in  its 
breadth. 

§  296.  The  camp  of  the  Romans  resembled  in  many  particulars  the  Grecian, 
but  had  several  peculiar  advantages.  A  camp  occupied  only  for  a  short  time 
during  a  march  was  called  caslra,  and  in  the  later  ages,  mansio;  castra  slaliva 
signified  a  more  permanent  camp,  in  which  the  army  remained  for  a  length  of 
time,  e.  g.  over  a  winter,  therefore  termed  castra  hiberna,  or  through  summer, 
castra  aesliva.  The  tents  of  such  a  camp  were  covered  with  hides,  boards,  straw, 
and  rushes.  The  most  convenient  site  possible  was  selected  for  the  camp.  The 
highest  and  freest  part  of  it  was  chosen  for  the  head-quarters  of  the  general. 
This  was  called  the  prsetorium,  and  occupied  a  space  of  four  hundred  feet 
square.  Here  the  council  of  war  was  held.  A  particular  spot  in  it  was  appro- 
priated for  taking  the  auspices,  augural 'e ;  and  another  for  the  erection  of  the 
tribunal,  whence  the  commander  sometimes  addressed  the  army.  In  this  space 
were  the  tents  of  the  contubernales  of  the  general  (the  young  Patricians  who 
attended  upon  him  as  volunteers),  and  of  other  persons  belonging  to  his  train. 
Near  the  prsetorium  were  the  tents  of  the  officers  and  the  bodyguards.  The 
entrance  to  the  head-quarters  was  always  next  to  the  enemy. 

$  297 1.  On  the  right  of  the  Praetorium  (e),  was  the  Forum  (v),  an  open  space  for  a 
market,  and  for  martial  courts;  and  on  the  left  the  QucestoHum  (w),  where  the  stores, 
money,  arms,  and  the  like  were  kept.  A  select  portion  of  the  cavalry,  equites  ullecti 
et  evocati  (o,  o)  were  also  stationed  on  each  side  of  the  Fra-torhtm,  and  behind  them 
the  peditet  ablecti  et  evocati  (p,  p).  Next  were  the  tents  of  the  Tribunes  (**)  and  of 
the  Prefects  (,+t).  Then  was  a  passage,  or  free  way,  called  principia  (u),  100  feet 
wide,  extending  through  the  whole  camp  from  one  of  the  side  gates  (c)  to  the  other  (d). 
The  rest  of  the  camp  was  what  was  called  the  lower  part.  Through  the  center  of 
mis  lower  part  ran  another  passage  50  feet  wide,  extending  in  the  opposite  direction. 
On  each  side  of  this  last  passage,  the  tents  of  the  cavalry  (h)  and  the  triarii  (i)  were 
cast;  then  beyond  these  tents,  on  each  side,  was  another  passage  50  feet  wide,  and 
then  the  tents  of  the  principal  (k)  and  hastati  (l)  ;  and  after  another  similar  passage 
heyond  these  on  each  side,  the  tents  of  the  auxiliaries,  both  cavalry  (M)and  infantry  (n). 
Theee  five  passages  were  crossed  at  right  angles,  in  the  center,  by  another  of  the  same 


PLATE     XXXI  V. 


280  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

width,  termed  Via  quintana  (T)  because  five  maniples  weie  encamped  on  each  side 
of  it.  In  each  tent  there  were  eleven  men,  which  formed  a  contubernium,  one  of  them 
having  the  oversight  of  the  other  ten.  Around  the  tents  was  a  free  space  200  feet  wide, 
which  was  the  place  of  assembling  to  march  out  of  camp,  and  served  also  tor  defense 
in  case  of  an  attack  from  an  enemy. 

Around  the  whole  camp  was  a  ditch,  fossa,  and  wall  or  rampart,  vallum.  The 
ditch  or  loss  was  ordinarily  nine  feet  wide  and  seven  deep  ;  the  rampart  three  feet 
nigh  ;  these  measures,  however,  varied  with  circumstances.  The  rampart  was  formed 
M  the  earth  thrown  (agger)  from  the  ditch,  with. sharp  stakes  (sudes)  fixed  therein. 
On  each  of  the  four  sides  was  an  opening  or  gate,  porta,  guarded  by  a  whole  cohort. 
These  gates  were  called  porta  pratoria  (a),  being  near  the  head-quarters  towards  the 
enemy  ;  porta  decumana  (is),  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  camp,  called  also  qucestoria,  as 
in  earlier  times  the  quaestorium  was  near  it;  porta  principalis  dexlra  (d),  and  porta 
principalis  sinistra  (c),  being  near  the  pr'mcipia. 

A  plan  of  a  consular  camp  is  seen  in  Plate^lxXI  V.  fig.  P,  as  given  in  Boyd's  ed.  of  Adam ;  it 
Is  drawn  from  the  description  of  Polybins  (Hist.  vi.  24).— The  letters  and  signs  included  in  pa- 
rentheses in  the  above  description  refer  severally  to  the  corresponding  marks  in  the  Plan.  1  he 
letters  Q  Q.  in  the  Plan,  designate  the  tents  occupied  by  the  extraordinary  cavalry  of  the  allies; 
R  R.  by  the  extraordinary  foot  of  the  allies  ;  S  S,  by  strangers  and  occasional  allies.— In  fig.  R  is 
a  Bection  of  afussa,  here  given  as  twelve  feet  broad  and  nine  deep;  showing  also  the  agger  and 
tudes. 

§  298.  The  watches  which  were  maintained  by  night  were  termed  vigilias; 
excubise  also  signifies  properly  night-watches,  but  is  used  in  a  more  general 
sense  ;  statio  was  the  name  for  each  single  post.  Two  tribunes  had  constantly 
the  oversight  of  the  whole  camp,  which  the  same  two  retained,  at  the  longest, 
for  two  months.  At  their  tents  all  the  officers  and  leaders  were  required  to 
assemble  at  daybreak  and  with  them  go  to  the  general  to  receive  his  commands. 
The  watchword  (symbulum)  was  called  tessera,  from  the  four  sides  or  corners 
of  the  little  wooden  block  on  which  it  was  written. 

1  u.  The  watchword  was  given  by  the  general  to  the  tribunes,  and  by  them  to  the 
centurions,  and  by  them  to  the  soldiers.  Those  who  carried  it  from  the  tribunes  to  the 
centurions  were  called  tesserarii.  Short  commands  were  often  written  on  similar 
tablets,  and  in  like  manner  rapidly  circu.ated  through  the  army.  Before  the  head- 
quarters a  whole  maniple  kept  guard,  particularly  by  night.  The  outworks  of  the 
camp  were  occupied  by  the  light-armed.  Every  maniple  was  obliged  to  place  four  men 
upon  guard,  so  that  240  men  were  always  on  the  watch  in  a  camp  of  two  legions.  The 
nisht  was  divided  into  four  parts,  of  three  hours  each,  also  called  watches,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  guards  (vigiles)  were  relieved  by  a  new  set.  The  legions  of  the  auxilia- 
ries had  also  their  guards  and  watchmen.  It  belonged  to  the  cavalry  to  inspect  the 
watch  on  duty,  and  make  the  formal  round  (circuitio  vigilum)  or  visit  the  several  posts 
or  stations. 

2.  In  the  discipline  of  the  Roman  camp,  the  soldiers  were  employed  in  various  ex- 
ercises, whence  the  army  in  fact  took  its  name,  exercitus.  These  exercises  included 
walking  and  running  completely  armed;  leaping,  swimming,  vaulting  upon  horses  of 
wood,  shooting  the  arrow,  hurling  the  javelin,  carrying  weights,  attacking  a  wooden 
image  of  a  man  as  an  enemy,  &.c. — It  was  essential  to  the  comfort  of  the  soldier,  that 
he  should  be  al>le  to  walk  or  run  in  his  full  armor  with  perfect  ease  ;  in  common  march- 
ing he  was  obliged  to  carry,  in  addition  to  his  arms,  a  load  consisting  of  his  provisions 
and  customary  utensils,  amounting  in  weight,  it  is  supposed,  at  least  to  60  pounds. — 
The  exercises  were  performed  under  the  training  of  the  campidoctores. 

3.  The  winter  quarters  (rostra  hibernal  of  the  Romans  were  strongly  fortified,  and,  under  the 
emperors  particularly,  were  furnished  with  every  accommodation  like  a  city,  as  storehouses, 
workshops  (fabricm),  an  infirmary  (vaUtudinariuni),  &.C.  Many  European  towns  are  supposed 
to  have  had  their  origin  in  such  establishments;  in  England,  particularly  those  whose  names 
end  in  Chester  or  tester.    {.Mam).— Cf.  Roifs  Military  Antiquities  in  Great  Britain. 

§  299.  The  siege  of  a  city  was  commenced  by  completely  encircling  it  with 
troops,  and  the  encircling  lines  (corona)  were,  in  case  of  populous  cities,  some- 
times double  or  triple.  In  the  attacks  upon  the  city  they  employed  various 
methods,  and  engines  of  various  sorts. 

1m.  The  ttsindo  before  mentioned  (§295)  was  frequently  used ;  upon  the  shields 
tints  arranged  other  soldiers  mounted,  and  so  attempted  to  scale  the  walls.  Higher  walls 
they  mounted  by  the  help  of  scaling-ladders  (scalce). — The  crates,  hurdles,  were  a  kind 
ol  basket-work  of  willow;  they  were  attached  as  a  sort  of  roof  to  stakes,  borne  in  the 
hands  of  those  who  used  this  shelter  over  their  heads,  in  advancing  to  make  an  attack  ; 
they  were  also  employed  by  the  besieged  as  a  breastwork  on  their  walls,  and  on 
marches  they  served  as  fascines  to  (ill  or  cover  soft  and  miry  places. —  Vinece  were 
rotable  sheds  or  mantlets  of  light  boards,  eight  feet  high,  seven  feet  broad,  and  sixteen 


P.   III.  MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       SIEGES.  281 

long.  They  were  filled  out  and  covered  with  wickerwork  or  hides,  and  &  rved  to  pro 
tect  from  the  arrows  of  the  enemy  while  the  soldiers  were  undermining  the  wails. 

Fig  1,  of  Plate  XXXIV.  shows  the  use  of  the  tesludo  by  a  bod)  of  soldiers  approaching  a  wall 
according  to  the  statement  above. — Fig.  2  shows  the  manner  of  foiming  the  crules,  and  the  vmeie. 

2u.  For  a  similar  purpose  were  the  plutei,  wooden  shelters,  covered  with  hides,  and 
moved  upon  wheels  or  rollers.  Under  these  the  slingers  and  archers  especially  placed 
themselves,  and  sought  to  force  the  defenders  from  their  walls,  in  order  that  the  scaling- 
ladders  might  be  the  more  easily  and  effectually  applied.  Of  the  same  kind,  yet 
stronger  were  the  musculi  ;  and  also  the  testudhi.es  (wooden  shelters  to  be  distinguished 
from  tesludo  before  mentioned);  these  were  most  commonly  used  to  protect  the  work- 
men in  erecting  a  fortification,  filling  up  the  ditch,  or  the  like.  With  some  of  these 
shelters  they  often  covered  the  battering  ram. 

Fig.  8,  Plate  XXXIV.  is  a  pluteus,  advancing  against  a  wall. 

3  u.  The  battering  ram  was  a  large  beam  employed  to  break  in  the  walls  of  the 
besieged  city,  in  order  to  enter  it.  Originally  it  was  managed  immediately  by  the 
hands  of  certain  soldiers^vithout  protection,  b/it  was  afterwards  placed  uoder  the  shel- 
ters just  described,  which  covered  the  men  who  thrust  it  against  the  walls.  Its  name, 
aries,  was  derived  from  its  front  end,  which  was  covered  with  iron  in  a  form  resembling 
a  ram's  head.  Sometimes  it  was  composed  of  several  pieces  united,  and  so  large  that 
125  men  were  required  to  work  it. 

The  falees  murales  and  asseres  falcali  were  beams  with  iron  hooks,  to  break  and 
tear  down  the  upper  breastwork  on  the  walls;  they  were  managed  by  the  aid  of  ropes.— 
Two  other  instruments,  which  were  probably  of  a  similar  use,  were  termed  the 
grus  and  the  corvus. — The  terebra  was  an  instrument  employed  for  opening  a  hole  in 
the  walls. 

In  fig.  4,  of  Plate  XXXIV.  is  the  battering-ram  in  its  simple  form,  suspended  by  ropes  from  a 
cross-beam  fixed  above  two  posts  driven  into  the  ground.  In  fig.  5,  it  is  attached  to  a  complete 
and  substantial  frame  placed  upon  rollers.  In  fig.  10,  it  appears  under  a  shelter  as  above  men- 
tioned.— Fig.  9  shows  the  asser  falcatus. 

4  u.  One  of  the  most  ordinary  operations  of  a  siege  was  to  construct  mounds  (ag- 
geres)  as  high  as  the  walls  of  the  city,  or  higher.  On  these  mounds  were  placed  the 
military  engines,  also  movable  towers  and  other  shelters  of  the  soldiers.  By  means 
of  boards,  palisades,  and  wooden  grapnels,  they  were  made  capable  of  sustaining  such 
vast  weights.  On  account  of  the  great  quantity  of  wood-work  in  them,  the  besieged 
generally  strove  to  destroy  them  by  fire,  which  was  often  applied  by  mining  under 
ground. 

These  towers  (turres)  were  of  various  size  and  structure,  often  120  feet  high,  and  of 
ten  or  twenty  stories.  They  were  moved  upon  wheels  or  rollers.  From  the  upper 
stories  were  usually  cast  arrows,  javelins,  and  stones;  from  the  middle,  a  bridge  or 
passage  was  sometimes  thrown  over  to  the  walls;  and  in  the  lower  one  the  battering 
ram  was  brought  forward.  When  they  reached  the  slope  of  the  mound,  they  were 
taken  to  pieces  by  stories  and  reconstructed  on  its  summit.  To  protect  them  from 
fire,  they  were  guarded  by  plates  of  iron,  or  coverings  of  hides,  or  moistened  with  a 

solution  of  alum. A   long  iron  javelin    fixed    to  a  shaft  of  fir,   wound   with  tow, 

smeared  with  pitch  and  resin,  then  set  on  fire  and  hurled  upon  the  enemy  from  a  tower, 
was  called  falarica,  which  name  was  also  applied  to  the  tower  itself  from  which  they 
were  thrown.  The  malleoli  were  similar,  a  sort  of  burning  arrows,  or  bunches  of  tow 
attached  to  javelins,  designed  to  set  on  fire  the  works  of  the  enetny. 

Fig.  3,  Plate  XXXIV.  is  a  specimen  of  the  movable  towers. 

5  u.  One  of  the  most  common  and  largest  engines  was  the  catapvlta,  by  which 
arrows,  javelins,  and  particularly  stones  were  hurled  a  great  distance.  Stakes,  sharp- 
pointed  and  hardened  in  the  fire  (called  aclides  or  sudes  missiles)  were  also  thrown  from 
the  catapult  m. — In  a  siege  there  were  usually  a  multitude  of  these  machines.  Their 
construction  is  not  well  understood ;  we  only  know  that  ropes  and  cords  or  sinews 
were  used  in  order  to  shoot  the  arrows  and  other  weapons,  which  they  threw  with  fatal 
efficacy. — Of  a  similar  kind  was  the  balista ;  called  also  in  later  times  onager,  and 
designed  chiefly  for  throwing  the  javelin. — For  shooting  arrows,  sometimes  poisoned, 
the  Romans  made  use  of  an  engine  termed  the  scorpio,  which  could  be  managed  by  p 
single  man. 

Fig.  6,  of  Plate  XXXIV.  is  the  scorpio. — Fig.  7  is  the  balista,  but  on  a  scale  more  reduced. 

§  300.  The  modes  of  defense  on  the  part  of  the  besieged  were  various. 

I  u.  They  hurled  rocks,  often  more  than  a  hundred  pounds  in  weight,  upon  the  be 
siegers,  poured  upon  them  boiling  pitch  or  oil,  and  endeavored  to  thrust  down  the 
scaling-ladder  by  means  of  iron  hooks,  and  to  kill,  force  back,  or  pull  up  to  themselves 
the  soldiers  attempting  to  mount.  The  thrusts  of  the  battering-ram  they  sought  to 
bafrle  or  weaken  by  hanging  sacks  before  it,  and  in  various  other  ways,  and  even  to 
seize  and  draw  it  up  by  their  ropes  and  springs.     They  likewise  cast  burning  torches 

22 


'iS2  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

upon  the  wooden  engines  of  the  besiegers,  and  in  other  ways  attempted  to  set  them 
on  fire. 

2.  "  Where  they  apprehended  a  breach  would  be  made,  they  reared  new  walls  be- 
hind, wiih  a  deep  ditch  before  them.  They  employed  various  methods  to  defend 
ihemsi  Ivea  against  the  engines  and  darts  of  ihe  besiegers.  (Liv.  xlii.  63.) — But  these, 
and  every  thing  else  belonging  to  this  subject,  will  be  best  understood  by  reading  the 
accounts  preserved  to  us  ol  ancient  sieges,  particularly  of  Syracuse  by  Marcellus  (Liv 
xxiv.  :C).  of  Ambracia  by  Fulvius  (Id.  xxxviii.  4).  of  Alesia  by  Julius  Caesar  (de  Bell. 
dull,  vii.),  of  Marseilles  by  his  lieutenants  (Cces.  B.  Civ.  ii.),  and  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus 
-:;iii  (Joseph.  'Ii'  Bill.  Jud.)." 

§  301.  In  early  times  the  Romans  seldom  hazarded  a  sea-fight,  and  only  in 
special  cases.  Afterwards,  however,  they  acquired  a  permanent  naval  power, 
and  always  kept  two  fleets  ready  for  sail,  each  manned  with  a  legion,  at  the  two 
harbors  of  Misenum  and  Ravenna. 

1  u.  The  warriors  engaged  in  this  service  were  called  classiarii,  and  were  enlisted  in 
the  same  way  as  the  legions  of  the  land  forces,  but  often  tafcen  from  among  them. 
The  highest  officers  or  commanders  of  the  fleet  (classis)  were  originally  the  Duumviri 
navales,  afterwards  a  Consul  or  a  Praetor,  who  was  called  prafeclus  classis,  and  sta- 
tioned  in  the  most  distinguished  vessel  (navis  prcetoria)  known  by  its  flag  (vexillum 
purpureum).  Every  other  ship  had  a  tribune  or  centurion  for  its  particular  com- 
mander (?iavarchus).  Upon  the  upper  deck  (stega,  constratum  navis)  stood  the  fight 
ing  men. 

2.  Besides  the  nnvarchus  or  commander  (called  also  magister  navis),  each  ship  had  a 
pilot  (gubemator,  rector)  and  sometimes  two,  who  had  an  assistant  (proreta)  to  watch 
at  the  prow.  Besides  the  classiarii  or  fighting-men  (marines,  called  also  epibatce), 
there  were  also  the  rowers  (remiges)  who  were  more  or  less  numerous  according  to  the 
size  of  the  galley  ;  these  were  under  a  leader  or  director  (horlator,  KcKevarm,  cf.  $  158,) 
who  with  his  voice  and  a  little  mallet  (portisculus)  guided  their  motions. 

3  u.  War-towers  were  often  placed  on  board  the  vessels,  commonly  two,  one  in  the 
fort  part,  the  other  in  the  hinder  part.  For  seizing  and  boarding  a  vessel  of  the  enemy 
the  ferrece  manus,  harpago?ies,  and  corvi  were  employed  ;  there  were  also  other  instru- 
ments of  this  sort;  combustible  materials  and  the  like  were  used  in  order  to  fire  the 
ships  of  the  enemy. 

§  302  u.  On  engaging  in  a  fight,  the  sails  (vela)  were  usually  furled,  because  they 
would  easily  take  fire,  and  the  vessel  was  managed  by  the  rudder  alone.  The  fleet 
was  arranged  by  the  commander  in  a  sort  of  battle-array,  and  each  vessel  was  as- 
signed its  place,  which  it  must  maintain.  A  position  as  far  as  possible  from  land  was 
usually  desired.  The  larger  vessels  were  usually  placed  in  front,  although  the  order 
of  arrangement  for  naval  combat  was  by  no  means  uniform,  but  very  various.  The 
following  forms  are  mentioned  ;  acies  simplex,  cuneata,  lunala,  falcala.  Before  the 
battle  commenced,  the  omens  were  examined,  sacrifices  and  vows  were  offered.  Then 
upon  all  the  ships  was  hung  out  a  red  flag,  or  a  gilded  shield,  and  the  signal  for  at- 
tack was  given  by  a  trumpet  (classicum).  The  contest  consisted  partly  in  the  rapid 
and  violent  rushing  of  the  vessels  against  those  of  the  enemy,  for  the  purpose  of 
piercing  the  hostile  ships  by  means  of  the  rostra,  which  were  two  strong  beams  at  the 
prow  of  the  galley,  covered  with  iron  at  the  points,  and  made  fast  to  both  sides  of  the 
keel;  partly  in  throwing  darts,  spears,  grappling  irons,  and  the  like;  and  partly  in 
actual  close  combat. 

$  303.  The  chief  parts  of  a  Roman  ship  were  similar  to  those  of  a  Grecian  (§  155). 
The  following  were  some  of  the  terms  ;  prora,  prow;  puppis,  stern;  alveus,  belly; 
stni  iniiinn.  ribs;  sentina,  pump  to  draw  off  bilge-water  (nautea) :  foramina,  holes  to 
put  out  the  oars  (remi) ;  sedilia,  tra?istra,  seats  of  the  rowers;  scalmus,  the  piece  of 
wood  to  which  the  oar  was  tied  by  thongs  (stroppi);  gubernaculum,  clavus,  rudder; 
two  rudders  were  common  ;  i/i.<'Lrne,  the  image  at  the  prow;  tutela,  the  image  at  the 
stern  ;  aplustria,  ornamental  parts  tit  the  stern,  sometimes  at  the  prow,  having  a  sort 
ot  stafl  with  a  streamer  (ttrnia);  mains,  mast;  modius,  the  place  in  which  the  mast 
was  fixed:  antennas,  brackia,  yards  for  the  sails  (vela);  cornua,  extremities  of  the 
yards  ;  vedes,  the  ropes  fastened  to  the  cornua.  The  rigging  and  tackling  in  general 
was  called  urmamenta  ;  the  ropes,  rudentes,  or  funes  ;  the  anchor,  anchora  ;  sound- 
ing-lead, molybdis  ;  the  ballast,  saburra. 

§304.  The  Roman  ships  were  divided  into  three  principal  kinds,  the  war-galley,  Mi 
transport,  and  the  ship  of  burden  ;  the  first  was  propelled  chiefly  by  oars;  the  secouJ 
was  often  towed  by  ropes;  the  third  depended  mostly  on  sails.  These  classes  were 
called  by  various  names.  Ships  of  burden  had  the  general  name  of  naves  oncrariai  ; 
they  were  commonly  much  inferior  in  size  to  modern  trading  vessels  :  although  some 
ships  are  mentioned  of  vast  bulk,  as  that  which  brought  from  Egypt  the  great  obelisk 
in  the  tiiie  of  Caligula,  said  to  be  about  1138  tons.  Ships  of  war  were  often  termed 
MWea  longcB,  being  longer  than  others;  naves  turrita  from  the  towers  constructed  or 
i»ern  ;  also  '■ost.rata,  aratw,  from  their  beaks.;  and  particularly  tr 'remes,  quadriremes. 


V.  III.  MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       THE    TRIUMPH.  283 

&c,  from  trie  number  of  benches  of  rowers  in  them  severally.  As  many  as  ten 
banks  are  mentk-ned;  Livy  (xlv.  35)  speaks  of  a  ship  with  sixteen  banks;  and  Pto- 
lemy Philopator  is  said  to  have  built  one  with  forty  banks.  On  the  manner  in  which 
the  benches  were  arranged  in  the  Roman  and  Grecian  galley  we  refer  10  <>  15C.  2. 

The  naves  Liburnica  were  light,  fast-sailing  ships,  made  after  the  model  of  the 
galley  used  by  the  Liburni,  a  people  of  Dalmatia  addicted  to  piracy. — The  jAaseli,  or 
naves  actuaries,  were  a  kind  ot  yacht  or  small  bark,  with  few  oars,  also  designed  for 
expedition. — The  Camarce  were  of  a  peculiar  construction,  with  two  prows  and  rud- 
ders, one  at  each  end,  so  that  they  could  at  pleasure  be  propelled  either  way  without 
turning;  they  could  be  covered  with  boards  like  the  vaulted  roof  of  a  house.  (Tuc. 
Mor.  Germ.  44.) 

Fig.  1,  of  Plate  XXIII.  is  a  specimen  of  the  phasehis. — Fig.  3  is  the  Liburniav  galley.— Fig.  2  is 
the  stern  of  a  Roman  vessel,  from  a  painting  at  Pompeii  ;  if  shows  the  two  rudders,  attached  on 
each  side,  by  hands,  as  on  a  pivot,  so  that  the  lower  and  larger  ends  could  be  raised  out  of  water 
by  'ashing  the  upper  ends  down  to  the  deck.     Cf.  Acts  x.wii.  40 

On  Ihe  ships  of  the  Romans,  see  Scheffer,  Holvxll,  Le  Roy.  kc.  as  cited  ^  156  2.—/.  ^rosins.  De  Liburnicarum  Constructione,  in 

Orasi'ui,  vol.  iv. It  ivas  stated,  in  1835,  that  the  port  of  Pompeii  had  been  discovered,  presenting  vessels  thrown  upon  their 

lides  iud  covered  by  the  volcanic  matter.   (Downfall  of  Babylon,  Sept.  22,  1835,  citing  London  Literary  Gazelle.) 

§  305.  The  great  public  reward  of  a  Roman  commander,  who  had  gained  an 
important  victory  by  sea  or  by  land,  was  the  triumph,  a  pompous  show,  which 
•vas  practiced  even  in  the  time  of  the  kings.  This  honor,  however,  could  be 
acquired  only  by  those  who  were  or  had  been  Consuls,  Dictators,  or  Praetors; 
it  was  not  awarded  to  Proconsuls.  Yet  in  later  times  there  were  some  excep- 
tions to  this.  He  who  claimed  the  honor  of  a  triumph  must  have  been  also,  not 
merely  commander,  but  chief  commander  of  the  armv,  and  the  victory  must  have 
been  gained  in  the  province  assigned  to  the  Consul  or  Prastor.  The  importance 
of  the  campaign  and  the  victory,  and  its  advantage  to  the  state,  also  came  into 
consideration;  and  the  gpneral  must  have  brought  back  his  army  to  share  with 
him  in  the  glory  of  the  triumph  and  accompany  him  in  procession.  If  the  vic- 
tory consisted  only  in  the  recovery  of  a  lost  province,  it  was  not  honored  with  a 
triumph. 

§  306.  The  first  solemnity  which  took  place  at  Rome  after  a  victory,  was  a 
thanksgiving  or suppKcafio  (§  220).  Then  the  general  must  apply  to  the  senate 
in  order  to  obtain  a  triumph.  Permission,  however,  was  often  given  by  the 
people,  contrary  to  the  will  of  the  senate.  A  law  or  vote  was  always  passed 
by  the  people  permitting  the  general  to  retain  his  command  (imperiurn)  in  the 
city,  on  the  day  of  his  triumph,  because  in  other  circumstances  he  was  required 
to  lay  down  his  command  before  entering  the  city.  The  abuse  of  the  honors 
of  a  triumph  occasioned  the  enactment,  B.  C.  63,  of  the  law  called  lex  triiirnphw 
lis  Porcia,  which  prohibited  a  triumph  unless  at  least  five  thousand  of  the  enemy 
had  fallen  in  battle. 

§  307.  A  general  enjoying  this  honor  was  not  to  enter  the  city  until  the  day 
of  his  triumph,  and  his  previous  request  to  the  senate  must  be  made  out  of  the 
city  in  the  temple  of  Bellona.  The  expenses  were  usually  defrayed  from  the 
public  treasury,  except  in  cases  where  a  conqueror  held  a  triumphal  procession 
without  public  authority,  as  was  sometimes  done  on  the  Alban  mountain.  The 
expenses  were,  commonly  very  great.  Before  a  triumph,  the  general  usually 
distributed  presents  to  his  soldiers  and  to  others. — The  Senate  went  to  meet  the 
triumphing  general  as  far  as  the  gate  by  which  he  entered  the  city. 

1  u.  The  order  of  the  triumphal  procession  was  as  follows.  First  in  the  tine,  ordi- 
narily, were  the  lictors  and  magistrates  in  a  body.  They  were  followed  by  the  trum- 
peters and  musicians  of  various  kinds,  the  animals  to  be  offered  in  sacrifice,  the  spoils 
and  booty  taken  from  the  enemy,  the  weapons  and  chariots  of  the  conquered,  pictures 
and  emblems  of  the  country  reduced,  the  captive  princes  or  generals,  and  other  pri- 
soners. Then  came  the  conqueror  himself,  seated  in  a  high  chariot,  drawn  by  toui 
white  horses,  robed  in  purple,  and  wearing  a  wreath  of  laurel.  He  was  followed  by 
his  numerous  train,  consisting  partly  of  his  relatives,  but  chiefly  of  his  arm)  drawn 
out  in  regular  order. — The  procession  marched  amid  constant  acclamations,  through 
the  whole  city  to  the  Capitol,  where  the  victims  were  sacrificed,  and  a  poriion  of  the 
spoils  of  the  victory  were  consecrated  to  the  gods.  Afterwards  were  feasting,  merri- 
ment, spectacles,  and  games.  Often  the  scenes  of  the  triumph  lasted  several  days.  The 
pomp,  expense,  and  luxury  attending  them  became  constantly  greater  and  greater, 
and  the  whole  custom,  on  account  of  its  frequent  occurrence,  and  the  great  abuse  of 
it  by  some  of  the  emperors,  was  reduced  at  last  to  a  common  and  contemptible  nfTalr 


254  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

—'['lie  first  triumph  for  a  victory  al  sea  (triumphus  navalis)  wan  oblained  by  the  Con 
buI  C    Duillius,  alter  his  memorable  defeat  ol  the  Carthaginians,  B.  C.  261. 

2.  Respecting  the  pillar  and  inscription  in  honor  of  Duillius,  see  P.  IV.  }  133.— For  a  fuller 
view  nt'ri  triumphal  display,  read  Plutarch's  description  of  the  triumph  of  Paulus  JEmilins,  after 
the  capture  nf  Perseus  king  of  Macedonia.— See  also  the  account  of  Aurelian's  triumph  in  in* 
Lite  h\  Fopitew  [cf  a, hli, ,n.  ch  \iv  The  last  triumph  recorded  is  that  of  Belisarius,  at  Constan- 
tinople, related  by  Procopius  (cf  P.  V.  $  257.— Gibbon,  ch.  xli.)— The  total  number  of  triumphs 
upon  record  down  to  that  of  Belisarius  has  been  calculated  as  amounting  to  three  hundred  and 
fifty. 

It  may  be  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  phrase  aiirum  cor  ovarium  had  its  origin  in  a  distort  .on- 
neeted  with  the  triumph  of  a  general ;  the  cities  of  the  province  where  his  victory  was  obtained, 
and  those  nf  other  provinces  also,  used  to  send  to  him  rrolilen  crowns,  which  were  carried  before 
him  in  the  triumphal  procession.  Cn.  Manlius  had  two  hundred  crowns  carried  before  him  in 
his  triumph  on  account  of  his  victories  in  Asia  (.Liu.  xxxix.  7).  At  length  it  became  customary 
to  -end.  instead  of  the  crown,  a  sum  of  money,  which  was  called  aurum  coronarium  (cf.  Jiul 
Oell.  V.  In. 

§  .'80S.  There  was  an  honor  lower  than  that  of  a  triumph,  frequently  bestowed 
on  victorious  generals,  the  ovatio.  This  did  not  differ  very  much  in  form  from 
the  triumph  ;  the  essential  peculiarities  were,  that  the  general  entered  the  city 
not  in  a  chariot,  hut  on  foot  or  on  horseback,  robed  not  in  the  trabea,  but  the 
prselr.rio  only,  and  at  the  Capitol  did  not  offer  bullocks  in  sacrifice,  but  a  sheep 
(ovis).  From  the  last  circumstance,  the  name  of  the  whole  scene  was  probably 
taken.  The  triumph  on  the  Alban  mount,  already  alluded  t^  (§  307),  was  less 
pompous.  It  was  held  only  by  those  to  whom  the  senate  had  refused  a  triumph 
in  the  city,  and  to  whom  an  ovation  only  had  been  awarded.  The  ceremonies 
were  similar  to  those  of  a  triumph  in  the  city.  The  procession,  it  is  supposed, 
marched  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Laliaris,  situated  on  the  mount. 

§  3(W.  The  Roman  military  system  underwent  various  changes  under  the 
emperors. 

1  u.  By  Augustus  a  standing  army  was  established;  he  also  created  an  officer 
called  Precfectus  pra<torio,  who  was  placed  over  the  troops  constituting  the  imperial 
bodyguard  and  the  praetorian  cohorts  distributed  in  Italy.  The  Roman  military  ser- 
vice suffered  by  the  new  establishment.  It  soon  became  merely  a  system  to  support 
the  authority  of  the  emperors,  not  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  country  ;  and  to  for- 
ward this  end,  many  disorders  and  abuses  on  the  part  of  the  soldiers  were  overlooked. 
From  the  same  cause,  likewise,  an  unhappy  line  of  distinction  was  drawn  between 
the  military  and  the  other  classes  of  citizens. 

The  praetorian  soldiers  were,  under  the  first  emperors,  divided  equally  into  ten 
cohorts,  containing  1000  men  each.  Under  the  later  emperors  they  were  entirely  abo- 
lished, and  3500  Armenians  were  enrolled  in  their  stead;  these  were  divided  into  nine 
tcholce,  ami  commanded  by  the  officer  styled  Magister  officiorum. 

The  legions,  not  including  the  auxiliaries,  were  under  Augustus  twenty-five,  dis- 
tributed among  the  provinces.  Besides  these  he  had  ten  prmtorian  cohorts  just  named, 
six  city  coliorls  of  one  thousand  each,  and  seven  cohorts  styled  cohort es  vigiltim,  which 
together  amounted  to  20.000  men.  In  after  times,  the  number  of  troops  was  greatly 
increased  as  well  as  the  naval  force.  On  the  division  of  the  empire,  the  western 
comprised  sixty-two  legions,  and  the  eastern  seventy. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  wars  related  by  Tacitus  in  his  History,  there  were  thirty 
egions,  distributed  as  follows  :  three  in  Britannia  ;  three  in  Hispania  ;  eight  in  Gallia,  three  of 
them  being  in  the  portion  called  Upper  Germany,  and  four  in  Lower  Germany  (cf.  P.  I.  I)  17); 
two  in  Pannonia  ;  two  in  Dalmatia  belonging  to  Illyricum  ;  two  in  Mcssia ;  four  in  Syria,  with 
three  more  in  Judea  under  Vespasian;  two  in  Egypt  ;  and  one  in  Africa  (cf.  P.  I.  $  173). 

2  The  epithet  praetorian,  in  the  republic,  was  applied  to  the  cohort  which  guarded 
the  pavilion  of  the  general.  After  the  time  of  Augustus  the  praefect  of  the  praetorian 
bands  was  usually  a  mere  instrument  of  the  emperor,  and  the  office  was  conferred 
only  on  such  as  the  emperors  could  implicitly  trust.  The  appointment  was  made  or 
the  commission  conferred  by  the  emperor's  delivering  a  sword  to  the  person  selected. 
Sometimes  there  were  two  praetorian  praefects.  Their  power  was  at  first  only  mili- 
tary and  small ;  but  it  became  very  great,  and  finally  trials  were  brought  before  them, 
rind  there  was  no  appeal  but  by  a  supplication  to  the  emperor.  Marcus  Aurelius  com 
mitted  this  judicial  honor  to  them,  and  increased  their  number  to  three. — The  prseto 
nan  cohorts  had  a  fortified  camp  at  the  city,  without  the  wall,  between  the  gales 
Viminalis  and  Esquilina.  Under  Vitellius  sixteen  praetorian  cohorts  were  raised,  and 
four  to  gutrd  the  city.  SeveruB  new-modeled  the  body  and  increased  them  to  four 
times  the  mcienl  number.  Constantine  the  Great  finally  suppressed  them  and  de 
slroyed  'luir  camp.     (Boyd's  Adam,  p.  123,  485). 

3.  Important  changes  in  the  military  system  were  made  by  Constantine.  He  ap- 
pointed two  general  commanders  for  the  whole  army,  called  Magistri  viilitice ;  one 
ul  whom  had  command  of  all  the  cavalry,  Magister  equitum;  the  other,  of  the  whole 
nfantry,  Mugisttr  piditum. 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       FREEMEN    AND    SLAVES  2S£ 

Constantine  did  not  abolish  the  title  of  Prcrfectus  prmtorio,  when  he  suppressed  the  (rteton.in 
cohorts,  as  above  mentioned;  but  he  changed  the  nature  of  the  otiice,  making  it  wholly  a  civil 
one,  and  dividing  the  care  of  the  whole  empire  between  four  officers  of  this  til  le  ;  Prmftctua  \ira-- 
torio  U  rie  nl  is  ;  Prefect  us  pnetnrio  per  lllyricum,  Prasfectus  pmtorio  per  flalias  ;  PrtEfectun  pr<e~ 
torio  Galliarum.  '1  he  city  of  Koine  also  retained  her  special  overseer,  Prcef<cius  urbisHuvtce, 
and  a  similar  officer,  with  greater  authority,  was  appointed  over  Constantinople,  which  now 
became  the  seat  of  the  empire,  Prafeclus  urbis  Conttantinupulis.  Under  the  tour  prefects  were 
subordinate  officers,  whose  authority  was  limited  to  (tarticular  dioceses,  of  which  there  were 
thirteen;  one  of  them  governed  by  the  officer  styled  Count  of  the  diocese  of  the  East  (Comes 
iiaeestos  One  tit  is);  another,  consisting  of  Egypt,  by  an  officer  styled  Preeftctus  Jr'oipti ;  and  t lie 
other  eleven  by  officers  styled  Vicarii  or  vice-prsefects.  The  dioceses  were  subdivided  into  a 
great  number  of  provinces,  whose  governors  were  of  four  different  grades,  termed  proconnules, 
consularts,  currectures,  and  presides. 

4.  The  empire  was  divided  into  eastern  and  western  between  the  two  sons  of  Con- 
stantine In  the  western,  the  military  jurisdiction  continued  to  be  vested  in  two  com- 
manders styled  Magister  equitum  and  Magister  peditum.  In  the  eastern,  it  was 
vested  in  the  officers  styled  Magistri  mdituui,  and  the  Dumber  of  them  was  live  in  the 
time  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  shortly  before  his  death,  A.  D.  395,  united  the 
empire  in  one;  it  was  divided  again  alter  his  death  and  so  continued  until  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  western,  A.  D.  476.  The  five  Blasters-general  of  the  military  each 
had  command  of  several  squadrons  (vexillaliones)  of  horse  and  several  legions  ot  sol- 
diers (palatines  comita tenses)  and  several  corps  ot  auxiliaries  (auxiUa) ;  two  oi  them 
had  also  under  their  command  a  naval  force,  consisting  of  twelve  distinct  armaments 
or  fleets,  six  being  assigned  to  each.  There  was  likewise  included  under  this  military 
establishment,  in  addition  to  the  forces  already  mentioned,  a  large  body  of  troops  de- 
signed particularly  to  defend  the  frontiers,  called  sometimes  borderers,  and  commanded 
by  comites  and  duces,  who  seem  to  have  been  responsible  to  the  officer,  termed  Quas- 
tor  sacri  palatii. — The  Blasters-general  of  the  West  had  under  their  command  forces 
of  a  similar  description,  including  also  troops  designated  specially  for  the  defence  of 
the  frontier.  There  was  a  Magister  militum  in  Gaul,  but  subordinate  to  the  two  Mas- 
ters-general. 

For  a  general  view  of  the  civil  and  military  arrangements  of  the  empire  under  Constantine  and  later  emperors,  see  Gibbon,  ch. 
xvii. — For  more  minute  details,  Tabliau  SystemaJique  des  Empires  d'Orieit!  el  cVOcadent,  &c-  in  3d  vol.  of  SchbWs  Hist.  Litt 
Romaine.— The  A'oOtia  Orientis  et  Occidents,  a»  edited  by /tonciroli,  or  more  recently  by  Sticking,  as  cited  P.  V-  5  571. — Cf.  Manic 
Leben  Constant,  d.  Gr.    Berl.  1BI7.  8. 


IV.    AFFAIRS    OF    PRIVATE    LIFE. 

§  310.  In  order  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  more  private  civil  and  social 
relations  of  the  ancient  Romans,  it  is  important  to  notice  the  essential  distinc- 
tion which  existed  between  the  freemen  and  the  slaves.  There  were  two  classes 
of  freemen,  the  free-burn  (ingenut),  whose  fathers  were  Roman  citizens,  and  the 
free  made  (liberti)  or  freedmen  who  had  been  enfranchised  from  servitude,  and 
who  did  not  always  enjoy  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens  The  children  of  the 
latter  class  were  termed  liberliniznd  their  grandchildren  ingenui,  in  early  times; 
at  a  later  period  the  freedmen  were  called  liberti  only  with  reference  to  their  for- 
mer master,  receiving  when  spoken  of  otherwise  the  name  liberlini  themselves, 
while  their  sons,  if  born  after  the  father's  manumission,  were  called  ingenui. — 
The  slaves  were  such  by  birth,  vernse ;  or  by  captivity  in  war;  or  by  purchase, 
mancipia.  Of  their  different  services,  their  treatment,  and  the  ceremonies  of 
their  manumission,  we  will  speak  below  (§322). 

On  the  subjects  belonging  to  the  branch  of  Roman  Antiquities  upon  which  we  now  enter,  we  may  refer  to  d'Arnay  de  la  vie 
privee  des  Rnmains.  Lausinne,  1760.  \1.  {Consisting  chiefly  of  treaiises  in  ihe  Memoiret  de  VAcademk  aes  Inscriptions.)  Trans. 
Germ.  Lei  pa.  1761.  8.  Engl.  Trans.  Lond.  1764.  12.— Sketches  of the  Domestic  Manners  of Ihe  Romans.  R  printed,  Phil.  I V22.  12. 
Cf.  N.  Am  Rev.  xvi.  163.— Couture,  La  vie  privee  des  Romains,  in  the  Mtm.  Acad.  Insor.  vol.  i.  303.— Muntfaucon,  Usages  du 
•iecle  de  Theodore  le  Grand,  :u  the  Aiem.  Acad.  Inser.  vol.  xiii.  p.  474.— Especially  W.  Becker,  Callus  (Roman  Life  in  Ihe  time  ol 
Augustus). 

§311.  The  Romans  commonly  had  tnree  names;  the  first  was  called  the 
praenomen,  and  had  reference  simply  to  the  individual  who  bore  it;  the  second 
was  called  the  nomen,  and  was  the  name  of  the  race  or  clan  (gens)  ;  the  third 
was  the  cognomen,  which  designated  the  family  (familia)  :  thus,  in  Publius 
Cornelius  Scipio  ,■  Scipio  is  the  cognomen  indicating  the  family  name,  Cornelius 
the  nomen  pointing  out  the  clan  or  gens  to  which  the  family  Belonged,  and  Pub- 
lius the  prasnomen  marking  the  particular  man.  The  distinction  between  gens 
and  familia  was,  that  the  former  was  more  general,  denoting  a  whole  tribe  or 
race;  the  latter  more  limited,  confined  to  a  single  branch  of  it. — The  daughter 
fommonly  received  the  name  of  the  tribe  or  race,  e.  g.  Cornelia^  and  retained  it 


2$6  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

after  her  mariage.     Sisters  were  distinguished   by  adding  to  this  name  th* 
epithets  major  and  minor,  or  prima,  secunda,  terlia,  &c. 

1.  Sometimes  the  Romans  had  a  fourth  name,  which  has  been  styled  the  agnomen; 
this  however  was  only  an  adduion  10  the  cognomen,  and  may  be  properly  included 
under  it. —  I'he  order  ul  the  names  was  no!  invariably  the  same,  although  they  usually 
stood  as  abovi    stated.     Under  the  emperors  the  proper  name  of  the  individual  was 

ly  put  last. 
2  a.  Even  from  the  fust  establishment  of  the  city,  some  among  its  heterogeneous 
inhabitants  were  ol  noble  descent,  and  the  Dumber  of  noble  families  was  increased  by 
the  adoption  of  plebeians  among  the  patricians.  The  following  were  some  of  the 
BlOSl  distinguished  races;  Fabia  (gens),  Junta.  Antonio,  Julia,  JEmilia,  Pompeia, 
Tullia,  Horalia,  Oclavta,  Valeria,  Posthumia,  Sulpicia,  Claudia,  Papiria,  Cornelia, 
Manlia,  Sempronia,  Hortensia, 

The  names  of  families  were  oflen  derived  from  the  employment  of  an  ancestor  (cf.  P.  V.  #  483). 
Names  were  also  applied  to  individuals  by  way  of  ridicule  ;.  that  which  was  at  first  a  mere  nick- 
■aiiie,  or  sobriquet,  became  permanently  attached  to  a  person. 

See  AfaAudei,  1><-  L'Autorite  que  les  Sobriquets  on  Surnonis  burlesques  peuveof  avoir  dans  I'histoire,  in  the  Stem.  Acad.  Imc? 

rol.  liv.  p.  181. umlie  Roman  names  and  illustrious  families,  see  Schbll's  Hist.  Litt.  Rum.  vol.  iv.  p.  367.  and  references  there 

given. —  Gibbon,  Dec.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xxxi. — Btwtdin,  Les  nonis  des  Romaii.s,  in  the  Mem.  dead.  Inter,  i.  1-4.— Port 

Royal  Latin  Oram.  Ik.  viii.  ch.  1. — Cf.  Castalio,  De  autiquis  Puerorum  Prasnomiaibuarin  Grseviw,  vol.  it. On  the  subject  of  the 

faces  (guilts),  see  XiehLuhr's  Rome,  t.  234. — Maiden's  Hist,  of  Rome. — Gititlutg,  as  cited  ^  242. 

§  312.  The  increase  of  these  races  was  much  promoted  by  marriages,  in 
regard  to  which  the  Romans  aimed  to  preserve  a  complete  separation  between 
plebeians  and  patricians,  until  B.  C.  445.  Marriage  was  held  to  be  a  duty  of 
every  Roman,  and  those  who  neglected  it  were  obliged  to  pay  a  fine  or  tax. 
Citizens  were  forbidden  to  marry  strangers,  except  by  permission  specially 
granted.  Certain  degrees  of  consanguinity  were  considered  as  interdicting 
marriage.  Marriage  took  place  at  an  early  aoe  among  the  Romans,  the  male 
being  sometimes  but  fourteen  and  the  female  only  in  the  twelfth  year. 

1  v.  The  jus  Quiritium  conferred  only  on  Roman  citizens  the  right  of  marrying  a 
free-born  woman.  To  freedmen  this  was  prohibited,  until  the  enactment  of  the 
Poppaean  law  (A.  D.  9) ;  by  this  law  the  free-born,  excepting  senators  and  their  sons, 
Wi  re  allowed  to  marry  the  daughters  of  freedmen. 

The  /.'  r  Papia  Pupp,ra  was  an  enlarging  and  enforcement  of  the  Lex  Julia  "  de  mtiritandis  ordi- 
nibus;"  by  it,  whoever  in  the  city  had  three  children,  in  other  parts  of  Italy  four,  and  in  the 
provinces  fire,  was  entitled  to  certain  privileges;  while  certain  disabilities  were  imposed  on 
those  who  lived  in  celibacy.     This  subject  is  alluded  to  by  Horace,  Carm.  Ssec.  vs.  20. 

2.  A  legal  marriage  was  termed  Juslrr  Nuptice,  or  Just um  Matrimonium.  The  word 
tonnubium  was  used  as  a  comprehensive  term  including  all  the  conditions  requisite  to 
the  contracting  of  a  legal  marriage.  Generally  it  may  be  stated  that  there  was  con- 
nubium  only  between  Roman  nii/.ens.  4'here  was  no  connubium  between  slaves,  but 
only  what  was  called  contubernium. 

See  Ghrig,  Excursus  de  Conlubernira  Rnmanorum,  in  Lcmaire>s  Pliny,  as  cited  P.  V.  §  470.  4.  vol.  2d.  p.  231.— -Ayrer,  Diss.  d« 
fure  coDnubiorum  apud  Romanos,  .Goth  1737. 

§  31.3.  The  marriage  was  always  preceded  by  a  solemn  affiance  or  betroth- 
ment,  in  which  the  father  of  the  bride  gave  his  assent  (slipulatio)  to  the  request 
{sponsiii)  of  the  bridegroom.  This  compact  and  the  ceremonies  attending  it 
were  called  sponaalia  ;  it  often  took  place  many  years  before  the  marriage,  even 
in  the  childhood  of  the  parties  betrothed.  The  bridegroom  was  not  always  pre- 
sent at  the  betrothinor,  which  was  sometimes  effected  by  means  of  letters,  or  by 
tin  empowered  substitute.  In  early  times  the  father's  consent  was  necessary 
only  for  the  daughter,  but  afterwards  also  for  the  son.  The  mutual  consent  of 
the  parties  was  the  most  essential.  Friends  and  relations  were  usually  present 
as  witnesses;  the  marriage  contract  was  written  and  sealed  {legitimai  tabelLz); 
the  bride  received  from  her  betrothed  a  ring  as  a  pledge  of  his  fidelity  ;  and  the 
whole  ceremony  was  concluded  with  a  feast. 

§  314.  In  fixing  the  day  of  marriage,  care  was  taken  to  select  one  of  those 
esteemed  lucky  or  fortunate.  The  transference  of  the  bride  from  her  father's 
power  to  the  hands  of  the  husband  was  called  convenlin  in  manum,  and  was 
accompanied  by  a  religious  ceremony,  and  a  sort  of  consecration  by  a  priest 
(ctmfarreatio).  Marriages  contracted  in  this  form  were  the  most  solemn,  and 
eould  not  be  dissolved  so  easily  as  in  other  cases.  Two  other  forms  or  modes 
are  mentioned  ;  one  was  by  prescription  (u.ius).  the  bride  being  taken  home  and 
living  with  the  bridegroom  for  a  year  (usucapio)  ;.  the  other  by  a  purchase  (co- 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       DIVORCES.       CHILDREN.  287 

emptiu),  in  which  each  party  gave  to  the  other  a  portion  of  money,  repeating 
certain  words. 

$  315  u.  On  the  day  of  marriage,  the  bride  was  adorned  with  a  son  of  veil  or  pe- 
culiar ornament  of  the  head  (luleuin  jlammeum),  and  a  robe  prepared  for  the  occasion 
[tunica  recta),  which  was  bound  around  the  waist  with  the  marriage  girdle  {cingulum 
laneum).  The  sacrifice  ordered  on  the  marriage-day  was  a  sheep  of  two  years  of  age, 
presented  especially  to  Juno  as  the  goddess  ot  marriage. 

The  conducting  of  the  bride  to  the  residence  of  the  husband,  which  took  place  in 
the  evening,  was  attended  likewise  with  ceremonies.  She  was  taken,  as  it  were 
forcibly,  from  the  arms  of  her  mother,  or  if  the  mother  was  not  living,  of  the  next 
near  relative.  She  went  with  a  distaff"  (.coins)  in  her  hand,  and  was  careiul  to  step 
over  or  was  lifted  over  the  threshold  of  both  houses,  as  it  was  ominous  to  touch  it 
with  the  leet.  She  was  supported  by  two  youth,  one  on  each  side;  a  third  preceded 
her  with  a  lighted  torch  or  flambeau,  and  sometimes  a  fourth  followed  carrying  in  a 
covered  vase  (cumerum)  the  bride's  utensils  (unbent  is  utensUia)  and  also  various  toys 
(crepundia).  She  bound  the  door  posts  of  her  new  residence  with  white  woollen  fil- 
lets and  anointed  them  with  the  fat  of  wolves  (hence  uxor,  quasi  unxor).  She  then 
stepped  upon  a  sheepskin  spread  before  the  entrance,  and  called  aloud  for  the  bride- 
groom, who  immediately  came  and  offered  her  the  key  of  the  house,  which  she  de- 
livered over  to  the  chief  servant.  Both  now  touched  fire  and  water,  as  a  symbol  of 
purity  and  nuptial  fidelity.  The  house  was  already  adorned  with  garlands  of  flowers, 
the  work  of  the  preceding  day.  After  their  arrival  the  marriage  banquet  (coena  nup- 
tialis)  was  held,  which  was  accompanied  with  music  and  song.  The  husband  after 
supper  scattered  nuts  among  the  youth  and  boys  present.  Finally  the  pair  were  con- 
ducted to  the  bed-chamber,  by  the  door  of  which  the  nuptial  hymns  (epithalamia) 
were  sung  by  young  men  and  maids.  The  next  day  the  bride  presented  a  thank- 
offering  to  the  gods,  and  the  husband  gave  an  evening  entertainment  (repot ia),  and 
distributed  presents  to  the  guests  on  their  departure. 

§  316.  Divorces  (divorlia)  were,  especially  in  latter  times,  quite  common. 
When  the  espousals  and  the  marriage  had  been  solemnized  in  full  formality, 
especially  with  the  confarreatio  just  described,  particular  solemnities  were  requi- 
site for  a  divorce,  and  these  were  called  dijfarreatio.  In  case  of  a  less  formal 
mat  riage  contract,  fhe  divorce  was  called  remancipatio  or  usur patio.  On 
ace  tun t  of  the  frequent  abuses  of  divorce,  it  was  restrained  by  law;  and  pro- 
perly the  men  only  enjoyed  the  right.  The  formula  with  which  one  dismissed 
his  wife  was  luas  res  tibi  haheto.  Sometimes  the  separation  took  place  before 
marriage,  after  the  espousals,  and  then  it  was  called  repudium  ,•  the  custor  -ary 
formula  was  as  follows:  conditione  tua  non  utor.  If  a  woman  wa%  dive  iced 
without  having  been  guilty  of  adultery,  her  portion  or  dowry  was  returned 
with  her. 

The  situation  of  the  Roman  woman  after  marriage  was  in  some  respects  better  than  that  of  the 
Greek  woman.  The  Roman  matron  presided  over  the  household  ;  she  superintended  the  educa- 
tion of  her  children  (cf.  P  IV.  J  125);  as  being  the  materfamilias,  she  shared  in  the  honors  paid 
to  the  husband.  Yet,  generally  speaking,  the  condition  of  females  among  the  Romans  was  simi- 
lar to  their  condition  in  Greece.  The  social  elevation  enjoyed  by  females  in  modern  times  is 
very  justly  ascribed  in  a  great  degree  to  Christianity. 

See  §  181,  and  references  there  given. On  the  regard  to  the  sex  as  illustrated  by  the  writings  of  Tibullus,  Ovid,  Sseneci,  &c.  U. 

Ramduhr,  Venus  Urania.  Lips.  1798.  8. On  the  influence  of  Christianity,  see  Bitckmintter's  Sermons — Cw/mig,  Social  Influ- 
ence of  Christianity,  in  Bibl.  Repos.  Sec.  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  195.— Cf.  P.  IV.  §  83  2. 

§  317.  Among  the  Roman  customs  connected  with  the  birth  of  children,  that 
was  the  most  remarkable  which  left  it  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  the  father  whether 
to  preserve  his  new-born  child  or  leave  it  to  perish.  In  reference  to  his  decision 
of  this  point,  the  midwife  always  placed  it  on  the  ground  ;  if  the  father  chose 
to  preserve  it,  he  raised  it  from  the  ground,  and  was  said  tollere  infantem;  this 
was  an  intimation  of  his  purpose  to  educate  and  acknowledge  it  as  his  own. 
If  the  father  did  not  choose  to  do  this,  he  left  the  child  on  the  ground,  and  thus 
expressed  his  wish  to  expose  it  (eocponere') ;  this  exposing  was  an  unnatural 
custom  borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  by  which  children  were  left  in  the  streets, 
particularly  at  the  cnhimna  lactaria,  and  abandoned  to  their  fate.  Generally  the 
power  of  the  father  was  very  great,  but  the  mother  had  no  share  therein.  This 
power  extended  not  only  over  the  life  of  his  children,  but  the  father  could  three 
times  sell  his  son  and  three  times  reclaim  him,  and  appropriate  all  his  gains  as 
liis  own.  Under  the  emperors,  this  power  lost  much  of  its  rigor,  by  the  regu 
lation  allowing  the  children  to  hold  the  inheritance  left  by  their  mothers. 

$  318  u.  The  freeing  of  a  son  from  the  ppwer  of  a  father  was  effected  by  what  vai 


288  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

called  emancipation,  or  a  fictitious  thrice  repeated  selling  of  the  son  ;  the  freedom  cor*. 
sequent  upon  this  was  termed  manumissio  It  mi  una  per  vindictam.  The  lather  and  the 
son  appeared  together  with  the  pretended  purchaser,  a  friend  ot  the  first,  and  with  ahody 
of  witnesses,  before  the  tribunal  of  the  prator,  and  here  the  imaginary  thrice  repeated 
sale  and  thrice  repeated  manumission  was  completed  with  certain  established  usages, 
sometimes  by  only  a  double  .-ale  with  a  delay  of  the  third.  On  the  third  sale,  the 
purchaser  was  called  pater  fiduciarius  ;  in  the  first  two.  dominus. —  The  power  of  the 
father  a  ver  his  son  was  otherwise  rarely  terminated  except  by  the  death  or  banishment 
of  llic  father;  it  belonged  to  the  peculiar  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen  (§  260).  By 
emancipation  the  son  became  his  own  master,  and  possessor  of  his  own  property, 
of  which,  however,  he  must  give  the  father  half  as  an  acknowledgment  tor  his 
freedom. 

§  319.  Another  custom  among  the  Romans  in  respect  to  children  was  that  of 
adoption  (adoptio).  In  this,  the  actual  father  of  a  child  renounced  his  own 
rights  and  claims,  and  committed  them  to  another  who  received  the  child  as 
his  own. 

1  u.  The  ceremony  was  performed  before  a  magistrate,  usually  the  praetor.  The 
formalities  were  in  part  the  same  as  in  emancipation,  which  was  always  presupposed 
in  adoption,  and  previously  executed.  Only  in  such  a  case,  the  son  was  sold  to  the 
adopting  father  but  twice,  and  did  not  revert  the  third  time  to  the  real  father.  There 
was  also  sometimes  a  kind  of  adoption  by  will  or  testament  (adopt  i^per  test  amentum), 
in  order  to  preserve  a  family  from  extinction.  In  such  case  the  person  adopted  re 
ceived  a  considerable  part  of  the  estate  left  by  the  person  adopting  him,  and  bore  his 
name  after  his  death. 

2  i.  That,  which  was  called  adrogatio  or  arrogatio,  differed  from  adoption  only  in 
the  formalities  connected,  and  in  the  circumstance  that  the  person  adopted  was  pre- 
viously his  own  master  (sui  juris)  and  not  in  the  power  of  his  actual  lather.  The 
adrogatio  was  not  transacted,  as  was  the  adoptio,  before  the  praetor,  but  before  the  as- 
sembled people,  in  the  ('omnia  Curiata,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  High-priest ;  neither 
was  it  limited  to  individuals,  but  often  included  a  whole  family.  Upon  the  consent  of 
the  people  to  the  arrangement,  the  person  or  persons  adopted  into  a  family  took  a 
solemn  oath,  that  they  would  remain  faithful  to  the  religion  and  worship  of  the  family  ; 
this  was  called  detestatio  sacrorum,  as  .the  adopted  person  lost  #ie  peculiar  rights  and 
was  freed  from  the  peculiar  duties  (sacra  gentilitia)  of  his  former  gens  (cf.  §  311),  if 
different  from  the  one  into  which  he  was  now  introduced. 

§  3-20  u.  By  what  was  called  legitimation,  a  natural  (naturalis)  or  spurious  (spurius) 
child  was  declared  to  be  legitimate  (legitimus),  and  instated  in  all  the  rights  of  such. 
This  affected,  however,  the  relation  of  the  child  only  to  the  father,  and  not  to  other 
relatives,  <ft  to  the  whole  family  of  the  father.  Such  a  child  shared  in  the  inheritance 
an  equal  portion  with  the  lawful  children.  But  this  cusiom  was  not  known  lo  the 
early  Romans;  it  came  first  into  practice  in  the  fifth  century  under  Thevdosius  the 
second,  and  then  scarcely  at  all  in  Rome  itself,  but  in  the  municipal  towns,  where  it 
was  introduced  to  supply  the  want  of  the  decuriones  or  members  of  the  senate  (cf 
5  ~iiO.  2).  For,  as  this  office  could  be  received  only  by  sons  of  decuriones,  and  was 
also  very  burdensome,  the  fathers  were  allowed  to  transmit  it  to  their  natural  sons,  by 
them  legitimated. 

§  321.  The  education  of  the  Roman  youth  is  noticed  particularly  in  treating 
of  the  Archaeology  of  Roman  Literature  (cf.  P.  IV.  §§  123-125).  Here  we 
only  remark,  that  for  a  long  time  there  were  no  public  schools,  but  the  youth 
"eceived  the  necessary  instruction  from  private  or  family  teachers  (paedagogi). 
There  were,  however,  those  who  in  their  houses  gave  instruction  to  a  number  of 
youth  together.  The  corporeal  exercises,  especially  in  the  early  times,  were 
viewed  by  the  Romans  as  a  more  essential  object  in  education  than  the  study 
of  literature  and  science.  They  did  not  neglect,  however,  an  early  cultivation 
of 'he  manners,  and  of  noble  feelings,  especially  patriotism,  love  of  liberty,  and 
heroic  courage. 

§  322  /.  The  1  ;usehold  of  a  Roman  was  collectively  termed  familia;  hut  hy 
this  word  was  especially  meant  the  body  of  slaves,  of  which  there  was  often  a 
large  number.  Persons  in  opulent  circumstances  had  them  sometimes  to  the 
amount  of  several  thousands.  The  Roman  women  of  rank  usually  had  a  nu- 
merous body  of  servants  of  both  sexes. — The  slaves  of  a  family  were  divided 
into  different  classes  or  decuriae,  according  to  their  employments,  and  a  particu- 
.ar  registry  of- them  was  kept,  which  was,  in  some  instances,  read  over  every 
morning.  Their  condition  was  very  hard,  and  they  were  treated  as  mere  chat 
wis,  rather  tfian  persons. 


P.  Ill  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       SLAVES  289 

"  Slaves  in  Rome  occupied  every  conceivable  station,  from  the  delegate  superin- 
tending the  rich  man's  villa,  to  the  meanest  office  of  menial  labor  or  obsequious  vice; 
from  the  toster  mother  of  the  rich  man's  child,  to  the  lowest  degradation  to  which 
woman  can  be  reduced.  The  public  slaves  handled  the  oar  in  the  galleys,  or  labored 
on  the  public  works.  Some  were  lictors ;  some  were  jailors.  Executioners  were 
slaves;  slaves  were  watchmen,  watermen  and  scavengers.  Slaves  regulated  ihe  rich 
palace  in  the  city  ;  and  slaves  performed  all  the  drudgery  of  the  farm.  Nor  was  it 
unusual  to  teach  slaves  the  arts.  Virgil  made  one  of  his  a  poet,  and  Horace  himself 
was  the*  son  of  an  emancipated  slave. — The  merry-andrew  was  a  slave.  '1  he  physi- 
cian, the  surgeon,  were  often  slaves.  So  too  the  preceptor  and  pedagogue  ;  the  reader 
and  the  stage-player;  the  clerk  and  the  amanuensis ;  the  architect  and  (he  smith  ; 
the  weaver  and  the  shoemaker;  the  undertaker  and  the  bearer  of  the  bier;  the  pan- 
tomime and  the  singer;  the  ropedancer  and  the  wrestler,  all  were  bondmen.  The 
armtger  or  squire  was  a  slave.  You  cannot  name  an  occupation  connected  with  agri- 
culture, manufacturing  industry,  or  public  amusements,  but  it  was  a  patrimony  of 
slaves.  Slaves  engaged  in  commerce  ;  slaves  were  wholesale  merchants  ;  slaves  were 
retailers;  slaves  shaved  notes;  and  the  managers  of  banks  were  slaves." 

The  following  is  a  specification  of  some  of  the  principal  servants,  such  as  are  most  frequently 
mentioned  : — I.  Of  those  employed  in  the  house.  The  servus  admusionaiis  received  the  persons 
who  visited  the  master  of  the  house,  announced  their  names,  and  conducted  them  in  ;  the  servi 

citbirularii  were  a  sort  of  valet  or  chamber  servants,  often  enjoying  the  particular  i fidence  of 

the  master ;  the  tonsures  and  dm  rum  were  such  as  paid  attention  to  the  heard  and  hair  of  the 
masters  ;  the  amanuenses  and  librani  were  secretaries  and  copyists  ;  the  anaunvsliP  were  readers  ; 
the  vestiarii  attended  to  the  wardrohe;  the  balnea/ores  waited  upon  the  master  at  the  lialh;  the 
medici  performed  the  duties  of  surgeons  and  physicians;  the  vutrilu  and  pttdagngi  took  care  of 
the  children. — A  multitude  of  servants  were  employed  in  waiting  upon  table  at  meals,  and  were 
designated  from  t tie i r  several  functions.  Among  these  were.  e.  g.  the  servus  lectisterniafor,  couch- 
spreader  ;  structor,  arranger  of  dishes  ;  carptor  or  scissor,  carver  ;  diribitur.  disiributer  ;  prtrgvs- 
tutor,  taster  ;  pocillator,  enp-bearer ;  detersor,  table  wiper.  &c. — There  were  others  performing 
another  kind  of  house-service,  e.  g.  the  servus  ostiarius,  door  keeper ;  atriensis,  hall  slave  ;  dispen- 
satiir,  or  arcarius.  keeper  of  the  stores  ;  eellarius,  pantry-keeper;  pulmentarius,  pottage-maker; 
dulciarius,  confectioner  ;  ttrdin-er,  torch-hearer  ;    cttnaria,  cradle-rocker  ;  cosmeta,  perfumer  ;  Jla- 

bellifer,  fan-carrier,  &c. 2.  Others  were  employed  out  of  doors  ;  the  servus  insularis,  who  had 

the  oversight  over  his  master's  buildings;  the  servus  a  pedibus,  who  went  with  errands;  the 
lecticarii,  who  carried  the  sedan  or  litter,  &c. — A  large  number  of  slaves  were  kept  at  the  manors 
o  country-seats,  to  see  to  the  husbandry  and  fruits;  among  these  were  the  rillici.  stewards  01 
superintendents;  arutores.  plowmen  ;  runcatnres,  weed-pullers  ;  occatores,  clod  bieakers  ;  facni- 
sectores,  hay-cutters;  vindemi<itores,  vintagers ;  jugarii,  ox-drivers;  opilmnes,  sheep-tenders; 
piscatores,  fish-catchers;  muliones,  mule-drivers;  gallinani,  hen-keepers,  &c. 

For  a  full  list,  see  Blair'i  Stale  of  Slavery  among  the  Romans.    Edinb.  1833.  8      Cf.  Am.  Quart.  Rzv.  vol.  it.  71. Un  Hie 

employment  of  slaves,  see  A  Poyma.  De  Operis  Servorum — L.  Pignortut,  De  Servis  et  eoruni  apud  Veleres  minir.teriis.  Palav. 
1656.  4  —  Mongtz.  sur  les  traiaux  publ.  des  Romaim,  in  the  Mem.  de  VInititut,  Classe  de  Lit.  el  Beaux  Artt,  i.  492. 

§  323.  The  slave-trade  formed  among  the  Romans,  as  with  most  of  the 
ancient  nations,  an  important  part  of  business.  Slave  merchants  (venalitiarii) 
were  always  found  attached  to  the  Roman  armies,  and  importers  of  slaves 
(mangones)  often  came  to  Rome  from  Greece  and  Asia.  There  were  various 
laws  regulating  this  traffic;  which,  however,  were  often  left  unexecuted,  or 
were  evaded  by  the  arts  of  those  engaged  in  it.  For  exposing  to  view  slaves 
offered  for  sale,  scaffolds  (catastas)  were  erected-in  the  market,  and  commonly 
small  tablets  or  scrolls  (tiiuli)  were  suspended  from  the  necks  of  the  slaves, 
stating  their  country,  age,  character,  &c.  The  price  varied  very  much  ;  it  was 
sometimes  above  a  thousand  denarii.  Of  still  greater  value  were  such  as  pos- 
sessed intellectual  cultivation,  and  could  be  employed  as  teachers,  readers, 
accountants,  musicians,  and  the  like. 

One  thousand  denarii  would  equal  (cf.  J  270.  3)  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  In  the 
time  of  Horace  (Sal.  II.  vii.  43)  a  fair  price  for  an  ordinary  slave  seems  to  have  been  about  half, 
that  sum.  In  the  time  of  Justinian  the  legal  valuation  of  a  common  slave  was  twenty  solidi,i.  e. 
five  hundred  denarii,  or  about  seventy-five  dollars  But  vastly  higher  prices  are  mentioned; 
e.  g  beautiful  boys  arc  said  to  have  been  sold  for  as  much  as  two  hundred  thousand  sesterce's. 
or  fifty  thousand  denarii  (cf.  Mart.  iii.  6;  viii.  13.    Plin.  H.  N.  vii.  39,  40). 

§  324  u.  The  liberating  of  slaves  took  place  in  several  ways.  The  most  ancien' 
mode  seems:to  have  been  by  will,  manumissio  per  testamenlum,  on  the  decease  of  tha 
master.  There  were  two  other  modes;  censu,  and  per  vindictam  ;  the  former  was 
when  the  slave,  with  the  master's  consent,  was  enrolled  in  the  taxation  list  as  a  freed- 
man  ;  the  latter  was  a  formal  and  public  enfranchisement  before  the  praetor.  In  the 
last  case,  the  master  appealed  with  his  slave,  before  the  tribunal,  and  commenced  the 
ceremony  by  striking  mm  with  a  rod  (vindictn) ;  thus  treating  him  as  still  his  slave. 
Then  a  protector  or  defender  [asserlor  liberlatis)  steps  forward  and  requests  the  libe- 
ration of  the  slave,  by  saying  hunc  hominem  I  the  rum  esse  aio,  jure  Quirilium;  upon 
which  the  master,  who  has  hitherto  kept  hold  of  the  slave,  lets  him  20  (e  manu  em'a- 
'ehat),  and  gives  up  his   right  over  him,  with  the  words,  hunc  hominem  liberum  ess* 


^90  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

nolo,      ■  ition  by  the  prnptor,  that  the  slave  shou'd  be  free,  formed  the  conclu 

onfirm  this  manumission,  the  freed  slave  sometimes  went  to  Terracina  and 

ted  in  the  temple  of  Feronia  (P.  II.  §  91.  5)  a  cap  or  hat  (pilots)  as  a  badge  of 

In,,  iv.   'I  he  slave  id  be  freed  must  not  be  under  twenty  years  of  age,  nor  the  person 

Betting  him  free  under  thirty. 

We  may  here  remark,  that  on  the  country  farms  there  was  a  class  of  population  termed  eoloni, 
who  were  n  i  -laves,  although  sometimes  termed  servi  terne.  They  were  attached  to  the  soil, 
and  could  noi  he  separated  from  it;  the  land  and  the  eoloni  could  he  sold  together,  hut  neither 
of  them  cm, i  id  be  sold  withnul  the  other.  The  eoloni,  like  slaves,  were  liable  to  corporeal  punish- 
ment; hut  i  ley  had  ihe  right  nf connubium  (cf.  $312.  2),  which  slaves  had  not.  The  colonus  patj 
a  yearly  renl  far  the  land  on  which  he  lived. 

On  the  lubjecl  ol  Roman  Slavery,  see  an  able  and  interesting  article  in  ihe  Bihlical  Repository  and  Quart.  Observer,  No.  xx.  Oct 
\fS=.  —Siirigny,  Roman  Slaves  anJ  Freedmen,  in  the  Mem.  Aead.  hucr.  vol.  xxx\.  p.  32s,  and  xxxvii.  p.  1 13.—  Blair,  cited  §  322. 
— Bcckir's  G.lim. 

§  3-2").  The  dwellings  of  the  Romans  were  at  first  mere  huts  (casx),  and 
duriny;  the  first  three  centuries,  even  to  the  capture  and  plunder  of  the  city  by 
the  Gauls,  the  houses  were  insignificant  (P.  IV.  §  211).  On  its  being;  rebuilt, 
they  were  larger  and  more  respectable.  As  luxury  increased,  especially  after 
the  second  Punic  war,  so  the  private  dwellings  (domus)  became  more  and  more 
costly  and  splendid,  both  within  and  without;  although  this  was  not  universally 
the  case.  In  the  time  of  Augustus,  there  was  great  magnificence  and  extrava- 
gance in  the  building  and  ornamenting  of  houses. 

1  u.  Among  the  principal  ornaments  of  the  larger  houses  and  palaces  were  the  fol- 
lowing; the  covering  of  the  outer  and  inner  walls  with  marble;  the  use  of  phengites 
(flteyytTjjy)  or  transparent  marble,  in  the  place  of  the  lapis  specularis,  which  was  com 
tnonly  employed  for  windows;  mosaic  work  on  the  floors  (pavimenta  tessdata) ;  and 
various  decorations  in  ivory,  marble,  costly  wood  and  precious  stones,  attached  to  the 
walls,  ceiling,  and  door-posts. 

2.  The  phenaites,  according  to  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  22.  46),  was  discovered  in  Cappadocia 
in  the  time  of  Nero,  and  took  this  name  from  its  translucency. — The  lapis  specularis  was  found 
in  Spain,  Cyprus,  Cappadocia,  Sicily,  and  Africa  ;  it  could  be  split  into  thin  leaves,  like  slate, 
not  above  live  feet  long  each.  Boyd  remarks,  quoting  the  French  translation  of  Mam,  "It  ap- 
pears that  this  stone  is  nothing  else  than  the  talc  of  Muscovy."  Lauvay  (cited  P.  IV  #  195.  2), 
after  comparing  various  allusions  to  it  in  Pliny  and  others,  expresses  in  the  following  words 
his  conclusion  :  "que  le  lapis  specularis  des  Anciens  etoit  notre  gypse  feuillete  appelle  Selcnite." 
(vol.  i.  p.  314). 

3.  Windows  made  of  this  stone  were  termed  specularia  ;  it  has  been  supposed  that  these  were 
chiefly  in  1  fie  better  houses*.— Horn  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  the  Romans  for  the  windows 
(corneum  specular e);  also  paper  and  linen  cloth.  Originally  Ihe  windows  were  mere  openings 
(foramina, fenestra);  sometimes  covered  with  a  sort  of  lattice  (clathri);  sometimes  closed  by 
means  of  shutters  with  two  leaves  (.bifores  fenestra)  It  has  not  been  generally  supposed  that 
glass  (cf.  268.  41  was  manufactured  at  Home  before  the  time  of  Tiberius,  nor  that  it  was  used  for 
windows  until  a  much  later  period  ;  the  first  distinct  mention  of  glass  windows  (vilrea  specula- 
ria), is  said  lo  be  by  Laclantius  (De  opificio  Dei,  8)  or  by  Jerome,  in  the  fourth  century9 ;  although 
mirrors  {specula)  of  glass  were  much  earlier.  But  glass  windows  have  been  discovered3  in  the 
buildings  at  Pompeii.  "  In  the  vaulted  roof  (of  a  room  of  the  llienuir  or  baths)  is  a  window,  two 
feet  eight  inches  high  and  three  feel  eight  inches  broad,  closed  by  a  single  large  pane  of  glass, 
two-fifths  of  an  inch  thick,  fixed  into  the  wall,  ami  ground  on  one  side  to  prevent  persons  on  the 
roof  from  looking  into  the  hath:  of  this  glass  many  fragments  were  found  in  the  ruins.  This  is 
an  evident  proof  that  glass  windows  were  in  use  among  Ihe  ancients.  The  learned  seem  to  have 
been  generally  mistaken  on  the  subject  of  glass- ma  king  among  the  ancients.  The  vast  collection 
of  bottles,  trases,  glasses,  and  other  utensils  discovered  at  Pompeii,  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
ancients  were  well  acquainted  with  the  art  of  glass-blowing."  It  has  been  suggested,  that  these 
vessels  may  not  have  been  manufactured  in  Italy,  hut  imported  from  the  East,  especially  from 
Tyre,  the  place  where  glass  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  made.  Another  room  belonging  ta 
the  same  baths  'was  lighted  by  a  window  two  feet  six  inches  high  and  three  feet  wide,  in  the 
breme  frame  of  which  were  found  set  four  very  beautiful  panes  of  glass  fastened  by  small  nuts 
and  screws,  very  ingeniously  contrived,  with  a  view  to  remove  the  glass  at  pleasure." 

i  J.  ftf.  Suoretita,  De  Pomninibui  lapidum  in  priscb ^dificiis,  in  SaUengre,  as  cited  §  197.  vol.  i. **  Eeckmajm,  History  ot 

Inventions,  oiled  P.  IV.  ^  32.  1.— Cf.  Koge/,  Geschichte  iter  Eifiiidungen  von  der  allesten  bis  zur  neuesten  Zeit.     Leiuz.  1841.  12. 
, —  I  Pompeii,  u cited  P   IV. §228   I.  p.  162.     Cf.  also  §  268.  4 

4.  Paintings  In  stucco  on  the  walls,  and  fret-work  (laquearia)  on  the  ceilings,  were  among  the 
decorations  in  Roman  houses.  The  various  ornaments  were  frequently  of  a  character  exceed- 
ingly unfavorable  to  purity  of  mind. 

On  irehitectunl  ornaments,  4c.  cf.  P.  IV.  §  239  —On  the  mosaic  of  the  ancients,  P.  IV.  §§  167,  IS9,  220. 

bu.  The  names  of  the  various  parts  of  a  Roman  house  are  known  to  us  much  bet- 
ter than  theii  i  Kacl  design  and  use.  The  following  were  the  principal  parts.  (1)  The 
veslilinl ii/ii  or  lore-court,  an  open  space  between  the  house-door  and  the  street,  from 
•  Lis,  one  entered  through  the  door  or  Kate  (janua  or  ostium)  of  the  house  into  (2)  the 
atrium,  aula  or  ball,  m  winch  on  boih  sides  were  placed  the  images  of  ancestors  in 
niches  or  rases  (armaria).  Prom  this,  one  passed  directly  through  into  (3)  the  implu- 
viuuii  called  also  Compluoium  and  cava ilium,  which  was  a  court,  commonly  uncovered 
tutidtcule)    where  the  rain-water  fell.     In  this  was  the  proper  dwelling-house,  which 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       HOUSES.  201 

had  two  wings  with  a  covered  colonnade  or  portico  in  front,  in  order  to  pass  unexposed 
from  one  apartment  to  another  of  these  side-buildings.  Of  these  apartments  t lie 
principal  was  (4)  the  triclinium  or  dining-room;  the  others  were  termed  cellm,  having 
distinctive  names  irom  their  use  ;  as  cello,  vinaria,  coquinaria,  penuaria,  &c.  Besides 
these  there  were  attached  to  the  larger  houses  various  other  appendages  ;  colonnades, 
baths,  gardens,  and  the  like. — In  general,  almost  all  the  apartments  were  on  the  lower 
floor;  but  detached  houses  or  blocks,  which  were  mostly  occupied  by  tenants  on 
lease  (and  called  insula:),  were  higher  and  had  more  stories. 

As  the  population  of  Rome  increased,  the  houses  in  the  city  were  raised  to  such  altitudes  as  to  occasion  danger,  and  a  maximum  nl 
height  was  established  by  law  •  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  it  was  enacted,  that  the  height  of  private  edifices  should  not  exceed  seventy 
feet  from  the  ground. -Gibbon,  vol.  3d.  p.  216,  ed.  N.  Y.  1822. 

0.  The  gate  or  door  (janvn)  was  sometimes  made  of  iron  or  brass,  often  highly  ornamented, 
and  usually  raised  above  the  ground,  so  that  steps  were  necessary  to  ascend  to  if.  On  festival 
occasions  it  was  hung  with  green  branches  and  garlands.  It  turned  on  hinges  (cardites), and  was 
secured  by  bars  (nbices,  claustra),  locks  (sera),  and  keys  (claves).  Knockers  (marculi,  mallei)  or 
bells  (tintivnabula)  were  attached  to  it. 

Fig.  o,  of  PUte  XXXII  represents  a  key  found  at  Pompeii.— Fig.  b,  of  the  sime  Plate,  is  a  door-bolt,  found  also  at  Pompeii. 

In  the  atrium  was  anciently  the  kitchen  (oulina).  Here  also  the  mistress  of  the  house  at  d 
servants  carried  on  the  spinning  and  weaving  In  this  was  the  family  hearth  (focus),  near  tne 
donr,  with  a  constant  fire  of  coals,  and  the  lares  (cf.  P.  II.  J  111)  around  it.  The  Roman  houses, 
as  well  as  the  Greek,  seem  to  have  had  no  chimneys,  but  merely  an  opening  in  the  roof  to  lei 
off  the  smoke  ;  hence  the  epithet  fumosm  applied  to  the  images  in  the  atrium  ;  to  avoid  smoke  as 
much  as  possible,  the  wood  was  carefully  dried  and  anointed  with  lees  of  oil  :  yet  it  is  said  that 
chimneys  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  ancient  buildings'.  Portable  hearths  or  furnaces 
(fi)culi),  in  which  charcoal  was  burnt,  were  used  for  warming  the  different  apartments;  a  sort 
of  stove  (caminus),  in  which  wood  was  usually  burnt,  was  also  used,  larger  than  the  furnace  or 
brasier.  and  fixed  in  one  place.  In  later  periods,  houses  were  warmed  by  a  furnace  below,  with 
pipes  passing  from  it  to  the  rooms2. — The  atrium  was  sometimes  divided,  in  later  times,  into  dif- 
ferent parts  separated  by  curtains. 

»  Becker's  Gallus,  i.  102.    Cf.  Hot.  Sat.  I.  v.  81.— Vitruv  vii.  3. *  Beckmann,  Hist   of  Inventions.    Cf.  Plm.  Ep.  ii.  17.- 

Sen.  Kp.  90. 

In  the  open  court,  or  impluvium,  was  often,  if  not  usually,  a  fountain.  The  apartments  around 
it,  excepting  the  dinhur  room,  were  usually  small  and  ill  constructed,  and  properly  called  cells. 
These  designed  for  sleeping  were  termed  cubicula.  The  tablinum  was  the  room  for  the  family 
records  or  archives.  The  pivai  otheca  was  the  gallery  for  pictures.  The  solarium  was  a  room  on 
the  portico  for  taking  the  sun. — The  covering  or  roof  was  protected  by  large  tiles  {tegultp),  and 
was  generally  of  an  angular  form  ;  the  highest  part  was  called  fasligium,  a  term  also  used  to 
designate  the  whole  roof — Under  the  better  class  of  houses  were  very  capacious  cellars  (cellaria) 
which  were  specially  prepared  for  storing  various  sorts  of  wines — Staircases  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  considered  of  much  consequence  ;  they  are  found  in  the  buildings  at  Pompeii. 

In  Plate  XXXII.  fig.  1,  is  the  plan  of  a  Roman  house,  given  in  Stuart's  Diet,  of  Architecture  as 
according  to  Vitruvius:  "  a  is  thp  vestibulvm  ;  ft.  the  atrium ;  c,  the  tahlinum  ;  d,  d,  the  aire  ;  e,e, 
cells  familiaricte; /,  cavsedium  ;  g,  vernal  t'iolinium ;  g,  summer  triclinium;  g,  winter'tricti- 
nium  ;  ill,  baths;  k  k  k,  cubicula!;  w.  pinacolheca  ;  B,  bibliolheca  ;  a,  peristyle;  q,  Cyzicene 
cecus  ;  r  r,  courts  of  the  offices  ;  s,  exedra  ;  l  t,  gardens  ;  u,  rooms  for  embroidery  ;  v  v,  sudato- 
ries." 

On  the  Roman  house,  cf.  WUkins,  Transt.  of  Vitruvius,  cited  P.  IV  §  243.  4  —J.  Minutolw,  de  Roman,  domibus,  in  SallCMrre, 
cited  5  197.— Fr.  M  Grapaldi  de  parlibus  .nSiium  liber.  Parm.  1506.  4  —  Hirl,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  cited  P.  IV.  §  213.  4  — 
Mazois,  Ruines  de  Poinpei.— Merovir,  Le  Palais  de  Scaurus,  ou  Description  d'une  Maison  Rumaine.  Par.  1822.  8—  Smith,  Diet, 
of  Antiquities,  p.  494. 

7.  Among  the  various  articles  of  furniture  mentioned  are  chairs  (sella-),  tables  (mensai) 
couches  (lecli),  lamps  (lucernce),  &c. ;  besides  the  numerous  utensils  for  culinary 
purposes  (cf.  ^  329.  3),  and  articles  pertaining  to  the  bathing-room  and  the  toilet  (cf. 
$  338). 

Several  varieties  of  tables  are  mentioned;  as  the  cilliba,  a  round  table  with  three  legs;  the 
menopodium  ;  the  sigvia  or  mensa  lunala,  &c  (cf.  $  329  2).— Chairs  of  different  forms  have  been 
discovered  in  the  excavations  at  Pompeii,  and  other  varieties  are  represented  in  the  fresco  paint- 
ings.— Among  the  couches  were  those  used  at  meals,  neevbita,  or  lecli  tricliuiares  (cf.  J  329.  2); 
and  the  lecti  cubiculures  or  beds  for  sleeping ;  the  latter  had  costly  frames,  sometimes  of  metal. 
with  feet  {fulcra)  sometimes  of  silver,  hearing  a  matress  or  bed  of  feathers  (ctilcita,  torus),  with 
rich  coverings  testes  stragida,  peripelasmata,  peris'romatu  conchyliala)  — A  great  number  of 
ancient  lamps  have  been  found,  particularly  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii ;  of  various  forms  and 
sizes,  and  different  materials,  from  the  most  common  to  the  most  costly;  many  of  them,  espe- 
cially those  in  bronze,  are  of  the  most  beautiful  workmanship.  They  were  wrought  into  the 
most  whimsical  images  and  shapes;  and  were  attached  to  supports  of  various  kinds,  or  sus 
pended  from  the  ceilings. 

Several  specimens  of  ancient  lamps  are  given  in  our  Plate  XXXII.  at  the  bottom  ;  in  Nos.  1 
and  3,  they  are  suspended  from  a  stand  or  branch  (hjehuuens) ;  in  Nos.  2  and  4,  they  are  placed 
upon  a  low  tripod  ;  in  No.  5,  on  a  small  erect  pillar  or  stick  (columella.)  called  candelabrum.  Fig. 
d  is  a  couch,  from  an  Egyptian  monument,  showing  the  cushion  or  bed,  and  the  pillow. 

N.  H.  Baber,  Antique  Vases,  Lamps,  Tombs,  Urns,  &c.  Lond.  1836.  4.  coi  taming  one  hundred  and  sevemy  plates  engraved  bj 
H.  Moses;  with  descriptions.— See  also  Montfnucon  (as  cited  P.  V.  §  13),  vol.  v.  p.  202.— Le  Antichi  cPErcolavo,  cited  P.  IV. 
5  243.  2.  one  vol.  of  which  treats  particularly  on  this  subject.— The  Mateo  Borbonico  (cited  P.  IV.  §  212),  contains  representation! 
Of  very  tasteful  ancient  chairs. 

$  326.  Th«  villas,  or  country  seats,  of  the  Romans  were  much  more  splendid  usually 
;han  the  houses  wilhin  the  city.    A  complete  establishment  of  this  kind  included  sevtt 


292  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

ral  parts.  1.  The  villa  urbana  was  the  chief  edifice,  wi.  its  courts,  biths,  porticce. 
and  terraces,  for  the  residence  of  the  lord.  2.  1  he  villa  rustica  was  the  name  applied 
to  the  buildings  designed  to  accommodate  the  steward  (milieus),  and  numerous  slaves 
of  the  establishment ;  and  those  for  various  kinds  of  live  stock  ;  e.  g.  gaUinarium,  for 
hens:  aviurium,  for  bees  ;  guile,  for  swine,  &.c.  3.  The  villa  fruclua*ia  was  another 
part,  including  the  structures  designed  for  storing  the  various  products  of  the  farm; 
as  wine,  corn,  oil,  and  fruits;  often  comprehended  under  villa  rustica.  4.  The  horlus 
was  the  garden,  upon  which  in  later  times  great  care  was  bestowed:  being  planted 
with  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  which  were  often  turned  into  fantastic  shapes  by 
slaves  called  topiarii  ;  watered  sometimes  by  means  of  pipes  and  aqueducts;  adorned 
with  walks  ana  statues.  5.  There  was  sometimes  a  sort  ol  pirk.  of  many  acres, 
chiefly  designed  for  deer  or  other  wild  beasts,  theriolrophium,  in  which  was  the  fish- 
pond (■piscina)  and  the  oyster-bed  {vivarium). 

Many  of  these  villas,  owned  by  distinguished  Romans,  are  alluded  to  in  ttie  classics.  Cicero 
had  a  beautiful  one  at  Tusculum,  besides  several  in  other  places  further  from  the  city  (cf.  Mid- 
dleton's  Life  of  Cicero,  sect,  xii).— Hortensius  possessed  sumptuous  villas  at  Tusculum,  Bauli, 
and  Laurenttliti  ;  the  Piscina  Mirqbihs,  a  suhierraneous  edifice,  vaulted  and  divided  by  four  rows 
of  arcades,  under  tlie  promontory  of  Bauli,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  fish-pond  of 
this  distinguished  orator.  (Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  ii  128.)  In  his  Tusculan  villa  he  had  a 
sin  rle  painting,  the  Argonauts,  by  Cmlias.  for  which  he  paid,  according  to  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist  xxxv. 
12),  14t, 0(1(1  sesterces,  i.  e.  above  $5,000. — Horace  is  supposed  to  have  owned  a  villa  at  Tibur,  not 
so  splendid,  yel  affording  B  retreat  delightful  to  the  poet.  (Ant/ton's  Remarks  in  his  ed.  of 
Horace  )_  piiny  (Rp.  ii  17),  has  given  a  description  of  one  belonging  to  himself  al  Lauren  turn, 
of  great  extent  and  grandeur.  (.S;«or/'s  Dictionary  of  Architecture.)— But  the  villa  of  the  einpe- 
tot  Adrian,  near  Tivoli,  was  probably  the  most  magnificent  ever  erected;  its  buildings  and 
plantations  covered  an  area,  it  is  said,  of  at  least  six  miles  in  circumference;  its  ruins  have 
survived  lo  mod  rn  time,  and  have  furnished  many  of  the  finest  remains  of  ancient  art.  (Cf. 
P.  IV.  JJ  173.  188. — Stvart's  Diet.)  — Ruins  called  the  Villn  cf  LvcuUus,  have  been  discovered  at 
the  extreme  point  of  Pausilypus  (cf.  P.  I.  {42).  in  ground  used  for  vineyards,  two  feet  below  the 
surface;  the  buildings  are  said  to  have  heen  found  in  good  order.  {Gent.  Mag.  Ap.  18)2.) — The 
excavations  of  Pompeii  have  brought  to  light  a  specimen  of  a  villa  just  without  the  walls  of  the 
place,  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  one  Diomedes.  (See  a  lively  description  of  it  in  Johnson's 
Philos.  of  Trav    p.  235,  as  cited  P   IV.  }  190.) 

Rob.  Caslell,  The  Villas  of  Die  Ancienls  illustrated      Lonl.  172a.  f0l  —  Sulzer't  Th»orie,  i.  305.— G.  Oreniut,  De  Rustications 

Roiuanorum,  in  ScdUngrc,  cited  ^  197.  vol.  i. On  remains  of  Roman  villae  discovered  ii  England,  Arctesulugm,  (as  cited  P.  IV, 

J  243.  3).  vol.  \ni   p.  363.  vol.  xviii.  p.  213,  ?nd  xm    176,  with  plans. 

§  327.  The  manner  of  life  among-  the  Romans  undeiwent  many  changes  in 
the  course  of  their  history.  In  the  early  periods  these  were  favorable  to  their 
morals,  but  in  later  times  highly  injurious.  Their  constant  prosperity  exerted 
its  influence  on  their  feelings,  and  these  affected  their  private  life  and  manners, 
their  pursuits,  social  character,  and  amusements.  At  first,  and  even  down  to 
the  first  Punic  war,  their  domestic  manners  were  characterized  by  simplicity  in 
thought  and  action,  and  united  with  this  there  was  moderation  in  the  gratifica- 
tion of  the  senses,  which  they  but  seldom  and  sparingly  indulged.  From  their 
primitive  rudeness,  they  gradually  advanced  in  refinement  and  urbanity,  and 
ere  long  passed  into  an  opposite  extreme.  The  more  they  became  acquainted 
with  the  conveniences  and  pleasures  of  the  people  they  conquered,  especially 
the  Greeks  and  Asiatics,  and  the  more  their  riches  and  abundance  increased  in 
consequence  of  these  conquests,  the  more  prevalent  became  pride  and  luxury  in 
private  life.  In  place  of  their  former  heroic  virtues,  their  bravery  and  self-denial, 
now  appeared  effeminacy,  v.mity,  and  idleness.  Magnificence  in  buildings, 
luxurious  indulgence  in  food  and  liquors,  fondness  for  dress  and  entertainments, 
followed  of  coarse. 

§  328.  It  is  not  easy  to  decide  what  was  certainly  a  uniform  course  of  daily 
avocations,  among  a  people  presenting  a  great  variety  in  pursuits,  conduct,  and 
manner  of  life.  There  was,  however,  a  sort  of  regular  routine  in  the  succession 
of  daily  employments  among  the  Romans,  particularly  with  the  more  respect- 
able and  orderly  citizens. 

1  u.  The  morning  hours  were  appropriated  to  religious  worship  in  the  temples,  or 
♦.heir  own  houses.  In  the  morning,  also,  persons  of  the  lower  class  were  accustomed 
to  call  upon  their  superiors  with  salutations,  especially  clients  upon  their  patrons. 
About  the  third  hour  (cf.  $  228)  the  business  of  the  courts,  comitia,  and  other  assem- 
blies were  commenced.  Between  this  hour  and  noon  were  the  promenades  for  plea- 
sure or  conversation  in  the  porticos,  the  forum,  and  oilier  public  places.  •  About  the 
sixth  hour  or  mid-day,  they  had  a  slight  repast,  alter  which  it  was  customary  to  take 
u  little  rest  or  sleep.  The  afiernoon  was  spent  mostly  in  amusements  and  recreation, 
n  visiting,  bathing,  and  attending  public  spectacles.  About  the  ninth  or  tenth  hour 
was  the  usual  1'rae  for  the  evening  meal. 


P.  III.       DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       ROUTINE    OF    DAILY    EMPLOYMENT.         293 

2.  The  following  caustic  remarks  are  from  the  work  of  Johnson  (above  named,  J  326V— "The 
piivate  houses  in  Pompeii,  and  the  house  of  Diomede,  par  excellence,  show  us  nl  oiice  how  the 
people  lived.  Each  family  met,  when  they  did  meet,  in  the  open  court  of  the  house— while  the 
masters  assembled,  and  might  be  said  to  live,  in  the  public  porticos  and  public  hotels  of  ihe  city  ! 
Such  was  the  state  of  society  among  the  ancients ;  and  if  we  examine  the  cafes  and  other  public 
places  of  resort,  some  of  them  not  the  most  moral  or  edifying,  in  Italy  and  France,  at  the  present 
day,  we  shall  find  that  the  slate  of  society  in  this  respect  has  not  essentially  changed.  How  the 
women  and  children  contrived  to  pass  their  time  at  home,  while  their  husbands  and  lathers  were 
lounging  in  the  porticos,  the  forums,  the  temples,  and  hotels,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  :  but  if  we  may 
judge  by  the  figures  and  devices  on  their  work-boxes,  vases,  flower-pots,  lamps,  amulets,  and 
walls,  we  may  safely  conclude  that,  in  their  narrow  and  darksome  cells,  the  pruriency  (1  dare 
not  use  the  proper  term)  of  their  minds  was  at  least  commensurate  with  the  inactivity  of  their 
bodies  and  the  enervating  influence  of  the  climate." 

See  Pliny's  interesting  account  (Epist.  iii,  I)  of  the  manner  in  which  his  friend  Spurinna  was  accustomed  to  spend  the  day. 

ftlht  Cuuiure,  La  vie  privee  des  Romains,  as  cited  §  310. 

3.  The  customary  time  of  day  for  bathing,  both  at  the  public  thermw  (cf.  P.  IV.  J  241  b  and  the 
more  private  balnea,  was  between  two  o'clock  and  dusk.  Between  two  and  three  o'clock  was 
considered  the  most  eligible  time  for  the  exercise  and  the  bath  The  baths  were  usually  closed 
at  dusk  ;  some  of  the  emperors  allowed  them  to  be  open  until  five  o'clock  in  the  evening.  The 
price  paid  for  admission  was  a  qua-'rans  or  quarter  o;  anas;  the  charge  for  entrance  was  in- 
creased a  hundred-fold  after  four  o'clock. — Nero's  baths  were  heated  by  twelve  o'clock;  and 
Severus  allowed  the  baths  to  be  open  before  sunrise  and  even  through  the  nigbt,  in  summer. 
The  rage  fur  bathing  seems  to  have  continued  until  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  the  empire  to  Con- 
stantinople ;  alter  which  no  new  thermae  were  erected,  and  the  old  gradually  fell  into  decay.  A 
description  of  the  buildings  constructed  for  bathing  is  given  under  the  topic  of  Architecture  (cf. 
P.  IV.  J  241  b) ;  to  which  we  must  refer  for  an  explanation  of  the  names  of  rooms  or  apartments 
that  occur  in  the  following  account  of  the  customs  connected  with  bathing. — "  Those  who  went 
to  bathe  first  proceeded  to  the  apodyterium,  where  they  took  ofT  their  clothes  and  committed  ihem 
to  the  care  of  the  capsarii,  slaves  employed  for  the  purpose  by  the  overseer  ibahieaiur)  Thence 
they  proceeded  to  the  unctuarium,  where  they  were  anointed  by  other  slaves  {altptm).  Thence 
they  proceeded  to  the  sphieristerium,  to  engage  in  some  of  the  exercises  of  that  apartment.  From 
this  room  they  went  to  the  caUarium.  In  taking  the  hot-bath  in  the  latter  room  they  sat  upon  a 
bench  or  seal  (pulvinus)  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  basin.  Here  lliey  scraped  them- 
selves with  instruments  called  strigiles.  usually  of  bronze,  sometimes  of  iron  ;  or  this  operation 
was  performed  by  an  attendant  slave.  From  drawings  on  a  vase  found  at  Canino,  it  is  inferred 
that  the  bathers,  after  the  use  of  the  strigilis,  rubbed  themselves  with  their  hands,  and  then  were 
washed  from  head  to  foot  by  having  pails  or  vases  of  water  poured  over  them.  They  were  then 
dried  carefully  with  cotton  or  linen  cloths,  and  covered  with  a  light  shaggy  mantle  called  guu- 
sape.  On  quilting  the  caldariitm,  they  went  to  the  tepidarium,  and  after  some  delay,  thence  into 
the  friffidarium  ;  hut  are  supposed  not  generally  to  have  bathed  in  these  at  the  public  therms 
but  to  have  used  i  iiem  chiefly  to  soften  the  transition  from  the  intense  heal  of  the  caldarium  to 
the  open  air.     The  bathing  was  usually  followed  by  an  anointing  of  the  body  with  the  perfumed 

oils  of  the  ehcotliesium,  after  which  the  clothes  left  in  the  apudyterium  were  resumed." It  is 

worthy  of  remark,  that  the  exercise  of  swimming  was  connected  with  the  custom  of  bathing. 
"  This  art,"  it  is  said,  "  was  held  in  such  estimation  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  that,  when  ihey 
wished  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  complete  ignorance  of  an  individual,  they  would  say  of  him,  that 
he  neither  knew  hoic  to  read  nor  swim,  a  phrase  corresponding  with  our  familiar  one,  thai  a  per- 
son knows  not  how  to  read  or  write.  Attached  to,  and  forming  a  part  of  the  gymnasia  and 
palKsirae,  were  schools  for  swimming ;  according  to  Pliny,  the  Romans  had  basins  in  their  pri- 
vate houses  for  the  enjoyment  of  this  exercise." 

Bell,  as  cited  P.  IV.  5  241  b.— Ameilhon,  sur  1'eiercUe  du  nageur  chez  les  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad,  hiscr.  rol.  ixxviii.  p.  1 1 
nd  iL  p.  96. 

§  3-29.  The  dinner  of  the  Romans,  or  mid-day  meal  (prandium)  was  very 
frugal  ;  indeed  it  was  not  customary  to  prepare  a  table  for  it ;  and  in  the  better 
times  of  the  republic,  those  who  took  a  formal  meal  at  noon  were  regarded  as 
effeminate.  The  fifth  hour,  from  11  o'clock  to  12  in  modern  reckoning,  was  the 
time  assigned  for  it. 

The  principal  meal  was  held  at  evening  (ccena),  and  for  this,  particularly,  the 
guest-chambers  or  eating-halls  {triclinia)  were  constructed,  which  in  the  palaces 
and  manors  of  the  rich  were  very  splendid.  These  apartments  were  also  called, 
from  the  use  made  of  them,  caznaliunes ;  and  among  the  lower  classes,  coenacula. 

1  u.  The  table,  being  either  quadrangular  or  rounded,  had  on  three  sides  couches, 
each  with  three  pillows,  on  which  to  support  the  arm  in  reclining.  Nine  persons 
($  52)  were  therefore  accommodated  at  a  table.  The  right  of  (he  midd'e  couch  or  sofa 
was  called  locus  consularis.  Often  seven  places  only  were  prepared,  ihe  whole  ol  the 
middle  couch  being  appropriated  to  some  stranger  or  gues;,  by  way  of  especial  honor. 
Women  were  not  accustomed  to  recline  at  table,  but  to  sit. 

2.  The  couch  on  the  right  hand  was  called  summits  lotus,  the  one  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  table  was  called  mcdius  leclus,  while  the  remaining  couch  on  the  left  was 
termed  imus  lectus.  The  post  of  honor  on  each  was  the  central  place,  those  who  oc 
cupied  the  middle  of  each  of  the  three  couches  being  styled  respectively,  primus  sum- 
mi  lecti,  primus  merlii  lecti,  and  primus  imi  lecti.  The  most  honorable  ot  these  three 
places,  and  consequently  of  the  whole  entertainment,  usually  was  the  primus  merfh 
lecti.  The  least  honorable  was  at  the  end  of  the  left  couch  farthest  from  that  called 
medius.     As  the  guests  al  reclined  on  the  same  (the  left)  arm.  the  booits  of  .hose  ot 


294  ROMAN    ANTIQUITH  S. 

the  opposite  couches  were  extended  in  opposite  directions;  on  the  right  towards,  on  the 
left  from,  the  middle  couch. — The  couch-frames  {spondee)  and  their  supports  (fulcra) 
were  of  wood,  ivory,  or  sometimes  metal;  sometimes  they  were  veneered  with  tor 
toise-shell ;  on  these  was  a  sort  of  cushion  which  had  in  it  stuffing  [tomi  ntum  of  wool, 
feathers  or  the  like  ;  and  this  was  sometimes  covered  with  a  cloth  {straguld)  often 
of  rich  embroidery  and  purple  dye. — The  tables  {mensm)  were  often  highly  orna- 
mented. The  monopodium,  was  circular,  with  one  foot ;  chiefly  used  by  the  sick  ;  the 
tripes  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  hi.  13)  of  the  poorer  people  had  three  feet.  The  mensa  lunula  was 
a  semicircular  table,  accommodating  usually  seven  or  eight  persons,  used  under  the 
emperors;  it  was  called  sigma  from  its  resemblance  in  form  to  the  letter  C  ;  the 
term  stibadium  designated  the  couch  or  sofa  which  surrounded  it. 

In  Plate  XXXV.  fig.  l,\ve  have  the  ground  plan  of  a  summer  triclinium  in  the  small  garden  of 
the  house  of  Sallusl,  found  at  Pompeii;  and  also  a  view  of  the  couches  and  the  table  in  the 
center.  In  ibis  plan,  A  designates  the  summits  lectus ;  B,  the  medias ;  C,  the  iw.us.  The  couches, 
in  this  instance,  are  of  masonry,  and  were  of  course  covered  with  cushions  and  tapestry.  The 
round  table  in  the  center  was  of  marble. — In  fig.  5,  of  the  same  Plate,  also  from  Pompeii,  we  see 
a  splendid  lectus,  with  a  cushion  and  richly  ornamented  pillow  (pulvinar). 

3.  Before  eating,  the  guests  always  washed  their  hands  and  used  towels  (manlilia) 
for  drying  them.  They  were  usually  furnished  each  with  a  napkin  (mappa)  for  wiping 
the  hands  while  at  the  table.  For  bringing  on  and  using  the  food  (cihum)  there  were 
various  articles  of  furniture,  as  dishes  (lances, patrince)  and  the  like  ;  but  nothing  like 
our  fork,  it  is  supposed  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  135.  2);  although  the  excavations  at  Pompeii  have 
shown  that  the  Romans  were  acquainted  with  many  things,  which  have  been  consi- 
dered as  modern  inventions. 

"The  surprise  which  is  excited  by  a  survey  of  the  various  implements  of  domestic  economy 
and  luxury,  employed  by  the  ancients,  as  disinterred  from  the  tomb  of  Pompeii,  where  they  slept 
since  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  as  compared  with  those  now  in  use,  must  be  natu- 
ral, else  it  would  not  be  so  universal.  This  surprise  is  not  solely  occasioned  by  the  almost  mira- 
culous preservation  of  these  objects  during  so  many  centuries.  We  are  astonished  (though  I 
know  not  why)  that  the  bakers  of  Pompeii  had  ovens  for  their  bread,  and  could  stamp  liieir 
names  on  the  loaves — that  the  conks  had  pots,  stew-pans,  colanders,  molds  for  Christmas-pies 
and  twelfth  cakes — that  the  aldermen  and  gnrmands  stowed  their  wines  at  the  greatest  distance 
from  the  kitchen  and  hot-bath — that  the  cafes  had  stoves  for  supplying  mulled  wines  to  theii 
guests — that  the  apothecary's  shop  abounded  in  all  kinds  of 'doctor's  stun",' a  box  of  pills  remain- 
ing to  this  day,  gill,  for  the  squeamish  palate  of  some  Pompeian  fine  lady — that  the  surgeon's 
room  displayed  a  terrific  '  armament  urn  cliirurg-icum'  of  torturing  instruments;  among  o;hers, 
'  Weiss'e  Dilator,'  the  boast  of  modern  invention  in  the  Strand — that  the  female  toilets  disclosed 
rouge,  carmine,  and  other  cosmetics,  with  the  hare's  foot  to  lay  them  gracefully  on  the  pallid 
cheek — that  the  masters  and  mistresses  had  little  bells  to  summon  the  slaves  (for  servants  there 
were  none),  and  that  the  asses,  mules,  and  oxen  had  the  same  noisy  instruments,  to  warn  carts 
and  wheelbarrows  from  entering  the  streets,  where  two  vehicles  could  not  pass  at  the  same 
time — that  play-bills,  quack  advertisements,  notices  of  sights,  shows,  &c,  were  pasted  up  at  the 
corners  of  the  streets,  in  monstrous  bad  Latin — that  opera  tickets  were  carved  in  ivory,  though 
at  a  lower  price  than  8s.  tirf.— that  dice  were  ingeniously  loaded  to  cheat  the  unwary  Calahrian 
who  came  within  the  vortex  of  the  Pompeian  gaming-table — that  horses  had  hits  in  their  mouths, 
stirrups  at  their  sides,  cruppers  on  their  rumps,  though  the  two  latter  are  omitted  iti  statues,  for 
the  benefit  of  antiquarian  disquisitions — that  windows  were  glazed  when  light  was  preferred  to 
air,  which  was  rarely  the  case— that  the  Pompeians,  like  the  Irish,  had  their  wakes,  their  howl- 
iiigs.  and  their  whisky  diinkings  at  funerals — that  the  public  houses  had  checkers  painted  on 
their  walls,  as  at  present — that  the  chimist's  shop  had  for  its  sign  a  serpent  devouring  a  pine- 
apple, symbolical  nf  prudence  defeating  death — that  the  Pompeian  ladies  employed  male  accouch- 
eurs,  who  had  all  the  implements  of  their  art  nearly  similar  to  those  of  the  modern  men  mid- 
wives  —that  the  houses  were  numbered,  and  the  names  of  the  occupants  painted  on  the  walls — 
that,  in  the  public  tribunals,  the  magistrates  protested  to  Heaven  that  they  would  decide  consci- 
tntiously,  while  the  witnesses  swore  most  solemnly  that  they  would  speak  nothing  but  truth— 
that  the  men  occupied  all  the  good  seats  in  the  theatre,  leaving  the  gallery  for  the  women,  where 
officers  were  appointed  to  preserve  order — that,  in  short,  men  and  women  had  their  passions  and 
propensities,  their  cares  and  their  enjoyments,  long  before  Vesuvius  hurst  into  flame  !"  (John- 
son, before  cited  ) 

On  curi  sitie<  found  at  Pompeii,  cf.  Clasn.  J<urn.  xv.  p.  305. — Library  nf  Entertaining  Knowledge,  vols.  xxiv.  xxv — Pompeii. 

— Muleo  Borltnico. For  an  interesting  account  of  the  luxurious  manners  of  the  later  Roman  nobles,  G\bbon,  Dec.  and  Fall  ol 

Rom.  Emp.  chap.  xxxi. 

§  330.  At  the  suppers  of  the  rich,  there  were  commonly  three  courses.  The 
first  was  termed  gusius  or  gustatio,  designed  to  sharpen  rather  than  to  satisfy 
appetite;  it.  consisted  of  errors  (ova),  salad,  radishes,  and  the  like.  With  this 
they  drank  usually,  not  wine,  but  mead,  or  a  mixture  of  honey.  The  second 
course  formed  the  essential  part  of  the  meal,  and  the  principal  dish  was  called 
caput  ccense.  The  dishes  were  brought  on  by  slaves  in  baskets  or  vases  fitted  foi 
the  purpose  (reporitoria).  The  third  course  was  the  dessert  (be  I /aria),  consist* 
ir-cr  of  choice  fruits  {mala),  pastry,  and  confectionery. 

1.  Hence  the  introduction  of  the  phrase,  ab  avo  atl  mala,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the 

feast.     Cf.  Harare,  Sat.  I.  iii.  6. An  account  of  the  fare  provided  for  a  social  supper,  is  given 

nv  Plimj,  Epist.  i.  15. 

2    A  irrcat  nur  iber  of  servants  were  employed  about  the  evening  meal  in  one  wav 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       BANQLETS.  295 

or  another;  some  of  them  have  already  been  named  (cf.  §  322);  e.  g.  the  struclor, 
who  arranged  the  tables  ;  the  carptor,  who  divided  the  food,  &c.  In  the  limes  of 
Roman  luxury,  there  was  much  demand  for  skilful  cooks  (coqui,  archimagiri). 

3.  It  may  be  proper  here  to  advert  to  the  Roman  hospitality.  The  rights  of  hospi 
tality  (jus  kospilii)  were  highly  respected;  the  term  hospes  was  applied  both  to  the 
host  and  to  the  guest,  and  always  indicated  mutual  obligations  between  them. 
These  rights  and  obligations  were  sometimes  created  between  persons  residing  at  a 
distance  and  even  in  different  countries,  by  an  interchange  of  presents.  The  joining 
of  right  hands  was  practiced  as  a  sort  of  pledge  of  this  fellowship  (arrha  hospilalis) ; 
sometimes  a  sort  of  tally  was  used  consisting  of  a  piece  of  wood  cut  into  two  similar 
parts,  of  which  each  person  kept  one  (tessera  hospilalis) ;  some  of  the  European 
cabinets  have  specimens  of  these  tessera  with  the  names  of  triends  inscribed. — The 
Romans  had  a  custom  (called  mutitatio)  of  inviting  on  the  next  day  those  whom  they 
had  met  at  another  person's  house. 

Fig.  4,  in  Plate  XXXV.,  is  a  copy  of  a  painting  found  at  Herculaneum,  which  exhibits  two 
persons  joining  hands,  and  one  giving  to  the  other  the  tessera. 

Cf.  Class.  Journ.  ix.  H29.  x.  229.  iviii.  Vo.-F osbrohe  (as  filed  §  13),  p.  63*.—/.  B.  Casalius,  De  Tricliniis,  Hospit.ililale  el  Te? 
teris  Veterum,  in  Gronovvs,  voi  ix.— /.  P.  Toniasiitus,  De  Tesseris  Hospiialiiatis.  Amst  1670.  12.  also  in  Qronoviuf,  vol.  ix. — 
On  the  general  subject  of  Roman  meals,  &c.  J  C.  Bultngeriis,  De  Conviviis,  in  Grancviiu,  vol.  ix. — Cf  also  §§  166-168. 

§  331a.  In  social  banquets,  held  at  evening,  it  was  customary  to  choose  a 
master  of  the  feast,  rex  or  magister  convivii  or  arbiter  biiendi ,-  he  seems  to  have 
been  chosen  by  a  throw  of  dice  (//or.  Od.  n.  vii.  25).  To  his  direction  every 
thingr  connected  with  the  banquet  was  submitted,  particularly  all  that  related  to 
drinking,  and  the  social  intercourse  for  the  time.  After  the  completion  of  the 
meal,  the  drinking  was  continued  late  in  the  night.  It  was  customary  to  drink 
healths,  the  memory  of  the  gods  and  heroes  being  usually  honored  in  the  first 
place. — Not  only  after  the  meal,  but  also  during  it,  between  the  different  courses 
and  dishes,  social  games  or  plays  were  practiced,  especially  playing  with  dice. 

1  m.  There  were  two  kinds  of  dice,  tali  and  tessera.  The  former  were  oblong, 
with  two  sides  or  ends  rounded,  having  therefore  four  sides,  on  which  they  might  fall, 
and  which  were  numbered  successively  one  {unio),  six  {senio),  three  (temin),  and  tour 
Iquaternio).  Four  tali  were  used  in  playing;  the  most  fortunate  throw,  called  Jaclus 
Vtnereus  or  Venus,  was  when  a  different  number  was  uppermost  on  each  of  the  four, 
and  the  worst  throw,  called  Canis,  was  when  the  same  number  was  uppermost  on  all. 
The  tessera?  had  six  sides,  numbered  like  modern  dice.  Three  only  were  used  in  play- 
ing ;  and  the  best  throw  was  three  sixes,  and  the  poorest  three  aces  or  ones.  '1  he  vessel 
from  which  the  dice  were  thrown,  was  called  fritillus  or  lurrxula,  a  box  in  the  form 
of  a  tower  ;  the  board  or  table  on  which  they  were  received,  was  termed  fonts,  alveus, 
tabula  lusoria. — Another  game  not  so  often  played  was  called  Duodena  scripta.  and 
was  a  kind  of  trick-track  or  backgammon.  It  was  played  with  fifteen  counters  or 
stones  (calculi)  of  different  colors,  upon  a  table  marked  with  twelve  lines. — In  the 
general  corruption  of  Roman  manners  the  love  of  playing  at  games  was  carrieu  to  the 
highest  extreme. 

Cf.  Simon,  Jeux  de  hazard,  chez  les  Remains,  in  the  Afem.  Acad.  Inscr.  i.  120. 

2.  In  the  time  of  the  Republic,  it  was  customary  for  the  patro-  to  invite  all  his  cli- 
ents occasionally  to  a  common  supper  in  his  halls  ;  this  was  calkfl  ccena  recta.  Under 
the  emperors,  it  became  customary  to  give  to  the  clients,  instead  of  a  supper,  a  por- 
tion of  food  to  carry  home  in  a  small  basket,  sportula.  At  length  a  quantity  of  mo- 
ney was  substituted  instead  of  this,  to  the  amount  of  about  100  quadrantes,  or  25 
asses,  which  was  also  called  sportula.  This  word  was  also  employed  to  designate 
sums  of  money  distributed  by  orators  and  others  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  favor. 

Cf.  Juv.  i.  95.  118.— Mart.  iii.  T.—De  Manlour,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  i.  161. 

<5>  331  b.  As  wine  was  the  beverage  chiefly  used  by  the  Romans,  especially  at  their 
social  evening  banquets  and  games,  we  will  introduce  here  some  remarks  on  the  sub- 
ject. Scarcely  any  thing  else  seems  to  have  been  so  important  to  the  rich  Roman  in 
all  his  arrangements  for  domestic  comfort,  as  to  be  well  furnished  with  choice  and 
approved  wines. — 1.  Hence  there  was  great  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  'he  vine  ; 
even  to  the  neglect  of  other  branches  of  agriculture.  The  soil  of  Campania  was  con 
sidered  as  perhaps  the  most  desirable  in  Italy,  for  vineyards.  Many  varieties  of  grape 
were  cultivated  :  about  fifty  sorts  are  mentioned  by  Columella  and  Pliny  ;  no  expense 
was  spared  to  obtain  the  best  kinds  for  the  vineyards.  It  was  common  to  rear  tho 
vines  by  attaching  them  to  certain  trees  (arhista).  particularly  the  elm  and  poplar, 
and  the  vines  and  trees  were  thus  said  to  be  married ;  the  vines  were  allowed  usually 
to  reach  the  height  of  30  or  40  feet,  sometimes  a  still  greater,  in  the  rich  soils ;  in 
soils  less  favorable,  the  usual  height  was  only  from  8  to  12  feet. — 2.  The  vintage  or 
gathering  of  the  grapes  was  about  the  last  of  September,  it  in  October.  They  were 
picked  in  osier  baskets  (fscince  corbes)  and  carried  direct.  /  to  the  room  far  pressing 


296  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Jorcularium),  where  they  were  first  trodden  (calcahantur) ,  and  then  subjected  to  the 
press  ;  sometimes  in  order  to  obtain  a  richer  wine,  the  grape  was  exposed  to  the  sun  a 
tew  days  after  gathering.  The  common  wine-press  (torcular)  seems  to  have  been 
simplyan  upright  frame,  in  which  was  fixed  a  beam  {prelum)  loaded  with  weights, 
and  having  ropes  attached  so  as  to  work  it  more  easily.  The  j  rice  (muslum)  passed 
through  a  sort  of  strainer  (rolum)  into  a  vat  (lacus),  in  which  it  remained  in  order  to  un- 
dergo°fermentation  about  nine  days,  or  was  put  into  largp  vessels  (dolia)  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  juice  which  ran  from  the  grapes  without  pressing  (must urn  lixivium)  was 
usually  preserved  separately,  and  often  with  much  pains  to  avoid  its  fermentation; 
one  mode  of  doing  which  was  to  secure  it  in  a  close  vessel  and  sink  it  in  a  pond  for  a 
space  of  a  month  or  more.  Sometimes  the  juice  obtained  by  pressing  was  boiled 
down  instead  of  being  allowed  to  ferment,  in  a  place  fitted  up  for  this  process  and 
called  defrutarium  ;  the  must  thus  inspissated  and  reduced  to  one-half  its  original 
quantity,  was  termed  defrutum  ;  the  carenum  was  such  as  had  been  reduced  only  to 
two-thirds;  sapa  was  the  name  when  reduced  to  one-third. — 3.  Various  means  were 
employed  for  clarifying  the  fermented  must  ;  eggs  particularly  were  used  for  the  pur- 
pose.  Various  methods  were  devised  also  for  modifying  or  preserving  the  flavor  both 
of  the  fermented  and  the  inspissated  juice  ;  aromatic  herbs  and  drugs  of  different 
kinds  were  introduced  to  effect  the  object. — In  order  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  wines, 
to  ripen  and  mellow  them,  they  were  often  subjected  to  the  action  of  artificial  heat 
and  smoke,  by  placing  the  vessels  containing  them  in  the  flues  of  the  furnaces,  or  in 
some  room  prepared  for  the  purpose  (fumarium),  where  the  smoke  for  a  time  passed 
around  them.  These  forced  wines  are  said  to  have  been  in  great  request  at  Rome. 
It  is  probable  that  the  process  tended  to  give  the  wines  a  thicker  consistency  ;  it  is 
stated  that  they  sometimes  became  consolidated  to  such  a  degree  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  dissolve  them  in  hot  water. — 4.  The  vessel  most  commonly  used  by  the  Ro- 
mans, for  keeping  their  wine,  was  the  amphora,  called  also  quad  rant  al ;  the  terms 
testa,  cadus,  and  diota  are  applied  to  the  same  or  a  similar  vessel.  It  was  made  of  a 
sort  of  clay  baked,  and  held  about  six  gallons; — generally  of  an  elegant  form,  having 
a  narrow  neck  with  two  handles,  and  tapering  towards  the  bottom,  so  that  they  might 
easily  be  fixed  in  the  ground  or  sand  of  the  wine-cellar,  and  kept  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion. The  amphora  was  commonly  lined  with  some  preparation  of  pitch  or  wax  and 
aromatic  substances,  and  was  covered  also  with  a  coating  made  of  pitch  and  the  ashes 
of  tbe  vine.  When  the  wine  had  been  in  the  vessel  a  suitable  time,  the  cover  or 
stopper  was  confined  and  made  perfectly  close  by  a  coating  of  the  same  kind,  or  of 
plaster.  Skins  (litres),  which  were  originally  the  only  kind  of  vessel  used  for  the  pur- 
pose, seem  also  to  have  remained  until  later  times.  For  the  richer  sorts  of  wine, 
glass  vessels  appear  also  to  have  been  employed  ;  but  probably  of  a  much  smaller  size 
than  the  earthen  amphora  (Martial,  Ep.  ii.  40).  For  carrying  wine  from  place  to 
place,  very  large  vessels  made  of  leather  or  hide,  supported  and  guarded  by  a  frame 
and  hoops,  seem  to  have  been  used.  A  painting  found  in  a  wine-shop  at  Pompeii  ex- 
hibits a  vessel  of  this  kind  occupying  the  whole  of  a  wagon  or  car  with  four  wheels 
and  drawn  by  two  horses. — 5.  The  better  kinds  of  wine  were  usually  valued  more 
highly  in  proportion  to  their  age.  None  of  the  more  generous  wines  were  reckoned 
fit  for  drinking  before  the  fifth  year,  and  the  majority  of  them  were  kept  for  a  much 
longer  period.  The  most  pleasant  and  grateful  for  drinking,  however,  was  that  of  a 
middle  age;  although  the  older  might  command  a  higher  price.  The  opulent  Ro- 
man, as  has  been  mentioned,  attached  vast  importance  to  his  wine  establishment. 
Hence  to  the  house  and  villa  of  every  such  person  was  attached  the  wine-cellar  (cella 
vinaria).  This  (called  also  apotheca,  cf.  Hor.  Sat.  n.  v.  7)  was  commonly  in  part,  if 
not  wholly,  under  ground,  and  was  frequently  very  spacious.  Here  the  wine  was 
kept,  usually,  in  amphora',  which  were  ranged  along  the  walls,  sunk  to  a  greater  or 
less  depth  in  the  sand ;  each  one  having  a  mark  (nota)  indicating  the  name  of  the  Con- 
sul in  office  when  the  wine  was  made  ;  hence  the  phrase  interior  nota,  signifying  the 
oldest  and  choicest ;  because  such,  being  placed  first  in  the  cellar,  would  naturally  be 
at  the  remote  end  of  the  cellar,  or  because,  on  account  of  these  qualities,  it  was 
lodged  in  an  inner  cell  or  apartment.  The  villa  of  Diomedes(cf.  }326)  hasa  cellar  very 
large,  extending  round  and  under  the  whole  garden,  and  lighted  and  ventilated  by 
port-holes  from  above;  "some  of  the  amphorae  still  stand  as  they  were  packed  and 
labelled  seventeen  centuries  ago."  Among  the  amphora?  found,  some  not  many  years 
since,  at  Leptis  (cf.  Beechy's  travels),  was  one  with  the  following  inscription  in  Vermil- 
lion, h.  cassio  c.  mario  cos.  forming  three  lines  on  the  vessel. — 6.  Of  the  Italian  wines. 
the  most  celebrated  were  the  Falernian  and  Massic  (vinum  Falernum,  Massicum), 
which  seem  to  have  been  the  product  of  the  same  region,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sinuessa; 
and  the  vinum  Setinum,  the  beverage  of  Augustus,  produced  on  the  hills  of  Setia. 
( Others  in  much  repute  were  the  vinum  Cmcuhum,  Surrenti7ium,  Calenum  ;  of  a  third 
rank  were  the  Albanian  and  Sabinum.  The  Sicilian  wines  were  rated  generally  after 
'hese.  Of  foreign  wines,  the  Romans  seemed  to  have  placed  the  Lesbian,  Chian,  and 
Thasian,  among  the  first;  cf.  $  161.  Different  kinds  of  wine  were  used  at  the  sane 
•auquet;  and  sometimes  ttie  guests  were  treated  With  different  sorts  according  to  theii 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       DRIXKIXG-CUPS.      COSTUMES.  20? 

rank. — 7.  From  the  fact  that  the  wines  were  so  cften  inspissated,  it  was  common  to 
dilute  them  for  actual  use,  among  the  Romans  as  well  as  among  the  Greeks;  for  tins 
purpose  warm  or  hot  water  seems  to  have  been  frequently  used.  The  mixture  was 
made  in  a  large  vase  called  crater.  From  this  it  was  poured  or  conveyed  by  a  ladle 
(cyathus)  into  cups  [pocula),  of  which  there  were  almost  countless  varieties. 

Some  of  the  nanips  employed  to  designate  varieties  of  ttie  ririnking-cup  were  the  following} 
eatires,  phiala,  scijplii,  cijmbia,  batiolce.  They  were  made  of  wood  (fagiva  pocnla),  or  of  earth 
'fictilia);  of  glass  (vitrea),  and  of  amber  (succiva);  also  of  bronze,  silver,  and  gold,  with  various 
ornaments  (torenmata,vasa  scvlptd);  of  gems  or  precious  stones,  and  of  the  substance  called 
murrha  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  195.  4).  The  specimens  of  these  articles  still  remaining  show  great  skill  in 
workmanship. 

In  our  Plate  XXXV.  are  seen  a  number  of  the  vessels  connected  with  the  ancient  use  of  wine. 
Fiir.  n  is  a  jar  tilled  with  grapes,  copied  from  paintings  on  the  walls  of  an  edifice  found  at  Pom  • 
peii  and  called  the  Pantheon. — Fig.  6  is  drawn  from  an  Egyptian  monument;  and  shows  a  mode 
of  obtaining  the  juice  by  treading  on  the  grapes  collected  in  a  vat. — Fig.  2  is  copied  from  the 
painting  mentioned  above  as  found  at  Pompeii  ;  it  shows  a  mode  of  carrying  wine  about  for 
sale;  a  slave  is  filling  an  amphora  from  the  leathern  vessel  in  the  carriage,  and  another  slave 
holds  a  second  amphora  to  be  billed. — Figs,  ft,  c,  and  d,  are  wine-vessels,  from  Egyptian  monu- 
ments ;  c  very  exactly  resembling  the  Roman  amphora;  and  ft,  a  form  still  in  actual  use  in 
Egypt  for  water.  — Figs,  e,  f,  g,  i,  represent  glass  vessels  found  at  Pompeii ;  A  is  probably  a  drink- 
ing-cup. — Figs.  ?i  and  o  are  also  drinking-vessels  ;  n  is  the  drinking-horn,  Kioag,  pvrdv ;  severa' 
specimens  have  been  found  at  Pompeii;  o  may  illustrate  the  Greek  crater;  cf.  Boyd's  Potter 
p.  69'J — Fig.  ~  shows  two  elegant  glass  cups  which  seem  to  have  been  cut,  or  else  cast  in  a  mold 
— Fig.  5  presents,  in  the  hand  of  the  Bacchanal,  a  cup  of  another  form,  probably  the  calir,  kv\i?) 
wine-vessels  also  appear  on  the  small  table  which  stands  by  the  splendid  couch  on  which  ha 
reclines  with  a  garland  on  his  head  and  the  thyrsus  in  the  other  hand  ;  a  monument  from  Pom- 
peii.— Fig  3  is  a  vessel  of  form  like  one  of  those  seen  on  the  table  of  the  Barchanal,  given  on  a 
larger  scale,  and  showing  its  ornaments ;  it  represents  the  patera,  often  used  in  libations. 

Cf.  Poumall,  on  a  Roman  "  d'inkin?-cup  wroueht  of  sol i J  crystal, '■  Arehxolcgia,  cited  P.  IV.  )  32.  5.  vol.  vii   p.  ISO. On  the 

topics  of  the  above  section,  Hend<TJD7»>»  History  of  Wines,  died  §  161.— E.  Barry,  On  the  Wines  of  the  Ancients     Lond.  1775.  4 

A.  Turnebus.  De  Vino  ac  eju«  Usu  et  Abusu,  in  Gronovivs,  vol.  ix.—  jt.  Barents,  De  Conviviis  Veterum,  in  Grunovius,  vol.  ix.— 
Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xiv.—  C  lumtlla,  xii. — B.  Partem,  Anti-Dacchus  ;  an  Essay  on  Intoxicating  Drink*.  Repr.  K.  York,  1810  12. 
p.  lS9ss.— R.  B.  Grindrod.  Bacchus;  an  Essay  on  Intemperance.  Repr.  N.  York,  1840.  12.  p  192,245.  The  last  two  "works 
valuable  as  advocating  perfect  temperance." 

§  332.  The  fashion  of  dress  among  the  Romans  underwent  changes  in  differ- 
ent periods,  but  less  in  respect  to  form  than  the  quality  and  expensiveness  of 
the  materials,  and  the  ornaments. — The  most  general  and  peculiar  garment  of 
the  Romans  was  the  toga,  a  national  characteristic,  whence  the  Romans  were 
termed  Gens  togata,  and  Togati,  while  the  Greeks  were  termed  Palliati.  It  was 
a  loose  rube  or  sort  of  cloak,  extending  from  the  neck  to  the  feet,  close  below  up 
to  the  breast,  but  open  above  the  breast,  and  without  sleeves.  It  was  therefore 
not  put  on,  properly  speaking,  but  thrown  over  the  body.  It  was  commonly  of 
wool,  and  white  in  color;  black,  toga  pul/n,  being  used  only  on  funeral  occa- 
sions. The  to<ja  worn  in  the  house  was  less  loose  and  ample  (toga  reslricta)  • 
that  used  in  going  out,  commonly  larger  and  flowing  with  many  folds  (fusa). 

1.  Some  of  the  priests  and  magistrates  wore  it  bordered  with  purple  (toga  prmtexta} , 
this  was  also  worn  by  freebom  youth,  who,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  exchanged  it  for 
the  toga  virilU  or  (because  generally  white)  pura,  which  was  assumed  in  a  very  formal 
manner  before  the  Praetor,  in  the  Forum. — The  trabea  is  described  as  a  toga  orna- 
mented with  purple  horizontal  stripes;  that  worn  by  the  augurs  (cf.  $  209)  is  said  to 
have  been  of  purple  and  saffron  color. — The  angular  extremities  of  the  toga  were 
termed  laciniee. 

2.  A  statue  of  one  Marcus  Tullius,  by  some  supposed  to  be  a  descendant  of  the  great  Cicero, 
was  found  at  Pompeii ;  "  he  is  represented  clothed  in  a  toga  praMexta,  the  robe  of  office  of  the 
Roman  magistrates;  and,  which  adds  value  and  singularity  to  the  statue,  this  robe  is  entirely 
painted  with  a  d  ep  purple  violet  color.  This  seems  to  give  reason  for  believing  that  the  prs- 
texta,  instead  of  being  a  garment  with  only  a  purple  hem,  as  it  is  usually  explained,  was  entirely 
dyed  with  this  precious  color;  at  least  in  the  later  times  of  the  republic.  The  price  of  this  pur- 
pip  was  enormous;  the  violet,  though  the  less  cstly  sort,  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  worth 
one  hundred  denarii  (ahout  £3,  4s.  7d.)  the  pound  ;  the  red  is  valued  by  the  same  authority  at 
one  thousand  denarii.  It  was  obtained  from  the  murex,  a  shell-fish  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean."     Pompeii,  p.  205. 

On  the  aee  for  assuming  the  toga,  cf.  Dodwell,  de  state  toj.  vir.  sumenda;,  in  his  Pndtcl.  Acad,  (cited  P.  V.  5  5J2  ".)  p  245.— Or, 
Ihe  color  of  the  to»a,  Ameilhon,  sur  la  teinture  des  anciens,  as  cited  5  263.  4.  (e). 

§  333.  The  garment  which  the  Romans  wore  under  the  robe,  was  the  tunic 
(tunica).  It  was  worn  close  to  the  body,  without  sleeves,  and  extending  almost 
to  the  knees.  It  was  entirely  open,  and  fastened  by  means  of  a  girdle  above  the 
hips.  It  was  commonly,  like  the  toga,  white.  In  later  times  the  tunic  wa* 
worn  with  sleeves. — With  slaves  and  the  poorer  classes  of  citizens  generally 
this  was  the  only  clothing,  except  the  linen  under-garment  or  shirt  {indusium 
subucula)  which  had  small  sleeves.  The  higher  classes  never  appeared  abroac 
23 


298  roman  antiquities. 

without  the  addition  of  the  toga.  In  winter  the  latter  often  wore  another  gar« 
ment  under  it,  called  tunica  interior  or  interula. 

1  u.  Senators  and  their  sons  wore  a  tunic  bordered  in  front  on  the  right  side  with  a 
stripe  of  purple,  called  clavus ;  knights  (equites)  had  two  such  stripes,  but  narrower; 
whence  the  tunic  of  the  senators  was  called  laticlavia,  that  of  the  knights  angusti- 
clavia. 

2.  The  emperors  exercised  the  prerogative  of  bestowing  the  distinction  of  the  laticlave  upon 
such  persons  as  they  considered  worthy  of  the  honor.     Cf.  Pliny,  Ep.  ii.  9. 

§  331  /.  The  women  used  the  tunic,  with  a  girdle,  as  well  as  the  men;  only 
that  of  the  women  reached  down  to  the  feet.  They  wore  also  an  over-garment 
extending  to  the  feet,  called  stola,  having  a  broad  border  or  fringe  (lintbus)  called 
inslita.  Some  consider  the  pal/a  to  be  a  robe  worn  over  the  stola  ;  others  think 
them  both  the  same  garment.  The  women  sometimes  wore  a  fine  robe  of  a  cir- 
cular form  called  cyclus.  The  mourning  robe  of  women  was  called  ricinium  oi 
rica,  covering  the  head  and  shoulders.  The  amiculum  was  a  short  mantle,  or 
vail,  worn  by  the  women. 

"A  female  statue,  of  the  size  of  life,  was  found  within  the  cellar  of  the  temple  of 
Fortune  at  Pompeii,  clothed  in  a  tunic  falling  to  her  feet  and  above  it  a  toga.  The 
border  of  the  former  is  gilt ;  the  latter  is  edged  with  a  red  purple  bandeau,  an  inch  and 
a  quarter  wide ;  the  right  arm  is  pressed  upon  the  bosom,  with  the  hand  elevated  to 
the  chin,  while  the  left  hand  holds  up  the  toga." 

§  335.  There  were  other  kinds  of  outer  garments  more  or  less  in  use.  The 
fena  was  a  thick  woolen  over-coat,  used  in  journeying;  this  name  was  also 
given  to  the  purple  robe  of  the  Flumines  (cf.  §  214),  which  was  fastened  about 
the  neck  with  a  buckle  or  clasp.  The  paludamentum,  or  chlamys,  was  a  long 
Grecian  cloak  of  scarlet  color  bordered  with  purple,  used  specially  by  generals 
and  high  military  officers.  The  sagum  was  a  soldier's  cloak  of  red  color,  cover- 
ing only  the  back  and  shoulders,  fastened  by  a  clasp.  The  lacerna  was  a  kind 
of  rain  cloak,  very  broad,  and  usually  with  a  hood  or  covering  for  the  head 
(cucullus,  capitium).  The  pxnula  was  a  robe  similar  to  the  toga,  and  more 
frequently  used  under  the  emperors. 

The  materials  of  which  the  Roman  garments  were  made,  were  chiefly  linen  and 
woolen.  Silk  was  unknown  to  them  until  the  close  of  the  republic.  The  Romans 
seem  to  have  remained  ignorant  how  silk  was  produced,  for  a  long  time  after  the  article 
was  introduced  among  them  by  importation  from  the  country  of  the  Seres.  Nor  did 
they  at  first'  use  it  without  intermixing  linen  or  woolen  in  texture  with  it;  for  which 
purpose  even  the  silk  stuffs,  which  were  brought  from  the  east  in  a  woven  state,  were 
unraveled  ;  cloth  of  this  mixed  texture  is  said  to  have  been  first  fabricated  in  the  island 
of  Cos.  The  Coan  vestments  (vestes  Com)  appear  to  have  been  of  a  very  loose  texture, 
almost  like  muslin  or  gauze  ;  hence  called  ventus  textilus,  woven  wind.  The  Seric 
vestments  (vestes  Sericce)  are  supposed  to  mean  such  as  consisted  of  pure  silk.  The 
term  bmnbycina  was  sometimes  applied  to  both,  although  it  seems  to  have  been  consi- 
dered as  more  appropriate  for  the  Coan  article;  as  that  was  at  length  known  to  come 
from  a  worm  (i36^3n\,  bombyx),  while  the  Seric  was  still  imagined  to  be  gathered  from 
the  leaves  of  trees  (Virg.  Georg.  ii.  121).  Silk  was  considered  as  proper  chiefly  for 
the  garments  of  females.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  the  senate  (Tacit.  Ann.  ii.  33)  ia 
said  to  have  decreed  (A.  D.  16)  that  men  should  not  disgrace  themselves  by  wearing 
silk  apparel  (veslis  serica).  The  emperor  Heliogabulus  (slain  A.  D.  222)  is  severely 
condemned  as  being  the  first  who  wore  a  robe  of  pure  silk. 

Cf.  Article  Seres,  in  Anthem's  Lempriere,  and  Sericum,  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Antiquities. On  the  Roman  costnme,  see  O.  Ferra- 

riut,  IV  Re  Vestiaria,  in  Grievius,  vol.  vi.— Becker.  Gallus.  vol.  u.— Maillot  and  Martin,  cited  §  197  —Jlmedhun,  L'usa»e  des  Soie 
chez  les  anchns,  in  the  Mem.  Jlcad.  Inscr.  vol.  xl vi  p.  4:»2 — Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xl — Matiudel,  Origine  de  le  Soie.  In  the 
Mem.  Sft  vol.  v.  p.  218.—/.  R.  Foster,  De  Bysso  Aniiquoruni.  Lond.  1776   8. For  some  illustrations,  see  Plate  XXV. ;  cf.  §  169 

br  explanations 

§  336.  The  Romans  usually  went  with  the  head  uncovered,  or  drew  over  it  a 
part  of  the  togti ;  except  at  sacred  rites  and  festivals,  on  journeys,  and  in  war. 
At  the  festival  of  the  Saturnalia,  particularly,  they  wore  a  sort  of  bonnet  or 
woolen  cap  (pi/eu.s),  which,  however,  was  allowed  only  to  the  free  by  birth  or 
manumission,  but  forbidden  to  slaves.  The  petasus  was  a  sort  of  broad-brimmed 
hat1,  used  in  journeying. — There  were  various  coverings  for  the  feet.  The  caU 
cei  wore  somewhat  like  our  shoes,  and  covered  the  whole  foot,  and  often  with 
their  lacings  (corrigia,  ligula)  covered  the  ankles  and  the  lower  part  of  the  leg. 
Shoes  oi"  strong  untanned  leather  were  termed  perunes.    The  caligas  were  a  kind 


P.  III.  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       PERSONAL    ORNAMENTS.  290 

of  half-boot,  worn  by  soldiers.  The  sohse  and  crepidae  were  sanda  s,  covering 
only  the  bottom  of  the  feet,  and  were  fastened  by  leather  thongs  and  bands  (m'n. 
cw/n)  passing  above. 

The  shoe  of  senators  came  up  to  the  middle  of  the  leg,  and  had  on  the  top  of  the  foot 
«  golden  or  silver  crescent,  or  letter  C  (hence  lunula  pellis,  patrida  hind).  The  shoes 
of  the  men  were  usually  black  ;  those  of  women  commonly  white,  sometimes  of  a  red 
yellow,  or  other  color.  The  mullei  were  of  a  reddish  dye  ;  worn  first  by  the  kings,  after- 
wards  by  those  who  had  borne  any  curule  office.  Sometimes  the  Romans  used  socks 
made  of  wool  or  goat's  hair,  udones.  The  thighs  and  legs  were  sometimes  bound  around 
with  a  sort  of  scarfs  {fascia),  which  were  all  in  the  Roman  dress  that  corresponded  to 
modern  pantaloons  or  breeches  (ftmoralia)  and  stockings  (tihialia). — The  shoes  ot 
comedians  were  termed  socci  ;  those  of  tragedians,  cothurni  (cf.  §  69);  those  ot  panto- 
mimes, or  the  rattling  appendages  to  them,  scabella.  The  soccus  was  a  mere  slipper, 
very  frequently  of  yellow  color  ;  the  crepida  seems  to  have  been  nearly  the  same ;  the 
baxa  was  a  sandal  made  of  vegetable  leaves  or  twigs;  and  the  baxa  and  crepida  were 
used  by  comedians  as  well  as  the  soccus  2 

i  The  head-covering  termed  petasus,  is  seen  in  our  Piale  XXIV.  fig.  3. 2  See  P.  V.  5}  317-319.— D.  V.iidnayt,  as  ciled  P.  V. 

§  319   1. Various  forms  of  coverings  for  ihe  feet  and  legs  are  given  in  Piate  XXIV.  ;  see  the  explanation,  ^  169.  2. 

§337.  The  hair,  both  of  the  head  and  beard,  was  allowed  by  the  more  ancient 
Romans  to  grow  freely,  and  was  but  seldom  cut.  In  the  fifth  century  after  the 
building  of  the  city,  it  first  became  a  common  custom  to  cut  the  hair  more  fre- 
quently, and  also  to  frizzle  and  anoint  it.  Young  persons  were  accustomed  to 
draw  the  hair  backwards  and  bind  it  together  in  a  knot,  for  a  sort  of  ornament. 

1  u.  When  the  toga  virilis  was  assumed  (cf.  %  332),  the  hair  of  the  youth  was  shorn 
and  a  part  of  it  cast  into  the  fire  in  honor  o\  ApoMo,  and  a  part  of  it  into  the  water  in 
honor  of  Neptune.  It  was  also  customary,  on  the  first  shaving  of  the  beard,  to  conse- 
crate it  to  some  deity.  Under  the  emperors  false  hair  were  used,  by  a  contrivance  like 
a  peruke  (capillamentum,  galericulum). 

2.  Among  the  ornaments  of  the  youth  was  the  bulla,  a  sort  of  ball,  .vhich  hung 
from  the  neck  on  the  breast.  The  boys,  who  were  sons  of  citizens  of  the  highei 
ranks,  wore  one  of  gold  (bulla  aurea)  ;  it  was  usually  a  hollow  sphere  ;  but  other  forms, 
and  particularly  the  image  of  a  heart,  were  introduced.  The  sons  of  freedmen  anc 
poorer  citizens  used  only  a  leathern  ball  (bulla  scortea).  This  ornament  was  laid  aside 
when  the  toga  virilis  was  assumed  (cf.  §  332),  on  which  occasion  the  bulla  was  conse- 
crated to  the  lares  or  other  divinities. 

Fig.  1.  of  our  Plate  XXV.  is  an  altar-shaped  box,  worn  by  loose  women  of  the  Hindoo  temples 
upon  their  necks  ;  richly  ornamented  with  jewels.  Boxes  like  this,  or  bags,  seem  to  have  bei'n 
formerly  worn  on  the  neck  to  contain  perfumes.  (If.  ha.  iii.  20  (the  tablets),  and  Sol.  Song,  i.  13 
— The  figure  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  Roman  bulla,  as  hung  from  the  neck. 

See  Montjaucon,  At.tiq  Expl.  as  cued  §  13.  vol.  v.  p.  6S—  Baudrlut.  Bulle  que  les  enfants  Rom.  portoienl  au  cou,  in  >he  Mem. 
Acad.  Inter,  vol    iii.  p.  211. 

§  338.  .Still  greater  care  was  bestowed  by  the  women  upon  the  dress  of  their 
hair,  which  they  frizzled,  plaited  in  locks  and  curls,  and  adorned  with  golden 
chains,  with  pearls,  rings,  and  ribins.  The  most  modest  fashion  was  the  use 
of  a  broad  ribin  or  fillet  (villa),  by  which  they  gathered  and  bound  the  hair  in  a 
bunch  or  knot.  Besides  the  ointments  by  which  they  made  their  hair  more 
glossy,  it  became  fashionable  in  later  times  to  color  it,  and  even  to  scatter  gold 
dust  upon  it. 

I.  The  Roman  women  often  used  paint  (funis)  to  improve  the  color  of  the  face  as 
well  as  the  hair;  both  white  (cfrussa  or  creta)  and  red  (minium).  Various  ointments 
{unguenta).  cosmetics,  and  washes  (medicamina,  smegmata),  were  likewise  used  tor  a 
similar  purpose.  Effeminate  men  did  the  same.  Ot  the  various  cosmetics  we  mention 
the  following:  amaracinum,  iasminum,  nardinum,  cesipum,  metopium,  rosarium, 
usinum. 

The  mirrors  (specula)  used  at  the  toilet  were  made  of  polished  metal,  commonly  brass  or  steel, 
also  of  silver  ;  sometimes  of  glass  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvi.  26,  3ti>.  Cf.  Menard,  cited  $  109.  »J ;  ci 
also  $  268.  4. 

Among  the  personal  ornaments  of  the  Roman  ladies  were  ear-rings,  necklaces,  and 
finger-rings.  The  ear-rings  (inaurcs)  were  ot  gold,  pearls,  and  gems,  sometimes  of 
immense  value.  Necklaces  (monilia)  were  often  of  gold  set  with  gems;  severa' 
splendid  gold  necklaces  found  in  Etruscan  tombs  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  men  also  used  an  ornament  for  the  neck,  which  was  a  sort  of  twisted  chain 
[torques),  or  a  circular  plate  (circulus  auri).  Finger-rings  (annulC.  were  of  various 
forms  and  devices,  commonly  set  with  engraved  gems  (cf.  P.  IV.  §§  205,  206),  and 
used  not  merely  for  ornaments,  but  for  sealing  papers,  caskets,  and  even  large  packages 
or  vessels;  hence  perhaps  they  obtained  the  name  of  symbola.  The  ring  was  a  very 
common  ornament  among  the  men  ;  originally  only  senators  and  equites  (cf.  §  256.  2)  were- 


300  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

allowed  to  wear  gold  rings;  plebeians  could  wear  only  iron  rings  except  by  specia. 
allowance  ;  those  who  triumphed  also  wore  an  iron  ring  (ferrci/s  si/it-  gemma). — Jewels 
and  other  female  ornaments  were  kept  in  a  casket  {pyxis,  or  pyxidula)  made  of  gold, 
tortoise-shell,  ivory,  or  other  precious  material. 

2  Specimens  of  most  of  these  ornaments  have  been  found  at  Pompeii.  A  gold  ring,  with  an 
engraved  gem  set  in  it.  was  found  near  a  temple,  in  a  box  alone  with  forty-one  silver  coins  and 
above  one  thousand  of  brass.  In  several  of  the  houses  were  found  skeletons  with  rings,  hrace- 
|i  ts  ttrmilla),  necklaces,  and  other  ornaments.  Of  these  specimens  we  only  mention  further  an 
ear-rim:  of  ?<>ld,  which  had  two  pearl  pendants  ;  and  a  breast-pin,  to  which  was  attached  a  Bac- 
chanalian figure,  with  a  patera  in  one  hand  anil  a  L'lass  hi  the  other,  having  bat's  wings  joined 
to  his  shoulders,  and  two  belts  of  grapes  passing  across  his  body.  This  curious  breast-pin  is 
given  in  our  Plate  XLVII.  fig.  i — In  the  same  Plate,  tigs  «,  and  Ii,  and  /■.  are  ear-pendants,  from 
Montfaucon.  Fig.  4  shows  the  ring  which  was  passed  through  the  ear  — Fig.  a  is  a  pendant  with 
a  pin  to  attach  ii  to  a  bandeau  or  some  part  of  the  head-dress. — This  Plate  also  shows  a  variety 
of  rings:  cf  P.  IV.  $  206.— The  torques  is  seen  in  fig.  1,  of  Plate  XLIV.,  cf.  P.  IV.  J  186.  9;  and 
the  mnnile  or  necklace,  probably,  in  fid.  5,  Plate  XXX  V.— A  mirror,  with  a  box  of  pins,  &c.  upon 
a  toilet -table,  is  seen  in  Plate  XXV.  figs.  3  and  4.  Fig.  '2  is  a  o  .eta  Hie.  purse  for  coins  and  jewels, 
from  an  Egyptian  monument.     This  plate  also  shows  various  forms  of  the  head-dress. 

Cf.  R  .1  B  Itiger,  Sabina.  oder  Morgei.scenen  im  Purzzimmtr  einer  reichen  Romerinn.    Leipz.  1806.  2  Ih    8.— A'arfa!,  Luxe  del 

dames  Romanies,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inter,  vol.  iv.  p.  227.— Becker,  Gallus. On  rings  and  iheir  U'e,  J  Kirchmatm,  Ue  Annulis. 

Lug.  ha'    1672.  12—  P.  Bunnann,  De  Jure  Annulorum.    Ultraj.  1734.— C.  Barlhnlimit,  Ue  Ii.auribus  Velerum.    Ainst.  1676.  12. 

3.  The  following  passage,  from  a  letter  by  a  traveler  visiting  Naples  and  Pompeii,  may  be 
pertinent  here.  "  What  is  admirable  to  us,  barbarians  of  ihe  nineteenth  century,  is  the  exquisite 
delicacy  of  shape  of  all  the  utensils  which  served  in  Roman  domestic  life.  One  must  see  those 
candelehras,  lamps,  vases  of  all  sizes,  those  charming  little  bronze  calefaclors  (for  every  thing 
was  of  bronze),  those  tripods,  scales,  beds,  chairs,  those  graceful  and  so  ingeniously  wrought 
shields,  which  fill  up  whole  rooms  at  the  INaples  Museum.  One  must,  above  all,  see  the  toilet 
arsenal  of  the  Ho  man  ladies,  their  combs,  toothpicks,  curling  -irons,  and  the  pots  of  vegetable  and 
mineral  rouge  found  in  a  boudoir.  Thus  the  Roman  ladies  used  rouge  and  deceived  people; 
they  wore,  like  our  ladies,  those  necklaces,  rings,  and  ridiculous  ear-rings,  which  add  nothing 
to  beauty  and  diminish  not  ugliness.  How  times  resemble  one  another,  in  spile  of  the  space  thai 
separates  them  '." 

§  339.  It  remains  yet  to  mention  some  of  the  more  remarkable  features  in  the 
funeral  customs  of  the  Romans.  The  dying  received  from  their  relatives  and 
friends  present  the  last  tokens  of  love  by  embraces  and  kisses.  As  soon  as  they 
were  dead,  the  nearest  relatives  closed  their  eyes  and  month,  and  drew  the  rings 
from  their  fingers.  The  corpse  was  then  washed  in  hot  water,  and  anointed  by 
the  slaves  {pollinctores)  of  the  person  taking  charge  of  funerals  [libilinarius). 
It  was  then  covered  with  clothing  suitable  to  the  rank  of  the  deceased,  which, 
like  that  of  the  mourners,  sometimes  (cf.  §340.  4)  was  white.  Such  as  had 
linen  distinguished  by  a  victory  were  adorned  with  a  crown  of  palm  leaf.  The 
corpse  was  then  brought  into  the  vestibulum  of  the  house,  placed  on  a  bier,  and 
there  left  for  some  days.  This  exposure  was  termed  colhcatio,  and  the  couch 
or  bier,  lectus  feralis.  During  the  time  of  this  exposure,  there  were  frequent  and 
loud  outcries  (conclamatio),  accompanied  by  the  strongest  expressions  of  grief 
and  sorrow.  A  branch  of  cypress  or  pine  was  usually  fixed  before  the  door  of 
the  house. — Children  and  youth  of  both  sexes  were  interred  by  night,  with 
lighted  torches,  without  attendants;  but  adults,  on  the  other  hand,  by  day,  and 
with  more  or  less  ceremony  according  to  their  rank. 

Claude  de  Gwchard,  On  Ihe  Funerals  of  ihe  Ancients.  Rom.  I6U0.  4. — J.  Kirchmann,  De  Funeribus  Romanorum  (Libri  iv 
Lub.  1672.  12. 

§  310.  Among  the  Romans,  both  interring  and  burning  were  practiced  from 
the  earliest  times.  The  ceremonies  connected  with  the  funeral  (elatio,  exequise) 
were  the  following,  chiefly.  The  funeral  of  a  distinguished  person  was  pre- 
viously announced  in  the  city  by  a  herald,  and  therefore  cal led  funus  indiclivuui, 
and,  if  the  expenses  were  defrayed  by  the  city ,  funus  -publicum.  In  the  proces- 
sion, 'lie  musicians  (cornicines,  tibicines)  and  women  hired  as  mourners  (.pnrjir-r) 
advanced  first,  uttering  lamentations  and  singing  the  funeral  songs  (kssus,  menise, 
cf.  P.  V.  §  333  //) ;  then  came  those  who  bore  the  images  of  the  ancestors ;  next 
the  relatives,  all  in  black,  with  other  indications  of  grief;  then  followed  players, 
mimics,  and  dancers  (Judii,  histriones),  one  of  them  (archimimus)  imitating  the 
words  and  actions  of  the  deceased,  and  others  cptoting  pertinent  passages  f'orn 
dramatic  writings;  after  them  followed  the  corpse,  carried  by  bearers;  Hud 
astly,  a  train,  frequently  very  numerous,  of  both  sexes. 

!  u.  The  corpse  wa9  borne  in  a  couch  (lectica)  on  the  shoulders,  usually  by  the  fr->eJ> 
mi  ii  id  the  deceased,  but  often,  in  case  of  high  rank,  by  senators  and  the  most  .lis- 
linguished  citizens.  In  the  case  of  the  poorer  and  lower  classes,  the  corpse  was  b  >rne 
•n  a  small  bi'-r  (sandapila),  by  ordinary  coffin-bearers  tv^spillones,  sandapilarii). 


PLATE      XXXV, 


'l'ol  lol  lo|    loliJl.   Ul  |u'_io]_|i:l    fol  lot   .;i!:|   in  101  ii:  M  (i!  fl 


302  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

The  rich  and  nohle  among  Ihe  Greeks  and  Unmans  were  exposed,  and  carried  to  their  burial, 
on  elegam  and  cosily  couches,  sometimes  made  of  ivory,  and  gilded  with  gold;  designated  by 
the  name  of  feretrnm  or  capultiw.  That  of  Herod  is  said  to  have  been  all  of  gold,  and  inlaid  with 
oreeious  stones.  In  <>ur  Plate  Will  ivj  e,  we  nave  a  funeral  couch,  which  will  illustrate  these 
remarks  ;  it  is  given  by  Huberts  as  used  now  in  India.  The  Jews  seem  to  have  used  sometimes 
for  a  bier  the  aopds  or  coffin  (cf.  Luke  vii.  14);  yet  the  Septuagint  has  the  word  /cXiVij,  or  couch, 
for  the  bier  of  Abner  (cf.  2  Sam.  iii.  31). 

2u.  The  procession,  when  formally  conducted,  passed  through  the  forum,  where, 
if  the  deceased  had  been  a  person  of  distinction,  the  body  was  laid  before  the  plact 
ut  harangue  rostra),  and  a  eulogy  (laudatio)  was  delivered  by  some  relative  or  friend 
or  a  magistrate,  sometimes  by  appointment  ot  the  senate. 

One  is  struck  with  the  difference  between  Roman  and  Egyptian  customs.  The  Egyptia;.j 
brought  the  deceased  to  a  trial,  instead  of  a  eulogy.     Cf.  P.  11.  #  31.  3. 

3.  Women  were  sometimes  hanored  with  the  funeral  eulogy  as  well  as  men.  I  oi 
example,  Junia,  the  sister  of  Brutus  and  widow  of  Cassius,  received  the  honor  cf  a 
public  funeral  and  a  panegyric  spoken  irom  the  rostrum.  The  images  oi  not  less  than 
twenty  illustrious  families  were  seen  in  the  procession  ;  viginti  clarissimarum  familia- 
rum  imagines  anlelala  sunt.  (Tuc.  Ann.  iii.  76.) — -The  images  of  ancestors,  which 
were  thus  used  at  funerals,  were  the  busts  which  the  higher  class  of  Romans  kept  in 
their  halls  (cf.  P.  IV.  v>  164). 

In  Jntlmn's  Horace,  in  a  note  on  Sat.  I.  vi.  17,  is  the  following  remark  :  il  One  particular  rela- 
tive  t"  the  mode  in  which  these  images  were  exhibited,  deserves  attention.  They  were  not  car- 
ried before  the  deceased  at  funerals,  as  Dr.  J)dam  (Rom.  Ant.)  stales,  but  actors  were  employed 
lo  personate  t lie  individual  Ancestors,  and  these  busts  or  images  formed  a  part  of  Ihe  disguise  " 
On  this  topic,  however,  consult  Polybius.  vi.  51,  52. —  Cicero,  pro  Mil.  13- — Dion  Cassius,  Ivi.  134. 
—Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxv.  2.— Suetonius,  Vesp.  19. 

4.  "  As  to  the  mourning  habits,  it  has  been  already  observed,  that  the  senators  some- 
limes  on  these  occasions  went  attired  like  knights,  the  magistrates  like  senators,  &.C., 
and  that  the  common  wear  for  mourners  was  black.  But  we  may  further  remark,  that 
though  this  was  the  ordinary  color  to  express  their  grief,  used  alike  by  lioih  sexes  ;  yet 
after  the  establishment  of  the  empire  when  abundance  of  party  colors  came  in  fashion, 
the  old  primitive  white  grew  so  much  into  contempt,  that  at  last  it  became  proper  tG 
the  women  for  their  mourning  cloihes. — The  matter  of  fact  is  evident  from  the  autho- 
rity of  Plutarch,  who  states  this  as  the  subject  of  one  of  his  problems  [or  Questions, 
cf.  P.  V.  §  249.  2] ,  and  gives  several  reasons  for  the  practice."     Kennetl. 

§  341.  The  place  of  burning,  as  also  of  interring-,  was  without  the  city.  In 
case  of  the  former,  the  procession  finds  the  funeral  pile  (rogus,  pyra)  already 
prepared,  its  height  being  in  proportion  to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  deceased. 
Upon  this  they  lay  the  corpse,  having  sprinkled  it  over  with  spices  or  anointed 
it  with  oil;  it  is  then  kindled  with  a  torch  by  the  nearest  relatives,  who  do  il 
with  averted  face  (aversi).  Weapons,  garments,  and  other  articles  possessed 
by  the  deceased,  were  thrown  upon  the  pile:  also  various  things  which  were 
presented  as  offerings  to  the  dead  (nninera,  dona).  When  the  whole  was  con- 
sumed, the  embers  were  quenched  with  wine;  then  followed  the  collecting  of 
the  bones  [pssilegiurn) ;  these  were  placed  in  an  urn  (feralis  urna)  of  clay,  stone, 
or  metals,  along  with  some  of  the  ashes,  also  spices  and  perfumes,  and  some- 
times a  small  phial  of  tears  (lachrymse) ;  and  the  urn  was  solemnly  deposited 
in  the  earth  [tumulus)  or  a  tomb  {sepulchrum,  condilorium,  cinerarium). 

1  v.  Corpses  that  were  not  to  be  burned,  but  merely  interred,  which  was  altogether 
the  most  common  practice  among  the  Romans,  were  placed  in  a  marble  coffin  called 
area  or  sarcophagus. — The  erection  of  monuments  to  the  dead  (monumenla)  was  a  very 
common,  almost  universal  practice.  They  were  not  always  raised  over  the  spot  of 
burial. 

2.  Over  the  grave  of  one  buried  in  the  ground,  it  was  customary  to  raise  at  least  a 
mound  of  earth  (tumulus).  When  a  monumental  structure  was  erected,  it  usually 
received  an  inscription  [titulus,  epitaphium)  with  the  name  of  the  deceased,  and  some* 
thing  of  Ins  life  and  character.  In  the  sepulchral  monument,  part  of  which  is  given  in 
>ur  Plate  XXXVI.  the  square  pannel,  seen  between  the  representations  of  the  Dii 
Manes,  was  occupied  by  an  inscription.  Sometimes  a  bust  of  ihe  deceased  was  at- 
tached  to  the  monument.  Columns  or  pillars,  particularly  small  cippi,  for  sepulchral 
inscriptions,  appear  to  have  been  common  among  the  Romans,  as  well  as  the  Creeks 
vcf.  §  187).  Sometimes  an  inscription  was  put  on  the  coffin,  when  the  body  was  buried 
in  the  earlh  ;  and  when  the  body  was  burned  an  inscription  was  placed  on  ihe  urn  con- 
•aiiiing  the  hones;  the  inscription  usually  began,  as  on  the  urns  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  with  the  lettsre  D.  M.  or  D.  M.  S.,  i.  e.  Diis  Manibus  Sacrum. — Monuments 
jot  on  the  sp.it  of  burial  (tumuli  inanes  or  cenotaphia)  were  erected  among  the  Romans 
or  the  same  reasons  as  among  the  Greeks. 

~S.  There  were  public  and  private  places  of  burial.     The  public  were  commonly  it. 


IXSWWlL 


iMssmaiaii 


P.  Ill  DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       TOMBS.  303 

the  Campus  Martius  or  Campus  Esquilinus,  for  great  men,  on  whom  the  honor  of  such 
a  burial-place  was  conferred  by  vote  of  ihe  senate.  Those  for  the  poor  were  without 
the  Esquiline  gate,  and  called  puliculrr.  The  private  burial-places  were  usually  in 
gardens  or  fields  near  the  highways;  the  sides  of  some  of  the  mads  leading  to  Rome 
were  occupied  by  tombs  for  the  distance  of  miles  from  the  gates  of  the  city. 

4.  One  of  the  streets  discovered  at  Pompeii  is  called  the  street  of  the  tombs.  The  family  tomb 
of  Naevoleia  Tyche,  excavated  here,  may  be  considered  a  fair  representation  of  such  structures 
among  the  Romans  generally.  "  It  consists  of  a  square  building,  containing  a  small  chamber,  by 
the  side  of  which  is  a  door  giving  admission  to  a  small  court  surrounded  by  a  high  wall.  The 
entrance  to  the  chamber  is  at  the  back.  From  the  level  of  the  (liter  wall  there  rise  inn  step  , 
supporting  a  marble  cippus  richly  ornamented.  Its  front  is  occupied  by  a  bas-relief  and  inscrip- 
tion.—A  sort  of  solid  bench  for  the  reception  of  urns  runs  round  the  funeral  chamber,  and  seve- 
ral niches  for  the  same  purpose  are  hollowed  in  the  wall  called  columbaria  from  their  resemblance 
to  the  holes  of  a  pigeon-house.  Some  lamps  were  found  here,  and  mnnii  urns,  three  of  ulass, 
the  rest  of  common  earth.  The  glass  urns  were  of  large  size,  one  of  them  fifteen  inches  in  height 
by  ten  in  diameter,  and  were  protected  by  leaden  cases.  They  contained  burnt  bones,  and  a 
liquid  which  has  been  analyzed  and  found  to  consist  of  mingled  water,  wine,  and  oil.  Tins 
liquid,  there  can  he  little  doubt,  was  the  libation  poured  upon  the  ashes."— In  1780,  the  beautiful 
antique  called  the  Sarcophagus  of  Scipio,  preserved  in  the  Museum  Pio-Clementinum,  was  found 
in  a  tomb  near  the  Appian  Way.  It  is  of  the  stone  called  peperino  or  "lapis  JHbanus,  a  vulcanic 
production  found  near  the  lake  of  Albann."  Visconti,  in  describing  it,  says,  "est  ilu  peperin  le 
plus  compact,  et  a  douze  palmes  de  long,  sur  six  de  haul  et  cinq  de  large."  The  inscription  on  it 
is  given  under  the  head  of  Roman  inscriptions;  see  P.  IV.  $  133.  2.  A  bust  with  a  corona  on  the 
Dead  was  found  in  the  same  tomb. 

5.  Common  tombs  are  said  to  have  been  usually  built  under  ground,  and  called 
hypogcpa.  Such  are  those  discovered  at  Voleterrae  and  other  places  in  ancient  Etruria. 
Ci'.  P.  IV.  §  173.  3.  "Many  of  the  hypogsea  of  Tarquinia,  in  Etruria,  are  similar  to 
those  found  in  Egypt,  containing  a  number  of  rooms  and  corridors  branching  out  in 
various  directions;  and  when  the  rooms  are  of  a  large  size,  the  roof  is  supported  by 
square  pillars.  The  walls  of  many  are  coated  with  stucco  and  ornamented  with  paint- 
ings, representing,  sometimes  the  arrival  of  the  soul  in  Hades,  and  the  punishments  in- 
flicted on  the  guilty  ;  but,  in  general,  mythological,  heroic,  and  civil  subjects." 

For  an  account  of  the  discovery  of  various  tombl  in  Elruria  in  1829,  see  Chrvalitr  h'eslner,  in  Ihe  Jlnnali  ddV  lnslitulo  di  Cor 
rtspondenza  Jrchelogica.   Rom   1829.  vol.  tsl,  p.  101.— Cf.  J.  Millingm,  is  cited  P.  IV.  §  173.  3,  and  olher  references  there  given 

6.  Roman  sepulchers  have  been  found  in  England,  containing  urns  with  ashes  and  sarcophagi 
with  skeletons.  (Stuart's  Diet,  of  Architecture.) — A  Rinnan  burial-place  was  called,  in  the  later 
times,  Ustrinum,  or  Ustriva,  from  the  circumstance  of  burning  the  corpse.  One  of  these  burial- 
places  was  discovered  in  1821,  at  Littington  ;  many  senulchral  vessels  were  collected,  which  are 
said  to  be  preserved  in  the  library  of  Clare  Hall,  at  Cambridge.— In  the  parish  of  Ashdnn-,  in 
Essex  county,  are  several  artificial  sepulchral  mounds,  known  by  the  name  of  Bartlow  Hills. 
Many  have  supposed  them  to  have  been  cast  up  after  a  battle  with  the  Danes.  They  are  eight 
in  number  ;  four  larger  ones  in  a  line,  and  four  smaller  ones  in  a  line  in  their  front.  The  smaller 
ones  were  opened  in  1832,  and  relics  were  found  which  seem  clearly  to  prove  them  of  Roman 
origin.  In  one,  was  found  a  remarkable  brick  sepulcher  or  coffin,  six  feel  and  three  inches  long, 
two  feet  three  and  a  half  inches  wide,  and  one  foot  and  eleven  inches  high.  There  were,  in  this 
brick  coffin  or  chest,  three  glass  vessels.  One  of  them  was  a  sort  of  urn,  eleven  and  a  half  inches 
high,  and  ten  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  reeded  handle;  it  was  nearly  two-thirds 
full  of  a  clear  pile  yellow  liquor,  coverins  a  deposit  of  burnt  human  bones;  on  the  top  of  the 
bones  was  seen  lying  a  g'dd  ring,  which  was  found  to  he  a  signet-ring  having  a  carnelian  intaglio, 
with  the  device  of  two  bearded  ears  of  corn.  Afterwards,  on  examination  of  the  contents  of  the 
urn,  a  brass  coin  was  found,  very  much  corroded,  hearing  the  head  of  the  emperor  Hadrian  on 
the  obverse,  and  on  the  reverse  a  figure  supposed  to  be  that  of  Fortuna  Redux.  A  representa- 
tion of  the  brick  coffin,  with  the  vessels  in  it  as  they  were  found,  is  given  in  our  Plate  XVIII 
fig.  h  h.  One  of  the  larger  mounds  was  opened  in  April,  1835  An  urn  like  the  one  above  de 
scribed,  with  hones,  was  found;  also  other  similar  vessels,  two  bronze  s'rigiles,  and  other 
articles.     A  bronze  vase,  witli  colored  enamels,  was  among  the  most  remarkable. 

See  P.  IV.  §  !73.  •L—Archxulugia  (as  ciled  P.  IV.  $  32.  5),  vol.  xxv.  p.  I.  vol.  xxvi.  p.  300,  368,  with  engravings. 

7.  The  phials,  or  small  vessels,  which  are  supposed  to  have  received  the  tears  of  relatives  shed 
at  funerals,  have  been  found  in  great  number,  and  of  various  forms.  They  are  termed  lachry- 
matories (urntg  lacltrymales) .  The  tears  are  said  to  have  been  kneaded  and  compounded  with 
odoriferous  balsams.  It  has  also  been  supposed  that  the  vessels  might  have  contained  merely  a 
[ire  pa  rat  in  n  of  frasrant  essences,  which  were  figuratively  called  tears.  The  lachrymatories  found 
in  the  ancient  tombs  are  sometimes  of  terra  cotin,  sometimes  of  alabaster  (cf.  P.  IV.  }  195.  5),  fre- 
juently  of  glass  (cf.  }  268.  4).  Many  of  the  latter  material  have  been  gathered  from  the  cata- 
combs in  the  island  Milo,  the  ancient  Melos,  one  of  the  Cyclades.  Several  forms  of  lachryma- 
tories ar  J  vasa  unguentaria  are  given  in  our  Tlate  XV11I.  fig.  a,  and  fig   d  d. 

See  Merr-  de  PInstittU,  C  lasse  A' Hist,  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  vii.  p.  92.  sur  vases  lachrymatoiree. On  the  vessels  found  at  Milo, 

>ee§  186.  I 

8.  It  has  been  mentioned  (cf.  #  187.  4)  that  the  Christians  under  the  pagan  emperors  of  Rome 
usually  deposited  their  dead  in  subterranean  excavations.  "Among  the  monuments  of  Christian 
antiquity,  none  are  more  singular  than  these  abodes  of  the  dead  ;  and  one  feels  at  a  loss  whether 
most  to  admire  their  prodigious  extent,  the  laborious  industry  that  provided  them,  or  the  inte- 
resting recollections  with  which  they  are  associated.  Like  the  Moorish  caves  in  Spain,  they 
were  generally  excavated  at  the  base  of  a  lonely  hill,  and  the  entrance  was  so  carefully  con- 
cealed that  no  aperture  appeared,  and  no  traces  were  discernible,  except  by  an  experienced  eye, 
of  the  ground  having  been  penetrated,  and  of  the  vast  dungeons  that  had  been  hollowed  out 
underneath.  .  .  .  One  was  discovered  about  three  miles  from  Rome  so  late  as  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  size  and  various  apartments  of  which  excited  universal  astonishment 


304  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Numbers  still  remain,  bearing  the  names  of  their  respective  founders,  and  affording  by  thei; 
inscriptions  and  the  monuments  of  antiquity  found  in  them,  the  most  satisfactory  proofs  of  .hetf 
having  been  used  as  hiding-places  by  the  Christians."   (Coleman's  Christian  Antiquities,  p.  421." 

§  342.  A  peripd  of  mourning  was  observed  in  memory  of  the  deceased  ;  its 

duration  in  each  particular  case  was  fixed  by  law ;  in  the  case  of  widows  it 

continued  ten  months.     In  the  time  of  the  emperors,  a  general  mourning  {Indus 

pub/icus)  was  appointed  at  their  decease  or  that  of  their  sons;  a  thing;  previously 

not  practiced,  except  on  occasions  of  great  public  calamity. — Immediately  after 

the  funeral  obsequies,  it  was  also  customary  to  slay  the  victims  (called  inferise) 

offered  in  sacrifice  to  the  departed,  and  to  connect  therewith  a  solemn  funeral 

repast  (silicemiurn). 

"  Among  the  tombs  at  Pompeii  there  is  a  funeral  triclinium  for  the  celebration  of  these  feasts. 
It  is  open  to  ihe  sky,  and  the  walls  are  ornamented  by  paintings  of  animals  in  the  center  of  the 
compartments,  which  have  borders  of  flowers.  The  triclinium  is  made  of  stone  with  a  pedestal 
in  the  center  to  receive  the  table."  A  view  of  it  from  Mazuis  is  given  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Anti- 
quities. 

1  u.  When  the  deceased  was  of  distinguished  character,  this  repast  or  entertainment 
was  publicly  given,  and  meat  was  someiimes  distributed  among  the  people  (visceral to). 
These  funeral  sacrifices  were  annually  repeated  at  the  graves  or  spot  of  interment.  On 
such  occasions,  public  games  (ludi  funebres)  were  appointed,  especially  gladiatorial 
sports. 

2.  Gladiatorial  shows  probably  had  their  origin,  as  has  been  observed  (§  235),  in 
funeral  celebrations.  And.  although  they  were  exhibited  on  many  other  occasions, 
"yet  the  primitive  custom  of  presenting  them  at  the  funerals  of  great  men,  all  along 
prevailed  in  the  city  and  Roman  provinces ;  nor  was  it  confined  only  to  persons  of 
quality,  but  almost  every  rich  man  was  honored  with  this  solemnity  after  his  death; 
and  this  they  very  commonly  provided  for  in  their  wills,  defining  the  number  of  gladia- 
tors as  their  due  by  long  custom.  Suetonius  to  this  purpose  tells  us  of  a  funeral,  in 
which  the  common  people  extorted  money  by  force  from  the  deceased  person's  heirs, 
to  be  expended  on  this  account."     (Kennetl.) 

3.  A  very  vivid  picture  of  the  funeral  sacrifices  and  games  annually  repeated  at  the  graves  of 
the  deceased  is  given  by  P'irijil  in  the  fifth  book  of  the  TEneid,  where  he  describes  the  honors 
rendered  by  JEne.is  to  the  manes  of  his  father  Anchises.  He  mentions  particularly  a  contest  in 
rowing  galleys,  a  foot-race,  a  boxing-match,  a  trial  of  skill  in  shooting  arrows,  and  a  mock  eques- 
trian battle  (jpngnee  simulacra). — Cf.  {  187. 

$  343  t.  The  greatest  funeral  solemnity  among  the  Romans  was  the  deification  [ctmse- 
cratio)  of  the  emperors,  something  like  the  apoiheosis  of  Grecian  heroes.  It  took 
place  in  the  Campus  Martius.  where  the  image  of  the  person  to  be  deified  was  placed 
upon  a  lofty  funeral  pile.  From  this  pile,  whenever  it  was  set  on  fire,  an  eagle,  pre- 
viously bound  alive  upon  it,  flew  aloft  in  the  air;  which,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the. 
people,  bore  the  soul  to  Olympus.  The  deified  person  then  received  the  surname  or 
appellation  Divvs.  Thia  solemnity  was  accompanied  also  with  religious  rites,  public 
games  and  banquets.  The  custom  did  not  entirely  cease  under  the  first  Christian  em- 
perors. This  ceremony  was  wholly  distinct  from  the  funeral.  The  true  body  was 
burned  and  the  ashes  buried  in  the  usual  manner  and  with  a  splendid  show,  before 
these  rites  were  performed  with  the  image  of  wax. 

The  whole  ceremony  is  well  described  by  Hcrodian  (cf.  P.  V.  §  254).  in  the  fourth  book  of  his  History. — Cf.  Mencken,  Disputali 
i:  Consecratioue.—  Schaiiftm,  TracUtua  de  Apotheoti.    Argent  1*30. 


INDEX  OF  GREEK  WORDS. 


AftupfiaKtvara,  190 
Adsiit^oi,  163 
AyaOospyoi,  190 
Ay«fya-a,  147,  222 
'Ayi\cu,  189,  192 

AytXaaroi,  192 

Ayek&Tw,  192 

'Ayicotvo-,  202 

'A v/fi-pa,  200 

'AyXaia,  127 
kyvitfioi,  147,  163 
Ay;p«i,    17,   32,  33, 
36,  183 

'Ayopaio;,   109 

'Aypnupta,  168 

Ayporzpa,  102 
'AyX£/ia\o<,  156 
AyYiora'a,  220 

Aywyi),  189 

A  yaw  cTTiTnipidg,   174; 

tiavipia;.  171 
'Aywi/sj  i£poi  173 

AytJi'iorai,   175 

'AyavoBsrcu,  175 

Ayco'otfn-f/,-,   171 
'ASiripayia,  119 
"Ao'o'ij,  214 
"AiJirc,  99,  100,  221 
'A&Svam,  183,  199 
'A<5iiroi/  160 
'ASwta,  168,  169 

'ArWia<7/i!>y,   1  69 
'A<We'(5ia,   169 
'Ariavnt,  187 
'Atupvyia,  187 
'A^"S,  104 
"Afliji/at,  28 
'AfeV/raia,  171 
'AflfW,  28 
A0Xi7rai,   175 
'AdXoOcrai,  175 
'AOXoy,  172 
AiyeiAu,  188 

Ae'yioW,  104 
Aiyi's,  104 
AiUr^.  204 
ATjtXov,  190 

AiVy/iara,  207 
AlbXoj,  113,  116 
A'psroi,  180 

Ami-    220 
AlVrjTKffl,    163 

Airia,  185 

Aixpfauros,  159,  199 
Ai\pij,  153 
Ai'opat,  176 

Atfiiriov,   202 
'AreoTopinai,  162 
'AKtarpa,  218 
'Aicuaifffs,  196 


'Ax-pco^,  108 
'A/cpoferoj*,   108 

'A/C01/7IOI',    153 
'A/COITION,    173 
'AKpanapa,  204 
'A/cpo/JoAiarai,   194 
'A*po0iV(a,  149,  199 
'A/cpu/ctpaia,  202 
'AfcpoVia,  200,  204 
'AvpoVoAiy,  29 
'AtfpuTroAia,  200 

Avpojrj'/pia,  204 

Axrai'a,  178 
'Ajrri>,  28 
'Aotoki'/,   153 

A«&>y,  153 
'AXaXay/ioy,  198 

AXzippara,  210 
'AXenmu,  210 
'AXenrrijpioy,  210 
'  A\cKTpimpav-cia,  168 

AXefijr^pia,  153 
'AAel'iKOKos,  101 
'aXe{  dpwroi,  262 
1 AXsvpofiavTCia,  167 
'AXtviijirts,  173 
"AX/ia,  172 
"AX j  Sao;,  207 

'AXrrjpti,  172 
AXirai,  173 
'AAimSptfijy,  173 

',U  ■«,  112,  168 
A/ia^oWy,  131 
"ApTnit,  208 
'  Ap.j>i(lXr]tTTpov,  158 
Ap'/>iyi)77£!?,   107 
' Afupacroovia,  183 
'Ap'piKTitoviKti  ii9Xa)  174 
Aptpnrrrot,   194 
' Apitp'nrpypvoi,  200 
'Appopzv;,  213,  214 
'Ava,3a9pds,  210 
'Avaffarns,  172 
'Aray/caroi',  187 
Avaovopsvri,  106 
'Ai/a9iipora,  148 
Ai'dxcioi',  31 
'AvaifXiwwrdXri,  173 
Avaxpiois,  181 
'Ava£apffe,  209 
' Avavjiixot,  204 
A!"\>aTO<5o«[(7n7Xo!,   180 
'Awfy><i7n>oW,  159 
'AwJprfa,  192 
'  Av&poXippia,  186 

Avdpwtrty,  210 

'A>*/ioi,  128 
Avsiptalov;,  220 

'Ai<£i//<dy,  220 
'A^iwrfjpm,  168,  169 
'AvfcoTfjpicoi',  61 


Af0p<i<c:a.  212 
*Ai'0(5o;,   171 

Avripcoy,  106 

Airi  ypiKpcT;,  182 
'AirXia,  200 
*Ai/rpa,  162 
'Avruf,  194 

AvTbjjjtoaia,  185 
JAfiwi,  196 

Airayaiyn,  186 

Airaroipia,  16S 
'An-auXia,  220 
'AnnXtorns,  128 
'Amy,  123 
'AmffaOpai,  202 
'Ajroowrai,  182,  212 
1 '  ArroAnrrjptov ,  209 
'ATroflsrat,  189 
'Amwfjpujjy,  220 

AjtoVXi/t-oi,  193 
' Airoppati;,  216 

Am)7-£i^iCT/idy,  198 

ATi5rpon-0(,  136 

AirofiiTUi,  164 
'Ap/JuXa(,  208 
'Ap/3vXn,  208 

'Apycupdi/Tris,  109 
'Apyn/nny,  182 
'ApynpoicOTraoi',  213 
'Apduixov,  221 
'ApztoirayTrai,  184 
ApJidn-ayoy,  184 
'Apijy,  105 
' 'Aprjreipcu,    162 

"Apiarov,  204 
'ApKTeia,  220 
' Ap/ia,  172,  220 
"Appzva,  202 
'Ap/imorai,  202 
'  Appovixf],  216 
'Ap/iooral,   190 
'  Appoanvoi,  190 
'Aporpov,  212 
*A/x>"pa,  214 
"Aprrayfy,  203 
'  Apnaarov,  216 
"Afmviai,  128 
"Ap/fo,  220 
'Appaliiiv,  220 
"Aprc/iiy,  101,  114 
'ApTepov,  202 
'Aprvvoi,  193 
'ApYaycrai,  189 
'Apxsia,  190 
'Apxtfoi/,  160 
'  Apxitpuai,  162 
'ApTC'spciy,  162 
'Apxicpdwiii'r/,   162 
'ApY(9f(opoy,  172 
'ApXucr(3cpi»)Tri;,  203 
'ApxirEXaJwiy,  262 


'ApXirpiVAii'Oy,  20" 
'Apxovrey,  180 
A<rai/<3foi',  200 
Aazfizia,  1b6 
Ao-iay,  216 
Aoxapov,  217 
AoxanAoy,  217 
Aoxaipa,  200 
'Aamiia,  or',  197 
'Ao-my,  153,  194 
'AoTspomjrifc,  95 
Aorpdrruroi,  199 
AcvufioXoi,  206 
'ACT<p<iAioy,  98 

'AriXsia,  178,  187 
'An/iia,  186,  191,2<H 
"An/ioi,  187 
"ArpOTOy,  128 
AyyonardAia,  246 
AiA^,  210 

AvXrjrvg,  217 

AOXijrpis,  217 
AiAdy,  172,  216 

Aim";,   198 
Auro(fpdro)p,   190 
Airoparia,  1 19 
Auropi'iAoi,   199 
AvtoxOmis,  178 
Avroijjia,  170 
'A'/ia/iiwrai,  192 
"Arptaiy,  172 
'Antral,  189 
*A(pAaara,  200 
'A<ppoiiata,  168 
'AippoSirri,  105 
'At^d/pooy,  3 

B 

Bam/,  209 
Bd<xoi,  162 
Ba/fYfia,  169 
Bd/cyoy,  109 
BaX/3iy,  172 
BaimaTfjpmv ,  210 
BiipaOpoi/,  187 
Bapu/?po/ioy,  217 
Bdiravoy,   180 
Bao-iAtr?,  150 
BoaiXtwy,  170, 181,20* 
BaaKavia,  168,  240 
Bar^p,  172 
Ban,  214 
Ba(/)£ioi/,  264 
BcffnXot,  163 
BsiAaioi,  190 
BcifXoTOy,  19 
BfXij,  153 
BcXo/iaiT£i'a,  167 
BiiOeaia,  52 
Bnpa,  33 
Bij/iara,  186 

305 


306 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


BXavrai,  208 

BoritpOjii'M',  60 

Bd     ..  149 
Boior&pxpi,  192 
tioXis.  202 

..  168 
\v,,ui  i.  298 
Bopias,  128 
Bornuj    212 

BoCos  189 

Bo  "form,   163 

BouXeibi/,  33.  184 
BouXewij,  186 
BovXeurat,  177 

BovXtvrt'iiKi .  32 

BonX£'J7??pI01',    184 

BooXi;,  177,  184 
Bofij,  213 
3pa,3eTov,  172 
Bpau/jina,  168 
\&fai/reioi>,  176 
Bpoi/n/rdf,  1L 
Bpiixo',  158 
Bptxps,  IP"    191 

Bupra,  5 1 

Bwioj,  166 

Bupoi,  148,  160 

Bajpof,  run  <5<j<k<.'a,  87 


ruXaxTOtnrovAa,  147 
riifi//Xi'a,  96 
ra/irjXlOJJ',  61" 
ra/xi)Xioi  «ot.  220 
P.i/ioy,  206,  218,  220 
ly&npa,  200 
Vaorpri,  167 
TaryrpotHU'Ttia,  167 
YciaiTToiiapara,  210 
rei/wia,  222 
r&u,  177.  189 
Vepavos,  176 
Tepdaierai,  188 
rcpo'xria,  190,  192 
r.V,'.o',  196,  198 
TepwAa,  190 
Ttyvpa,  200 

rrwuopoi,  192 

riyoff,  125 

n'yypa,  217 
riyypavru,  169 
riyypri-ypd;,  169 
Viyypns,  169 
TiyyptV-    169 
rXa  ■  -.*.  105 
rXatif,  213 
i  .  20 1 

f  Mupevs,  26  I 
IVjjffioi,  220 
lYijo'io;,  162 
IV'i'/i  aiavTOV,   165 

Tvdpoiv,  60 
roywrerctv,  147 

ropy«Mf,   130 
Topyoi/ioi',   131 

ropyiipa,  187 
rpaMf»l,  141 

rpapixarev;,   181,   182, 

193 

'OT^,   186 


rpr<poi,  207 

I>£,  132 
Tur/j,  242 
Tii&ioi/,  38 
TiXiov,  154 
rvpuKuriapxia,  182 
7.  jiacrr/);,   175 
ruvaiKcioy,  159 
rWaiifwv,  159,  210 


Aa&SjCJ,  170 

Aaipovcs,  129 
Aaipo^oX^Trroi,  167 
Aairpoj,  207 
A&ktvXov  a'pj,  173 
Aa*r»Xoj,  214 
AavaKri,  221 
Am/ivi?,  163 
Aa/ii'rjiopia,   168 
Aci'X(7,  59 
AEiXivdK,  204 
Aei'tvoi',  204 
Af<f(Wapxoi,  196 
AskOlSovXOI,  177 
Ac/raj.  191 
AcKaapog,   1S6 
Afk-arc'-i'ipioj/,  182 
Awari),  182 
AcKixpdivol,  60 
AfX/jlv,  203 
A^iof,   167 
Ahrag,  207 
Aepp.a,  199 
Aarpos,  1S7 
Afrporijptoi/ , 
AfcToirioi'ai'ra 
Aexfipspa.  61 
AijXia,  168 
Afjpapxoi,  1  81 
Aipfirnp,  110.  112 
Aripn-rpia,   168 
Aiipnrpiag,  61 
AijpioVpum.    182 
Ar/piO'tpyoi,  193 
Ai)p0<,   177,  178 
Artp.6aioi,  180,  181 
A»|ai,    112 
Aia(ia9pa.  208 
Aiaypa'/ia?,  182 
AtaSripa,  150 
Atajfoet;,   183 
Aia0J)f7.  221 
Aiacr^rai,   186 
Am/crcjp,   109 
AiaXXa«ri7pio(,  186 


187 


189 


Aiavopai,  ls;j 
Aiapxft,   190 
Ain"X(5pi)poi.  172 
A«i"Xof,  172 
AMp«Xpot',  213 
AiBipapJJo;,   109 
AiiVoXcia,   168 
AiVui,   186 
AiVaia,  221 
Aiicavi/coi  Xdyoi,  204 
AiKarrrai,  185 
rfjpiov,  18o 
117.   127,  180, 
186 


Aivt) 


AiVpora,  154 
cr»a,   158 
A(pji\<u,   194 
Aioi'uaia,  168,  169 
Aidi/rao;,   109 
Aiontrrj,  160 
Aioo-^cTa,   167 
Aioericotjpia,   136 
Aioavoi'poi,   135 
AiTrXaaiaerjiidf,  197 
Ai'tt"Xoi/,  28 
Aia/coj,   173 
Ai<p8cpat,  209 

Ai'<ppos-,  153,  157 
A«/)po(/j(5poi,  172 
AmfioXia,  183 
Aicojkuv,  185 
AKopocri'a,   184,  185 
Afcofts,  185 
Alton/,  213 
AoKipania,  181 
AdXios,  109 
AdX<\Of,  172 
AdXtov,  202 

Ao/ci;,  170 
Adpara,  203 
AopaTO<p6pot,  194 
Aopiro?,  204 

Adpn,  153 ;  tm,  197 
AopuuXcorot,  199 
AowXeio,  187 
AffSXoi,  159.  180,  207 
AovpoSdKYi,  153 
Apaxpij,  1S4,  213 

Aptiravr)  (idpot ,    194 
Apbiravov,  203 
Apdpo^,    172 
Apt'cj  pavTiKCii,  164 
Anpararat,   188 
A'<tiiScKafp6poi,  172 
Aixopoi,  172 
A  )&ra  9al,  87 
Aco<5coj<aroi>  xaXxstov, 

165 
Aco&ovaio;,  95 
Awpa,  148,  207 
AwpocWio,  186 


"Ey/cX^pa,  185 
'EywiXio,  200 
'Ey<fiS,i/?opa,  209 
F.y/ftopiaTriifoi,  204 
'F.yxcipiStov,  196 
'Ky\of,  153 
'I'.(VoXiu,  200 
"Efeipa,  20S 
'Ttivq,  177  • 

EiVcaj,  61 
Efjcaw,  187 
Ei'Xan-iVij,  204 
EfXeifloia,  102 
EiXoiwy,  189 
Eipa,  209 
E*pei/£j,  189 
Efpijw;,  117,127,  197 
EiVnyycXia,  186 
EiV'/ifpoiTtf,  182 
FAmpopdi.  182 
'V.KaT6p[iaia,  168 


'Eifarop/?aia>i',  60 
'E(foro/i/?r(,  147 
'E»cardp/?(;<a,  96 
'Effard^Ttcoi/,  29 
'Evaroi'rapxia,  196 
"Evyoiot,  220 
'iVA'i/ria,  117 
'Ejr<7/?i5Xoj,  101 
'EvifXruriai,   183,  19C 
'EK/coptO),  221 
'E/fXoya;,  182,  185 
'Erararucoi,  167 
"EfrnKTOi,  196 
'T.K'pnpa,  221 
'EXai'»;j  orttyavo;,  191 
'EXatoj,  212 
'EXnid.TTroi'Ja,  147 
'EXa-/ir;/3dXia,  61 
'EXat/)r;/?oX«Ji',  61 
'EXctoXi;,  198 
'EXswiVia.  168,  169 
pEXiws,  208 
'EXXavo^iVai,  173,  17S 
'~EXkr\vo£iKaTov,  174 
'EXXiji'tdi'ffm'Ejpioi',  183 
EXX(i/?(a,  208 
"EX,.pa,  212 
"EXvpoi,  217 
'E//j'As-,  176 
'Epparai,  208 
'Bpffarcia,  220 
'Ep/?a7J)pioi-,  198 
'EpffoXii,  198 
"F.pi3oXov,  196,  200 
'Ep-fXwpoi,  190 
E^Trvfuoxo,  216 
'Ewiyiapa,  149 
Ei'ayurpara,  222 
TEvapa,  199 
"Ev&fif,  186 
"Erfaa,  181,  185 
'EKflo'io-ioffT-ai,  167 
'Evi'aErijpis,  174 
"Ewura.  202 
'Ei'i'aipOuoi,  60 
'iwr^i-'Aoi',  29 
'F,i-  Ilpnrai'cuo,  185 
'EWwwoi;,  167 

'F. :>,  105,  119 

'Ev^pEarroc,  185 
'Ei'topori'a,  197 
'Ei'wna,  208 
'EfEXiypdf,  197 
'E\eratrral,  180 
*Ef7j/?oi,  189 
'EC'^Xaipoi,  107 
'Efujai's,  209 
'EirdHcXoV,  190 
'ETraXfeis,  198 
'ETrafiXia,  220 
'E7rrt'i'a/(TO[,  189 
l5irt06Bp<u,  198,  201 
"ETri/Jdrai,  202 

'ETri'yoi'Oi,  136 
'Fmypappara,  199 
'Emypa^ai,  222 
'Eirtypo^etf,  182 
'EirMenri/a,  206 
'!■>;  AeX^tviw,  185 

'FjTtir'pOpOS,   202 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


jtit>i\apio/,  220 
*ri%a,  222 
(vri/cX/jpoi,  220 
Etrucamat,  200,  202 
'EirtXapxia,  197 

F.TTl   AVKOO,    186 

KTi/jaxta,  197 
'V-ipc\i]Taj ,  170,  174, 

221 
Et!  Mijrixoo,  1S5 
ETiopKi'a,  163 
'Eti  nuAAai.'M,  185 
"5T«T£l&)fJ  200 
E-toxnpoy,  216 
EfrurranK,  183,  184 
EtiotoXevj,  203 
B7riray/<a,  197 
EtiVo.oi,  202 
E-irporrn,  200 

"^Tl'-rpoTOJ.    220 

ErroficXia  or'E-cj/?£Xi'a, 
185 

Vrorrai,   170 

Eno-'pawot,  87 
'E-raxopboq,  216 

F-jui,-,  209 

K.mj>WfiOi,  188 
'Eir&m'&y,  202 
"Eparaf,  157,  206 

Epara>,   li.6 
'Eoydwj,  105,  119 

Epyao-rtKai ,  171 
'Epyanj,  105 
'Epn-at,    202 
'Eptrpoc,  202 
'Eprrpui,  32 
'F.pcx8eis,  29 
'EpExflewv,  29 
'Epivvves,  128 
"Ep<s,  115 
"Epwj,  160,  222 
"Ep/ia,  200 
"Eppaia,  168 
"Epuara,  208 

'Ep/ziJ,,  108 
'Epi'/cnTp;?,  1S9 

'Epoij,  106 
'EoBfJiia,  209 

rE<rripirrpa.  204 

fim'a,   113,  212 

Eoriaeri;,  182 

Eartaropiov,  210 

Eanarup,  206 
'Eo%dpo,  212 
'Enaprf;.  203 
'Eraipa,   106 

TEraipai,  220 

'Er£pa^d<T\;aXoi,  180 
EuayyfXi/ci;  dT7d<?£<£(j, 

272 
EvOvtri,  181 
Ei'tfwoi,  ISO 
EApsviiis,  128,  168 
EvaoXTrioac,  162 
B6wi,  200 

Eui'O/ti'a,  1 17,  127 

Bwpxof,  164 
E.>,-.  128 
Ew«#k,  164 

BirepTif,  126 


r  '^u>Cai,  147 

Einppoavvri,   127 
'E'prfpOf,   171 
'Efeiria,  168 
'Eptorpty,  209 
'E^erai,  185 
*E0ij/?oi,  189,  190 
'Epijyno-is,  186 
E<pidXr/;j,  167 

'E/iiVtHOI',   266 

"Epo&ta,  197 

'Epopslcv,  190 
'Epopoi,  170,  190 
»/»"-/»).  218 
'BcerAjj,  212 
"E^/ia,  204 
'Eij,  59,  114 


ZenyTrai,  177 
Zew  Ylarcp,  95 
Zrffc,  94,  95 

ZfO;  orvyiog,   100 
r/,zd>Vjjog,  128 
Zi7/ita,  186,  191 
Z»yd,  200,  202 
Z"yi'a,  96 
Zvyirai,  202 
Z-jyw,  197 
Z-jyoj,  196 
Z'opof  prAa;,  191 
Zjwj,  153,  208 

Za>ari?p£j,  200 

ZuOTpOV,   209 

H 
'HXaicdr?/,  202 
'HXiafa,  185 
'HX<aorai,    181,   185 

TIXwj,  100,  114 

'HAiorpdrioi',  60 
rHuap,  59 
'JVpa,  114 
'iip'pas  riprayij,   115 
'HprpcKpdpoi,   199 
'HplMTOC,   214 

'Hpi9(opii>c(OM,  194 

"ftvioxo;,  153 
'HTardffd-on-i'a,  167 

"Hpa,  96 
'Hpaia,  96,  168 
Hpi'ai  nvXat,  222 
'Upiov,  222 
"Hpua,  222 
'H'paifrreia,  168 
"H'paiorof,  107 
'Hxtfa,  176 
'Hc3s,  59,  114 

e 

eaXauTrai.  202 
OaXd/io;,  220 
QdXaa,  126,  127 
OaXXot,  147 
0aXXo0opoi,  171 
edvaros,  130,  187 
6apyr)X[coi',  61 
9a'iXa)^i(5ai,  162 
Oca!  atpvdi,  184 
Qiarpov,  33 


Oc/jcXioj,  202 
e.f/uy,  117,  188 
OEOI  AAEA*OI    124 

Bsot  oi  pzyaXoi,  87 
9£oAoy£foi/,   176 
Beopavreia,  166 
OeOptivTCt; ,   166 
Beo^evia,  31 
QcoTzpd-oi,  164 
9£Or'pyoi,  162 
Qtpiorpiov,  209 
empoOerai,  181,  185 
eropoi,  188 

OzrypOipupcTov,    171 

QeapO'popta,   112,    168, 

170 
Qeapoipopoq ,  1'2,  170 
9£roi,  220 
eeupiKa,  176,  183 

0£o)poi,  164,  174 
O17*/;,  22  2 
6fjc7£(a,  135 
Brjrejr,  160,  177 
epouIYai,  202 
9pdw>{,  202 

epiiMf,  221 

9p'/i'»;,  157 
Bp/Vtoi/  Efapyoi,  221 
Hpiyvdj,  222 
epi(!af,  206 
O/itf,  208 ; 

(iirpiiTOfV-jrlrj;  (   180 

epfiwjj,  157,  212 
OvsXXa;;  128 
Qxpiapa,  163 
6i5o;,  147 
9£pa,  210 
9up£0f,  196 
9up£o0(5poi,  194 
9-pi%,  210 
9'xn'ai,  147 
9  "<>&>-,  162 
Burm,   162 
9&)pd/fiov,  198 
96pa|,  153,  194 

I 

'laicxo;,  170 

'IaXeuoi,  221 

'lia'ing,  95 

Tfpa,  28,  160 
'Ifpa  <piXayi,  220 
'Ifp£ia(,   162 
'IspeTov,   163 
'Ifpn;,   162 
'l£po<5«5dirifaXo!,  162 
'IrpdoouXoi,  163 

IfpopaiTEia,  167 

Itpopi/fipoiv,  163 
'hpdv,  117 
'ItpoTOioi,  162,  170 
'Icpotncoria,  167 
'IfpocruXi'a,   186 

Irpoupyoi,  162 
'hpofrivTat,  162,  170 
'lepotyavriK,  170 
'Itpoipai/TiScs,  162 

I/C£7-£(7(0;,     95 

'Ivpm,  200 
IXao-/»df,  163 


307 

IXaiTTHfU,    163 

"IXn     1 97 

'IM    173,  199,  202, 

J08,  212 
'I/--    uv,  208 
l<s,  153 
'IoX£aipa,  102 
'Irr^uypErai,   190 
iTTTaytoyoi,   194 
'l7nrap!\>jff,  194 
'hneapxia,  197 
l7Tffapxoi,  195 
I--  ">j,  So 

'iTTTTErf,    153,   17-,    1'^ 

194 
'Imrd^papo;,  33 
'IrrTToXiirsia,  29 
'Imrorofdrat,  lfi-1 
"Imraw,  to  tip''  t  \ot 
Ipevss,  189 
Ifis,  115 
"I(70pia,   175 
r\o-orvpavvOi ,  190 
.•Ioria,  202 
'IxtToffodis,  212 
'lTro(5d(cr;,  202 
ItrrmiSes,  218 
'Wri5,  202,  218 

l\.yi'ojuai/r«ta,  167 

K 

KadieKo;,  1S4 
KaA«,  184,  214 
KaSos,  214 
h'a^ippoi,  147 
Kadedpa,  169 
Ka0£r(jp,  263 
Kauitia?,    191 
Kaueia;,  128 
KaXuOiuv,  170 
KaXXioTTj,  126 
KaXo/3  ij-i/s,  244 
KdXoi,  202 
KaXmi,  221 
KaXtnrrpa,  208,  21  a 
KaXiZ&iov,  173,  202 

KdprjXoi,  202 
Kapirrfip,  172 
Kavri'pdpot,  172 
Kavdapog,  207 
Kaxui;,  172 
KcmvoMicr),  210 
Ka7ri'Opa!T£('a,  167 
Kapffarivai,  208 
Kapxjjcrioi',  207 
Knpcfia.  168 
Kara  3a9po;,  54 

Kara  iArji-i/o;,  173 
Kdra,?oXi),  206 
Karaypajih,   193 
KaruXoyOf,  193 
KaronrfXrat,  198 
KarciTOiTicrpdf ,  187 
Knr«<7raiTi{,   193 
Kara'ppaypara,  203 
KanhppaKroi,   194 
Kar^yopi'ai,   186 
Kartwrrpa,  209,  213 
Karufdxii,  209 


ios 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


Kavoia.  208 
iCabr^oiov,  263 
Rtauas,    or   Kaia^aj, 

1S7,  191 

Ke^titij,   178 
K/w  vpaXoj,  208 
Kfr.<>wri?j,  203,  282 
.\i\rircs,  154,  172 
Ktvijpia,  223 
Ke*ord<pia,  191,  223 
Kh'Trjmg,   191 
Keirpoi/,  266 
KEpofa,  202 
KtpafieiKdi,  32 
Kcpaficvg,  'Jli3 
Kepapuov,  214,  26° 
KEpapo;,  1S7 

Kipa;,  208,  217,  297 
Ktpara,  196,  202 

Ktparivh,  217 
KEpiinaf,  2 14 
Ktpuui/ioj,  95 
KEpawooKOTrErov,   176 

Ktp&Aos,  109 

Kcp«-ic,  218 

Keppa,  213 

Kspouxoi,  202 

Kt/iaAi)  Seittvov,  206 

Kf;7roi  'Ad'ivi^oj,  169 

K>7p£f,  130 

KtjpopiaiiTcia,  167 

KripuifEioi',  197 

Ki'jpuJ,  K(7P"f£{,  148, 
150,  162,  170, 
181,  197,  207 

KiyjtXi&j,  185 

Ki0<ipa,  216 

Ki/civvoj,  208 

Ktpjviov  rei^oj,  29 

Kn/ijpa,  217 

Kiarr,,  212 

KiffrOi/nipoi,   170 

KXii(!()i  frrifyMOt,    l'*" 

KX«i/ol,  220 

K\e!s,  210 
KXsiu,  126 

KXc^Vo,  185,  240 
KAij'Wej,  168 
KAjjpopawta,  167 
KXrjpoi/dpOf,  220 

KXflpoy,  220 

K\}]pcoroi,  180 
KXrjriTpEf,   185 
KX,p-..p,  185 
KXipawj,   198,   210 
KXiVai,  206 
K\ivfi,  212,  221,  302 
KXiViy,  197 

KXiirprij,    157 

KXo,o;,  187,  191 
KXtoftj,  128 

Ki/^r<5£{,  153 

Kl'((7T>7,    148 

Kdyf,  170 
Kdftopvot,  208 
KWopw»j,  176 
KoiXe/i/3oXov,  197 
Ktihi,  200 

K«rx«i,  60 

Koi'inrnptov,  223 


Komj,  212 

Koitwi/,  210 
Ko/iiy,  208 
Karat,  202 
Koira^dpot,  194 
KoTrtj,  191,  196 
Kifcnra,  214 
Kopat,  208 
Ko>),  213 
Kopuri,  208 
K6pvpJ3os,  208 
RopiS^,  196 
Kop"?,  153 
Rdapoi,  191 
Koni'Of,  173 
KoYra/?o?,  207 
Kon)X>7,  214 

Korurrto,  119 

Kofipot,  207 
K*cXor,  198,  214 
Ko.^XtdptOi/,  214 
KoyXi'oi',  214 

Kpd™{,  153 
Kpariipcs,  207 
KpaWjp,  204,  207 
Kpi'ickpi'oi/,  208 
Kp^p^of,  187 
Kp/pri&s,  208 
Kptjirif,  222 
Kp,of,  198 
Kpov/ntrii,  217 
Kpw)),  218 

RoM'(.>7T£7rXof,    115 

RpdraXov,  218 
Kp'wrEi'a,  189 
Kp-.yJ.iXof,  208 
I«a(Joi,  207 
K«upo(,  180,  183,  206 
Kt'ai'Ep/Moi,  200 
K"/?aa,   206 
Rt)#£pi/i?nK,  203 
K"/?iaTij<rij,   175 

\  KvffiorriTrjpes,  216 
KwXoj,  32,  62,  194 
KiiXcf,  207,  297 
KvXujig,  173 

K  "WorTitirn ,  107 
Rt'p/JaXa,  217 
K'Tfrl,    153 
Kvvriyos,   102 
Kw&ro -pa.  188 
Kvixxroupct;,  188 
Kwro;,  200 
K«/)w,  187,  191 
K/J&af,  217 
KtoXurifui,  167 
KdJ^oj,  119 
Kwbo»,  187 
Ktojrat,  202 
Ko>7rijXdr<i<,  202 
Kcut»?p^,  200 
Ktos,  187 

A 

Afi/c/foj,  149 
Aa^ji'ncai,  208 
AapjrdiW  ijprpa,  170 

AcipVUKEf,   221 

Aikti'iiov,  196 
Acfyvpa,  199 


Aa\£(T!f,  128 
A£im>i<a57a<,  204 
AEiTroi'aunoi/,  186 
AEiTrOCTTpdnoi',  186 
As-moraKTCii,  199 
AeiFOraJioi',  186 
AEiroopyi'ai,   181 

Aim-pov,  149,  220 

ACTn-aXsai,  217 
Aitttov,  213 

Aeo-xi,  189 

A£wai/0i;j,  91 
AEV/cwpa,  181 

A^of,  212,  220 

A/jdoy,  209 
A>j*i)0oi,  221 
Af}vaia,  169 
Ai?£tapjflji,   181 
X*£f,  185 
Aijru,  116 
AiOoffoKa,  187 
AiBoQokoi,  198 
Ai'&x,  196 
Ai'9o?  Ttparhp,   180 
Atpi'drai,  188 
AiVa,  158 
Aty,  128 

Ai'xai'O;,  216 
Aoydfe,    191 
Aoysroi/,  176,  247 
Aiiyia,  164 
Aoyiarai,   180 
Aoyiori'jf,    203 
Aoifioil,  147 
Aofioy,  101,    166 
Aourfjptoi',  212 
A^urpoV,  210 
Ao^'tou,  212 
Ao(pos,  153 
Aoxayoi,  196 
Ao\£i'a,  102 
Aiw,  196,  197 
Awcaia,  116.  168 
Avai^divoi,  31 

M 
MaydiJtj,  217 
Miyava,  198 
Mdyot,  167 
Mdja,  206 
M<i.<h,  190 
Maipavrfjpiwc,  60 
Man/lit^,  162 
MaKpa  aKiKr),  29 
WaKpai  vijeg,  154 
IMaxpac  Trhpat,  31 
MnX^xi,  206 
MaXXoj,  208 
Mui/ma,  164 
Macrft'para,  164 
Mai/ruri),  164,  166 
Mapn'pEj,  185 
jMaprtipwi'  yEi'cOXia,  222 
Ma<rnyo0(5poi,   174 
Maariytoai?,   191 
Miiorif ,  260 
M.ixaipo,  196 
MUt/wos,  214 
MEiXi'xai,  173 
\TeXii7,  153 


MehioimvSa,  ]4" 
NiXwaat,  162 
MeXiTToira.  221 
MeXttopevi;,  126 
Mepap\ia,  19fi 
i\l£(7c5c5pr;,  202 

Mwd/foiXo;,  200 
Mcaop'/itiXioi',  194 
MECTOvaiirot,  202 
Msaoitpiat,  202 
iMfffffOiirai,  188 
UcraftoXh,  197 
MfrayEiri'i'ii',  60 
iMErariopn-ia,  206 
Merotmi,   171,   178, 

182 
JMetoiViov,  178 
jNltrpi/njs,  214 
MErajrroi/,    196,  200 

MqX>7,  263 

Mijvd;  lorupEvou,  &.C  6 
lAIwoi,  148 
Mr/\;oyat,   198 
Mrpcavfi,  176 

MiXrojrapi)Oi,  200 
Niadog    /?oi'XEuri'*fdj , 

&c.  183 

Mirpa,  208 

Mirpn,  194 
Mva,    213 

Mi'rjpa,  222 

MftipEiav,  222 

Mi-ijarpoi;,  220 
Mvoia,  192 
M<50(oi'£S,  189 
Moipai,  128 
MoXtt^,  207 
I\IoXr1/?(5(.i/a(,  153 
MtWnXoj,  217 
Movfipsis,  154 

Moid/cpora,  154 
Mowpaxoi,  244 
Mipat,  188,  197 
Mopfai,  171 
MopcpEU;,  130 
Mop.pi?,  130 
Moui/ii^ia,  33,  61 
Mou.'UX'O",  31 
MouvvX'wv,  61 
Uoiiaai,  126 
MonCTtroi/,  31 
Mow«>>,  216 
Moiktik?)  i^iX/),  216 
MSfloc,  83 
JMu^oXoyi'a,  83 
MiiXo;  di'Kfti?,  264 

MvXaves,  180 
Mvpi6faj3\ov,  499 

l\Itippr;<f£5,  173 
MtwTijpia,  169 
Mucrriifiif  urjiflSj,   17C 

Moj/ios,  119 

N 
N.i/?Xa,  217 
NaMca,  222 
NaoJ,  160 
Noo^XoKsj,  162 
Nnuup^o;,  203 
NauT-ai,  202 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    AVORDS 


30Q 


ftan<pv\aKCs ,  20? 
NzKpdSttirvov,  149 
NtKfiodcmTai,  221 
NtKOOftavTcia,  167 
Nciriaia,  222 
Nf/iffa  or  NefjaXa,  174 
Nt/xOTif,  117 
NeodaptZieis,  189 
Nfop^ui,  (il 
Nsupd&ra,  216 
ISef'poiJ,  153 
Nfr/itXrjyfpEnij,  95 
Nttovopoi,  162 
N>7-c<r  dpQiwpnpivoi,  200 
Nijorsia,  171 
N-in,  216 
N1V17,  29 
IN  dftw,  220 
No/iscj,  200 
Ntyipa,  221 
Ndp^pa,  213 

NopoOfVat.  181 

No>oi,  216 
Ntf/ios,  188 
Nopu/>tJAa>c£j,    172, 

181,  190 
Ndrof,  128 
N»/i0at,  126 

Nl>/I0ata,  126 

N%-M,  212 


g&ia,  207 

=£i/iOf,  95,  158 
3&w,  178 
E&njf,  214 
Sf0oj;  153,  187 
Euorapx>7J,  175 
Euordf,   173 

E"OT0rf>dp0I,    194 

Ewrpa,  210 

O 
'O/JoXdj,  213, 214, 221 

'Oy<5d(5ioi'.   135 
"Oywj,  176 
'Oi5i?yds,  109 
'0&6vtes,  202 
'OAPYXH2    NTM- 

$AI£,  110 
'09di/ai,  202 
Oi'aJ,  200 
OikItu,  180 
OiVfjpa,  187 
OiVoi'd/iof,  180 
Otwy,  210 
OunxTAcaTiwJi',  168 
OiVo"poi  j0st;,  28 
OivopavTsia,  167 
Oivd/wXi,  206 
O7i'oj  pnpfavtrris,  204 
Ou'0\do(,  207 
OlVra,  153 
Qic&vumicti,  167 
'Otfrasrr/piy,  60 
OXiyo'pdpoi,  204 
OXicaSts.  200 

OXmw',  202 
'OXo</>i'ppoi,  221 
OtkvivreTw,  31 


"O/iotoi,  188 
'O/wirarpfoi's,  218 
"O/iirof,  170 
'OpupaXis,  194 

'OppaXdj  yjjy,   165 
'OvcipoKpirai,  167 

'OvtipOTToAfM,    167 

*0^ipoS,  130,  167 

Oi'£(po<7i«>770(,   167 

'OJv/fcXeis,   198 

'Oti;  pvyxo;,  54 
'O«70d('opo;,  29,  160 
"On-Xa,  202 
^OXirai,  153,  193 
OirXirodpfytoc,  172 
"OttXoj/,  194 
"Opapa,  167 
'Opyuj,  162 
"Opyia,  169 
'Opyvta,  214 
'OpetrimiTOs,  102 
"OpSiog,  216 
'OpfloiriiXi;,  173 
"Opxia  TS/xvEiv,  164 
"Opxioj,  95 

"OpKOg  0ov\evTlKds ,  184 
"OpKo;  ptyas,  163 
"Opfioi,  33 

"Oppof,  208 
'Opi'ciyKonoi,   167 
'Opi'iOopiii/ra;,  167 
Opaivvp))s,   95 
"Opxypa,  187 
'OpXr/rrru;,  207 
'Oaia,  221 
"Ouioi,  166 

'Oiriwrfjp,   166 
'OcKOtpdpia,  168 
'OoTO«i>j£?a,  221 

'Orofl.prai,  221 
'OaroXdyioi',  221 
'Oo-rpii/fn'Oi/,  263 
'OarpdKurpdg,   187 
"Oorpavoi/,  187 
'O<j\ol>6pia,  168 
"Orrai,  168 
OuXai,  147 
Ov\6xvra,  148 
Oupa,  196,  200 
Oi'ipayoi,  277 

O/'p.lyd,,-,    196 

Oupana,  31,  126 
Oupai'dy,  114 
'O.pflaXpdV,  200 
'O<p9aXpo0j    trvyvXcitiv, 

149 
"Ogaiw,  194 
'Oxe<V,  153 
'OX'/aarwi',  rdEcp',  193 

"O^/oi/,  206 

n 

riay/fpariaffrnt,   173 
nayifpartoi;,  173 
naiui',  198 
nai'Vpaorta,  220 
nawWdpo;,   189,  190 

naX,\  37,  173 
TlaWaieiies,  220 
riaXXuf,  104 


IlaXpol,  168 
Ua\rdv,  153 

UapffaaiXcia,  189 
Hap/Joi  .j'iria,   192 
llappaxpi,  173 
Ilapptixioc,  173 

n<ip0i.Xo<,  188 
nav,  116 

riaeaG^aia,  168,  171 
llavadtyi/aiKOi/,    171 
Mav&aiaiai,  206 
Y\avfrapiKoi,  172 
ndv6ripos,  36,  106 
Ilavioxttov,  208 
IlawSpoooj,  29 

n<ii'0£oi',  31 

llai^ylipif,   174 
llaiwcdv  iupa,  116 
Hai'rO(!a7ri)  icrropia,  252 
Ilamroj   irptoroj,    176 
riap.i/JiwrOK,   186 
Ilapaypaipi),  185 
napai/jarw,  153 
rinpavara/JoXi),   185 
llapaXia,  178 

ll.'.paXof,  42,  187 
llapapripiiia,  194 
riapfii/i'pi/iof,  220 
napaJnpi<5ioi>,  196 
napan-Xc"pi(5ia,   194 
napao-f/poi/,  200 
riapito-iTOi,  162 
IlapaaiTCji',  162 
IlapaoTa<nj,  185 
YlapaavvOfipaTa,  198 
Hiiprfpoi,  181 
napnat,  200 
riapOivoi,  29 
UapOhos,  104,  105 
IIap9wwi»,  178,  218 
napoxoi,  220 
IlatmJs,  220 
n«$(Xa,  208 
ngudv,  193 
Yleipauvg,  33 
nsKTiai/iiffriOf,  31 
IWo-para,  202 
rkAairyurdi',  29 
TltXavoi,  163 
IlfXara!,  160 

nsXstdSss,  165 
IKXeiai,  165 
mXsms,  196 

rifXo7ro;  vijco;,  34 
rifXraarae,  194 

MXt,,,  194,  196 
IlrX.'.pia,  91,  168 
ritppara,   163 
flcprraoapYoi,  196 
TUparas,  196 

tlEfraerripig ,  174 
nsiTa^Xov,  172 
ricKrafcoaiap^ipi'Oi,  177 
TlevrriKOarvs,  197 
risir^psij,  202 
rinrXoi,  157 
IlnrXof,  171 
riorXou  2|fio<,  171 
nrpi/?apWEs,  208 
ri£pi/?oXoy,  160 


ntp 

iitpn 

Qepn 

n 

nrpi< 

ntpi 


IH^HTVOl',    149 

nepya,  167 
unynrai,  166 

^(KEipaXnt'a,   153 

:p(OiKoiup'it  222 
OtKOt,  189 

■pmtTi'iapnTa,  148 

tpiiroXeiov,  197 
IlcpiiraXoi,  197 
Tlepipfiavrfipiov,    160 

163 
rfepiirircXis,  209 
ncpirsi^ur^d;,  198 
ncpirdi'Eia,  200 
Ilfpn/irpriu,  194 
Ylcpitppdypara,  202 
ncpdvr,,  218 
ncpoi/,-)para,  148,  218 
Uspas^6»n,  99 
nlraXa,  187 
rifraXio-pdc,  187 
Ilsraoos,  208 
Ilfrpai  paKpm,  &C.  ?'. 
UerpoffuXot,  198 
Herpapa,  170 
ri£rra'«,  206 
Ilr;yo^ai'r£!'a,  167 
EMaXaw,  200 
nij/eris,  217 

ri.iY"?,  214 

riiXiiia,  208 

nrxof,  208 

IlivaKia,  180 
riiVaf  dyvprucdf,  167 
Iliarjs  Arrueii,  164 
riiTai/arai,   188 
nXaytanXoy,  216 
nXaiotoii,  197 
nXaici;,  171 
nXarawara,  38,  190 
IlXiOpov,  214 

nXsupof,  200 

UXiiOo"ca  dyopa,  32 

nXr1KTpov,  217 

nXiVftoi;,  197 
nXdvapo?,  208 
nXovros,  118 

nxowrww,  91 
nvtif,  32,  183 

ndd£f,  202 

IToifftXi;,  31 
TloiKiXla,  218 
ITo*aj,  208 
noXr/iapw,  181,  190 

192,  196 
TJoXtag,  29,  105 
noXTrai,  178 
noXmi^piov,  223 
noXu-fOTra,  218 
TloXvpvta,  126 
noX»'/)dpoi,  204 

nop™;,  183 

Tlo^TTtLOV,    31 

ndn-a^a,  148,  163 
nopO/nov,  221 
ndpirawy,   194 
TlotrsiSs-'iv,  61 
IIoo,£(A3i',  98 
Tloiig,  214 

npaKropa,  182,  185 


aic 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


npar/fcic,  181,  19 
nptaUvs,  190 
Upoav\iovi  210 

Tlpoffhi/iara,  153 
TlpoffoKal,  210 
I!  »  feuXrii/Mt,  183,  188 
npdyPW,  188 
ripoyUjKi'CUrpdra,  174 
npdStmi,  190 
ll/-'"u/'o,-.  210 
Ilpo&wi'a,  1S6 
EIpOEdpia,  or  ~pol?pa 

187,191,  199 
np6eipot,  183,  184 
Uporipdaia,  112 
flpoiKftia,  220 
npoif,'  220 
l!f«wo,  20? 
TlpofitTbmioia,  194 
ripofmn,  207 
npo|£i/oi,  190,  207 
ripuTToXot  de&v,  163 
[Ipd7ro/io    2W 
ripoTruAam,     29,    .oO, 

178 
ITpoiwcE'/xiXuta,  206 
llpoaoAta,  162 
HfKHrrarris,  178 
ttpcxTTtpvifia,  194 
npocrwTnoj',  176 
Ilpon'S^ai,  221 
nporovoi,  202 
Ilpoipilrat,   166 
tip  •>  pv\wcai,  197 
npoxooi,  212 
npi5x»pa,  204 
npoio/toaia,  185 
npiyiva,  200 
npiyivifaia,  202 

n/wraMio,   113,    182, 

185 
Xlpvravcia,  184 
riporawiov,  33,  184 
npvrdvcts,    183,    184, 

188 
tlpvravis,  192 
IIpV.  200 
npcoparire,  203 
nptoprff,  203 

rirnp^oi.   168 
llrepa,  200 
Ilrtpiyioi',  200 
tlroxig,  200 

nuavr.i'iu'     CO 

ii":/"'),  1*3 
nvQaurral,  174 
nnflia,  165 
Uv9ia,  174 

I  [vdtKtfs  vtf/10;,   174 

IKflwi,  190 
rotfioi/,  165 
rM0iO{,  101,  165 
IKlWes,  167 
fKvrw,  173 
ni-Aayiipai.  183 
[ItiAafa,  183 
UiXii,  210 
tlCp,  187 

II  oph,  149 
IMovoc,  197.  198 


TlvpKaia,  186 
Ili'pd/yoXoi,  196 
Iliipo/xavTcia,  167 
ni'pipdpoc,  198 
riicrio;,   166 
llcuXi;ra!,  182 
lliojta,  153 


'PaPSo/iavrcia,  167 
'Pa/?A*f  260 
'Pafffovxai,  173 

'Piii/iai/oi,  206 
•Pofe,  218 

'Pr/TOpcs,   181 
'Pjjrpai,  191 
'Pu/zanridsy,  199 
'Ptyij,  173 

'Podavj;,  218 
'PodoJii/cniXof,  115 
'Pd<W  i™,  206 
Pt'^ara,  202 
'Pfyoy,  212 

'Purdv,  207,  297 


2ay<>i7,  158 
£uy//a,  194 
•ZaXmyyss,  198,  217 

SdXTriy/cri'K,    196 
SdXirtyJ,  217 
ZapfJiKn,  217 
Sa/m,  214 
SuwJaXa,  208 
SaWf,  187 
Siipi7(ra,  196 
ZapKoftiyos ,  221 
Zipaurra,  246 
-£lfT(\0(Jl',   98 
Scurrpo,/,  217 

2sXni/q,  101,  114 
XiWo;/,  175 
SeXXoi,  164 
S}*w,  212 
Sijrts,  160,  170,  222 
Sfpa,  222 
Si/psia,  198 

Zripcioipopo;,   196 

Stfcifeai,  189 

i.'<r<ipioi>,  214 
SiVijitij  £v    Trpurowfto, 

187 

Sirodna,  212 
SitooVSkoi,   212 
SirOTuoXai,  212 
Siroj,  212 
S,ro(/)iiXa)f£f,  212 
Smb,  112 
Sinwai,  212 
S/caXpoi,  202 
Y.Kappa,  172 
^.Kaifir]ij>6poi,  171 
~£.Kt\q  paitpa,  29 
ficfenj,  222 
Swtiij,  200 
2(ciji'»i,  176 
2»rii:rrpoi/,  150 
SKiurVpopia,  180 
2Kia&r](j>6pot,  172 
S«&s,  190 


S/ciXXa,  163 

Sfl0/101T£lO,    167 

JXi'poe,  128 

ZKtfpOlpOplMV,   61 

SfdXioi/,  207 

Sf07rd{,  172 
2<ti)Xa,  199 
XxiiXaJ,  163 
BrwaAij,  199 
SrwoXia,  196 
SdXof,  173 
S"poi,  221 
Zopdi,  123,  302 

"Z-napriov,  214 
SrijXauw,  222 

•S.T!i9ajii\,  214 
S!rXnyX"0(7<f0ffia,  163 
S!rXay\i-'dCTK07rOf ,  163 
SjrdcSiOf,  162 
Stoi/(5o!,  147 

jWiJ,  163,  197 

YraStoipOfiOi,  172 
Sra&w,  32,  172 
5>dXuc£j,   158 
Srarty),  213 
Sraupdj,  187 
Sreipri,  200 
Trippara,  147,  163 
Urttpai'Tjipopog ,  171 
Srcipai'Oi,  187 
•Zrrtpavos,  148,  191 
£r£r/>o<r,   148 
ZrijXaj,  222 
SnjXr,,  149,  187 
Snj/iOJi/,  218 
Sriy/ia,  180,  187 
Xrixoi,  197 
Xrcxopairaa,  167 
SrXfyyi;,  210 
StoS  paupa,  33 
StooJ,  31 
XrdXapxos,  203 
SroX^,  209 
SriSXoy,  200 
Srparrjyia,  196 
Srpanydf,    190,     193, 

196,  203 
5>p<mu,  196 
Srparo/crjpnf,  196 
SrpoyyTJXij,  116 
Srpd.pioi/,  209 
~S.Tpt')pa~a,  206 
5>yy£K£ia,  220 
Siiyy£f£?5,  220 

Swoi/,  212 

YmcotpavTia,  186 
2>*o0di/rai,  186 
Xvpj3o\a,  168,    197, 

198,  207 
Yvp(]o\?i,  206 
Siip/?(opoi,  160 
'S.xppaxia,  197 
'Sitppopiat,  182 
Sn/nrfoia,  207 
Yvpnroaiapxix;,  206 
Sfii/jiKOt,  181 
Sni/flyopoi,  181,  185 
YmSriKn,  197 
5>i<0)'ipara,    198 
SWaoi,  160 


STJJ/O&J  ' A/i(plKTVOV(M> 

183 

Xwoiiarai,  160 
Sii'ray/ia,   196 
Zipiyt,  217 
Suaffin'a,   190,  206 
X(payeiou,    148 
S^ayif,  148 
S^aipa,  216 
Sc/iCT^di^ ;  153 
S\£^'ai,  200 
•Sscoivojiarai,  202,  244 
S,\ocia,  202 
SwT£ipa,  "Zwrrip,  29 

T 
TtNiua,  209 
Tavn/coc,  197 
TuXavrov,  213 
TaXf/joi,  221 
'Tapiai  Twv  lepSv,  162. 

182 
Ta^ia;,  203 
Ta/xi'aj  7rpo<Td(1ou,  182 

tcov  flaopocojv,  176 
Tavvarkpuytq,  167 
Taji'apxoi,   196 
Tuji?,  196 
Ta(/.of,  222 
Tfyroi,  210 
TcBpimoi,  172 
Teiyo?  vOTiov,  &C.  31 
TeXa^wi',  194 
TfXto-o-iya^Of,  106 
TYXn-;),  163,  169 
TeX.7,  181 
TiXo;,  196,  197 
Tekuvai,  182 
TV**,  160,  162 
Tip/w,  172 
Tepiptxopn,  126 
Tcaaapa/fovra,  186 
T£rpu£r»;pi?,  60 
TfrpaXoyi'a,  171 
TErpiitjpoi,  172        , 
T£rp»ip£(?,  202 
TcrpwffdXov  0ios,   193 
Tn-nyf;,  208 
Tifx^ara,  181,  186 
Toixapxo;,  203 
Torxoi,  200 
To  Kawov,  186 
Td^otipot,  165 
Tdjov,  153 

Tjfdrui,  181 
Toforpdpof,    101,  102 

T<wrsia,  202 

TpaJ7£sa  fetirrpa,  206 
Tpajr£?a«,  222 
Tpa7r£^07roid;,  207 
Tpdipi?f,  200 
Tpi'i^ara,  200 
Tpia««id£f,    177,     188 

222 
Tpfafof,  173 
Tpt/3-mov,  209 
Tpi'ytow,  186,  217 
'VpicrepiKOi,  174 
TpiijpapX'a,  182 
Tpuipapxot,  182,  203 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


311 


rptripav\rK,  203 

Tptdpcn,  154,200,202 
TpiKt<pa\os,  109 
Tpi/cXi'iw,  206,  210 
Tpijioptpos,  lo2 
Tpvno&ss,  149 
Tpiirovi  xpriarfipios,  165 
Tpira,  222 
Tpiroyccfia,  104 
Tpftnwr,  189 
Tpi':y;op<!oy,  216 
Tpn*5inj,  102 
Tpfoatov,  149,    199 
Tpftris,  200 
Tpbiroi,  202 
Tpoxfc,  187,  263 
Tpmtava,  198 
Top/Soy,  222 
Tvpmava,  187 
T«/«raw«',  217 
TiCTi,  263 
Tvxn,  118 

T 

"TaXo;,  263 

"rffpeas  Hkti,  180 

'YfyaXrrrK,  264 

T6pav\iS,  217 

'Xfyia<(>opia,  180 
'Yiptaipiifioi,  172 
'Xfpo[tai>Tcia,  167 
'T<5pd(jTOi/^a,  147 
'rfpoiptpoi,  207 
•TXAeis,  188 

'Xpivaioi,  220 
Ypwes,  220 
Tin*,  or  *Yw«s,  212 
iTtpai,  202 
Y*-««5a,  210 
X-riiww,  192 
rn^njj,  180,  196 

24 


"Yttwj,  130 
'Xndyaia,  222 
'YTOypa/i^areiy,  182 
'TiroSripara,  208 

'YTO^jpara,  200,  201 
'Yn-ikar'orov,  210 
'Y7ro»cpirot,  176 

'Xropeioves,  188 
'Xitopvoaiu,  185 
Yn-jTia,   173 

<£>a(i'ii/(5a,  216 

<t>aiv(5Xi7S,  209 
■f'twai',  206 
<ba\ayyap\ia,  196 
*«XayJ,  196,  197 
<f>ii\apa,  194 
'J'aX/jpdi',  33 
4>aXifif,  200 

<t><iXof,  153 

't'l'iiracrpa,   167 
<f>apcTpa,  153 
^lip/^ava,  168 
4>appaK£ia,  168 
ftapptaicov,  186,  187 
*apof,  157,  208 

*u<riy,  186 
$>eyyiTns,  290 
*f[<5i'ria,  190 
<t>ipi:Tpoi>,  149,  221 
*fpi/i7,  220 
<f>ri>y&n>,  185 
^fj/iai,  168 
*i?pi7,   118 

*0«ic,  170 
*i/<X»7,  207 
<t>iaXfrfeff,  221 

*(X(jropE5,  220 
<t>iXir<a,  190 
4>iXo/i£<cfc,  106 


$iX6gci«f,  207 

*<!/?„,  208 

't>O0>lTO>p,    130 

*or/?05,  ioo 

<f>oi/i(c<3i»,  'Eiri  rcof,  185 

rt>dl'Of,   186 

**W"y|i  216 

<t>()po(,  181 

<f>opr(jyoi,  200 
4>parpiai,  177,  1£9 
<t>fiaTpt>ca,  206 
ffjpfara,  32 
<f>pfarror,  'Ev,   185 
4>pi'yi'ov(oi'  Zpyov,  218 
*i>yi},  187,  191 
*«Xai,  177,  178 
4>uXa*at,  197 
*>i)XdpxiK,  194 
<t>v\ap\oi,  181,  196 
*i'Xo/?a<riX£rs,  185 
4>wkij,  206 
iwwico,  198 

X 

Xafnj,  208 
XaXreia,  107,  171 
XaX/ci'oivoy,  36 
XaXxouj,  213 
Xaptart'ipia,  163 
Xdptrtj,  127 

Xfip  otSripa,  203 
XeipOTOvriTOi,  180,  183 
Xeipomvia,  182,  183 
XsXrfoyxara,  200 
XeXdwif,  198 
Xipviip,  148 
Xnviaicos;  200 
X<Xiaptfa,  196 
XiXtap\;oi,   196 

Xm&»,  157,  208 

XlTCOi/^,    102 


XXaTVa,  157.  208 
XXawif,  209 
XAiAw,  209 

Xoai,  147,  149.  229 
XoXvil,  187,  214 
Xopij/i'a,  182 
Xopijyoc,  182 
Xopdy,  176 
Xo«s,  214 
Xpijjia,  213 
Xprjpara  OeoipiKn,  176 
Xpripartcrpds,  167 
Xprjcpol,   ]64 
Xpr)<rpoX<5yO(,  164 
Xpr]tTpoip6pot,  164 
Xprjari'ipta,  164 
Xpipara,  210 
Xp«rr<5y,  272 
Xpdw*,  91 
X^a,  149,198,  222 


"PuAr/jpiov,  217 

*fXX(OI/,  209 
*>'/<p«rpa,  183,  188 
¥#><,  183 
*ia9('a,  186 
♦ifWpa,  217 
*iXoi,  153,  194 
'fu^opai'rei'a,  167 
¥i'.\ooTaoia,  100 

a 

'O0ai,  188 
'&5eiw,  32 

'OSiKal,  167 
"Jim,  210 
'SlpiodtTsTv,  148 
'SZoenrajria,  167 
"flpai,  117,  127 
SLf.jij,  k68 


INDEX  OF  LATIN  WORDS. 


Aldecti,  277,  278 
Accensi,  252,  27fi 
Accipe  libens,  238 
\ccubita,  291 
Accusator,  259 
Acerra,  232,  239 
Acetabulum,  268 
Acidalia,  106 
A(  ies,  275,  282 
Acinaces.  100 
Aclides,  281 
Actia,  26 
Aci miies  in  personam, 

in  rem,  259 
Actius,  101 
Actor,  259 
Actuarial,  233 
Actuarii,  252 
Artus  quadratus,  268 
Ad  hestias,  ad  ludos, 

&c,  260 
Addictus,  267 
Adjudicatio,  268 
Admovere,  237 
Adonia,  1-06 
Adopt io,  288 
Adoratio,  237 
Adrastia,  117 
Adscriptitii,  87,  276 
Adulterii  crimen,  260 
Advocatns.  259 
Adytum,  230 
lEcastor,  136 
SEdepol,  136,239 
/Edes  same.  1 17,  230 
.Ediles.  10,  216,  219 
iEditui,  236 
-•Eireon,  125 
Ms\s,  104 
Aello,  128 
iElurus,  121 
/Enea  fistula.  263 
^Eneatores,  271 
.Coins,  110 
flSrarium,  250,  261 
Africus,  128 
Agaso,  278 
Agelse,  189 
Agger,  15,  2-0,  281 
Ag n  qnadi  atum, 

pilatum,  &c.  278 
Agmine,  nno   conii- 

nente,  276 
Agnomen,  286 
Agoualia,  211 
Agone,  237 
Agoraeus,  109 
Agrimensores,  261 
Agrntera, 
Alie,  276 
Alha  linea,  243 
Alba  Lnnga,  1 1 
Alecto.  128 
Ales,  109 
Alipts,  293 
Aides,  233 
Altaria,  230 
AlvriK,  282,  295 
Amanuensis,  289 
i.rr:aracinum,  209 
'  iiaracus,  107 
312 


Amharvalia,   112,  236, 

241 
AmlHtiis  crimen,  260 
Aml.rosia,  109 
Amentum,  173 
Amiculum,  298 
Amor,  106 
Amphigyeis,  107 
Amphitheatra,  19 
Ampliitrite.  98,  125 
Amphora,  26s,  296 
Amtruare,  235 
Anadyoinene,  106 
Anagnosts,  289 
Ancliora,  282 
Ancile,  94,  235 
Am  ilia,  105 
Anclabris,  230 
Anculie,  120 
Anculi,  120 
Andabata?,  244 
Angusticlavia,  256,298 
Anima  mundi,  116 
Annales,  233 
Annuli,  299 
Aniiulns  aureus,  256 
Antefixa,  263 
Antenna?,  "Js2 
Anteros,  107 
Antesignani,  276 
Antestatio,  259 
Antistites,  236 
Anubis,  124 
Aonides,  126 
Apaluria,  109 
Apes,  264 
Apex,  233,  235 
Apis,  123 
Aplustria,  282 
Apodyterium,  293 
Apotheca,  296 
Apotheosis,  137,  304 
Apparitnres,  252 
Aprilis,  61 
Aquaeductus,  19 
Aquilo,  12s 
Ara>,  230 
A  ra  to  res,  289 
Aratrum,  264 
Arbiter  bibendi,  295 
Arlntri  causarum,  259 
Arhori  suspendere,  260 
Area,  302 
Area  rius,  289 
Archigallus,  94,  236 
Archiinagiri,  295 
Archimimus,  300 
Arcula  thuraria,  232 
Arcus  triumphales,  19 
Area,  261 
Arena,  247 
Areopagus,  32 
Argentarii,  263 
Argiva,  96 
Aries,  281 
Armamenta,  2-2 
Aim  imentum  Chirur- 

gicum,  294 
Armaria,  29(1 
Ai  iniger,  289 
Ai  mills',  275,  300 
Armilustrium,  242 
Arrlia  bospitaiis,  295 


Arrogatio,  288 

Ars  figlina,  263 
pistoria,  263 
tinctoria,  264 

Ar.x,  17,  233 

As,  266 

Ascolia,  109 

Aspergillum,  232 

Aspersorium,  232 

Asseres  falcati,  281 

Assertor  libertatis,  289 

Assessores,  259 

Assipondium,  267 

Astrsa,  117 

Astroiogi,  240 

Asyla,  162 

Asylum,  17 

Atergatis,  106 

Athena,  105 

Atlantiades,  109 

Atlantides,  114,  134 

Atria,  254 

Atriensis,  289 

Atrium,  290,  291 

Atropos,  128 

Auctio,  268 

Auctores  classici,  253 

Augurale,  278 

Auguratorium,  233 

Augures,  232,  233 

Augurium,  233,240 

Augustales,  236 

Augustalia,  242,  246 

Augustus,  61 

Aula,  290 

Aulaeum,  246 

Aures,  264 

Aureus,  267 

Aurora,  114 

Aurum  coronartum,284 

Auspices,  233 

Auspicium,  233 

Auster,  128 

Aux ilia,  285 

Avena,  264 

\versi,  302 

Aviarium,  292 

Avigeriuin,  233 

B. 

Baccha:,  110 
Bacchanalia,  168 
Bacchus,  109 
Balista,  281 
Balistarii,  276 
Balnea,  18,293 
Balneator,  293 
Balneatores,  289 
Baphium,  264 
Barritus,  274 
Basilics,  17,  18,259 
Bassareus,  109 
Batiltus,  264 
Batiole,  297 
Baxa.  299 
Bellaria,  294 
Bellica,  105 
Bellona,  105,  120 
Berecvntliia,  93 
Bes,  266 

Bestiarii,  214,  260 
Bibendi  arbiter,  295 
Bit*; s,  93 


Bideits,  264 
Bifrons.  93,267 
Bigae,  266 
Bimater,  109 
Bipennis,  232 
Bisellium,  254 
Bis  millies,  267 
Bissextus,  62 
Boia-,  260 
Bnmbycina,  298 
Bnmbvx,  298 
Bona  Dea,93,  24J 
Boreas,  116,  128 
Braces,  209 
Brachia,  29.  282 
Brontes,  107 
Bubo,  233 
Bubona,  120 
Buccinte,  272 
Bulla,  299 
Buris,  264 

C. 

Caballi,  266 
Cabiri,  136 
Caduceus,  108,  124 
Caducifer,  109 
Cadus,  296 
Caerites,  10 
Cassia,  105 
Ca?sias,  128 
Calatbus,  123 
Calcar,  266 
Calceus,  298 
Calcei  nigri  coloris,  45* 
Calculi,  295 
Caldarium,293 
•  'alendae,  61 
Calices,  297 
Caliga:,  298 
Calliope,  127 
Calones,  278 
Calumnia,  259 
Camarae,  283 
Camilla,  238 
Camilli&  Camillfe,236 
Camillus,  239 
Caminus,  291 
CamcBiiae,  126 
Oa  m  pi,  16 
Campidoctores,  280 
Campus  Martins,  16, 

105,  239,  259 
Campus  sceleratus.23( 
Candelabra,  232,  291 
Candidati,  248 
Canens,  130 
Canis,  295 
Canistra,  232 
Canopus,  !24 
Cantharus,  123 
Canus,  91 
Capedo,  232,  238 
Capeduncula,  232 
Capillamentum,  299 
Capillitia  vota,  238 
Capis,  232 
Capite  censi,  271 
Capite  velato,  237 
Capiiium,  3P8 
Capitolinus,  95 
Capitolium,  17 
Capsarii,  293 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


318 


Capsum,  266 
Capulum,  302 
Caput,  267 
Caput  ccBtiiB,  291 
Carceres,  243 
Cardines,  291 
Careiium,  296 
Carmen  seculare,  244 
Carmentalia,  241 
Carmine  certo  evo- 

care,  239 
Carna  Dea,  242 
Carnifex,  253 
Carpentum,  266 
Carptor,  289,  295 
Carruca,  200 
CasiB,  200 
Casa  Romuli.  17 
Cassis,  274 
Castalia,  127 
Oastalides,  126 
L'astra  stativa,  hiber- 

na.  &c.  278,  280 
Cat->puit;i.  281 
Catasiae,  289 
Catellae,  275 
Cat.-nae,  260 
Catenulae,  275 
Cathedra,  254 
Catomidiare,  235 
Caupona,  208 
Causa,  259 

Causae  fidei  bnnae,  259 
Cavsedium,  290 
Cavea,  246 
Celaeno,  128 
Celeres,  270,  276 
Cella?,  291 
Cellaria,  291 
Cellarius,  289 
Cella  sanctior,  230 
Cella  vinaria,  &c.  291, 

296 
Cenotapliia,  302 
Ceusnres,  250 
Census,  equester,  254 
Centauri,  131 
Centesima    reruin  ve- 

naliuni,  262 
Centesima  usura.  267 
Centies,  267 
Centimani,  113 
Centum  sestertium,267 
Centumvirale  judi- 
cium, 259 
Centurioe,  272 
Centuriata  Comitia, 

257,  259 
Centurip,  272 
Cerberus,  100,  132 
Cercopithecus,  124 
Cereales,  246,  249 
Cerealia,  112,  242 
Ceres,  110 
Ceriti,  240 
Cerussa,  creta,  299 
Cessio,  in  jure  ;  extra 

jus,  268 

'   t'S!  IK.   106 

Clialdiei.  240 
Charvbdis,  132 
Chinitera,  131,  132 
Chirurgi,  277 
Cbitone,  102 
Chlamys,  298 
Chloris,  120,212 
Cibum,  294 
Cilliba,  291 
Cinerarii,  289 
Cinerarium,  302 
Cingula,  96 
>  ingulum,  266 
I  Singulum  laneum,  2S7 
Cippi,  302 


Cippus,  302 

Cirri,  18 

Circuitio  vigilum,  280 

Circulus  auri,  299 

Circus  Flaminius,  Sal- 

lustius,  &c.  243 
Circus  Maximus, 18,242 
Cisium,  266 
Cista,  270 
Gives,  258 

Civitates  fcerieratae,258 
Clarigatio,  234 
Classiarii,  282 
Classici,  253 
Classicum,  274,  282 
Classis,  282 
Clathri,  290 
Claustra,  291 
Claves,  291 
Claviger,  93 
Clavus,  282,  298 
Clavus  Sgendus,  242 
Clepsydra,  60,  240 
Clientela,  '254 
Clima,  268 
Clio,  127 
Clitellse,  266 
Cliiellarii,  266 
Cloacae,  19 
Clotho,  128 
Clusius,  93 
CibIus,  113,  116 

C-Elnptio,  286 
Ccena,  293 
Coenacula,  293 
Ccena  nuptialis,  2S7 
Ccena  rec'.a,  24)5 
Coenationes,  293 
Cobus,  124 
Cognomen,  285 
Conors,  271 
Cobortes  vigitnm,  284 

Coliseum.  19,  247 
Collegia  fabrorum,  ti^'- 

nariorum,  tec  ,  263 
Collegium.  232 
Collina,  120 
Col  I  is  hortulorum,  16 
Coilocatio,  300 
Coloni,  290 
Colonise,  258 
Colossus,  42 
Colum,  296 
Columbar,  260 
Columbaria.  303 
Columella,  291 
Columns,  19 
Cnlumna  lactaria,  2S7 
Columnarium,  262 
Colus,  287 

Comes  direceseos,  285 
Comites,  285 
Com  ilia,  234,257,259 
Compitales,  129 
Compitalia,  129,242 
Compluvium,  290 
Conius,  1 19 
Concilia,  257 
Conciones,  257 
Conclamatio,  300 
Concordia,  122,  242 
Condere  lustrum,  239 
Condictio,  259 
Conditorium,  302 
Confarreatio,  286,287 
Congius,  268 
Conjectores,  240 
Connuhium,  286, 290 
Conquisiiio,  271 
Conquisitores,  252 
Conscript  io,  271 
Consecralio,  238,304 
Consentes,  87 
Consivius,  93 


Constitutiones,261 
Constratum  navis, 282 
Consuales,  246 
Consualia,  on 242 
Consularea,  2^5 
Consul  designatus,248 
Consul,  s,  248 
Consus,  98 
(Join  icin  in  in,  60 
Contubernales,  278 
Contubernium,  280,286 
Conventio  in  manum, 

286 
Coqni,  295 
Corbes,  295 

Cornell  in  sperulare,290 
Cornicines,  27 1 
Cornicula,275 
Comix,  233 
Corn  u,217 
Cornua,  272, 282 
Corona,  280,  303 
Corona  castrensis,mu- 

ralis,    civica,   &c. 

274,  275 
Corona,  emptio  sub, 

268 
Corpus,  262 
Correclores,285 
Corrigia,  298 
Cortina, 247 
Corns,  128 
Corvus,  233, 281, 282 
Corybantes,  94 
Cosmeta,289 
Cosmi,  191,102 
Cothurni,  299 
Cotytto,  119 
Covinus.  194 
Crater,  207 
Crates,  280 
Crepidee,299 
Crepundia,  287 
Creta,  299 
Cribrum,  113 
Crimen  majestatis, 

|Mculatus,252,259, 

260 
Crista,  274 
Crius.  124 
Crntala,2I8 
Cruci  artieere,  260 
Cubicula,291 
Cubicularii,  289 
Ciibiculuni,  217 
Cucullus,  298 
Cudo,274 
Culcita,  291 
Culeus,  260,268 
Culina,  291 
Cnlter,  264 

Cultrarins,232,236,237 
Cultri,232 
Cultrum,  104 
Culullus,232 
Ciiinerum,2S7 
Cunaria,289 
Cunei,  247 
Cuneus,  196,275 
Curatores  aquarum,  19 
Curiae,  17,18,236,252 
Curia  Saliorum,  235 
Curiones,  232,  236 
Currus,  266 
Cursus,  243 
Curules,249 
Custos,  93 
Cvatlms,  268,  297 
Cybele,  93,  112 
Cyclas,298 

Cvlleniiis,  109 
Cyllopodes,  107 
Cvmhia.  297 
Cynocephali,  124 


Cynfhia,  102 

Cyntbius.  101 
Dypria,  106 
Cytlierea,  106 

D. 
Damnum,  260 
December,  61 
Decemviri,  251 
Decennalia,  238 
Decreta,  261 
Decuma?,  262 
Decunx,  266 
Decuriaj,  259,272,  277 

288 
Decnriones,   258,   261 

276,  288 
Dedicatin  templi,  238 
Defrutarium,  296 
Defrutum,  296 
Delectus,  271 
Delia,  102 
Delius,  101 

Help    1CIIS,   101 

Delphinus,  101 

Delubrum,  230 
Demarchi,  181 
Demensuni,  274 
Denarius,  267 
Dens,  264 
Dentale,  204 
Deportatio.  260 
Designatores,  247 
Detersor,  289 
Detestatio  sacrorum, 

288 
Deunx,  266 
Deus,  95 
Devotio,  239 
Devovere,  239 
Dexter,  233 
Diana,  101,  114 
Diana  Bubastis,  124 
Dianus,  93 
Dicatio,  238 
Dicere  diem,  259t  271 
Dictator,  251 
Dictynna,  1112 
Dies  comii  iales,  257 

festi,  fasti,  &c.  241 
Dies|iiler,  95 
Diffarreatio,  287 
Digitus,  268 
Dii  majorum  et  mino 

rum  gentium,  87 
Diis  Manibus,  302 
Dionysia,  109 
Dioscuri,  135 
Diosi  uria,  136 
Diota,2l3,  296 
Diraj,  233 
Dinbitor,  289 
Diribitores,  257 
Disci,  232 
Disci  jactus,  243 
Dispensator,  289 
Divortia,2s7      » 
Divus,  304 
Dodrans,  266 
Dolabra,  232,264 
|)olia,296 
Dominium,  268 
Dominus,  288 
Domiis,  20,290 
Dona,  302 
Dona  militaria,  274 
Donaria,  230 
Donatio,  268 
Donatica,274 
Doris,  98 
Druiihe.  237 
Dryades,  126 
Duces,  285 
Du'ciarius,  289- 


314 


JNDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


Diimieiid  scripta,  295 
Duplex  acies,  275 
Duplicarii,  -71 
Duumviri,  233, 239,252, 

258,259,261,  282 
Dux,  278 
Dyndy  mena,  93 

E. 
Echidna.  132 

Edicta,  261 
Edictum,  219,256 
Edictum  pe/petuum, 

249 
Editor,  244 
Egeria,  96,  230 
Elffiothesium,  293 
Slatio,  300 
Eleusinia,  112 
Elicius,  95 
Elysium,  99 
Emeriti.  275 
Emeritum,  275 
Emptio  sui>  corona,  268 
Enceladus,  125 
Enclahris,  230 
Ensis  falcatus,  196 
Enyalius,  105 
Epiiinltes,  125 
Ephippia,  266 
Epibatte,  282 
Epidelius,  101 
Epilsenia,  109 
Epistolce,  261 
Epitaenia,  109 
Epitaphiutn,  302 
Epithalamia,  287 
Epulse,  231 
Epulares,  234 
Epulones,  232,234 
Epiilum  Jovis,  242 
Equestris,  118 
Equites,  214,  253,  278, 

298 
Equo    publico  merere, 

256 
Erato,  127 
Erigone,  117 
Erycina.  106 
Ervnnis   112 
Essedffi,  194 
Essedarii,  214 
Etiripus,  '217 
Eurus,  11C,  128 
Euryale,  130 
Euryphaessa,  114 
Euterpe,  127 
Evocati,  278 
Bxeubite,  280 
Exequiae,  300 
Exercitus,  280 
Exilium,  260 
Exostra,  246 
Expediti,  276 
Exponere  infantem, 

287 
ExseqitfS,  300 
Exta  muta,  2:4 
Bxtispices,  233 
Extispicium,  210 
Extraordinarii,  251,277 
Extremuin,  257 


Fabiam,  235 
Fal.ri,  277 
Fabrics,  280 
Fabrum,  253 
Factionea,  213 
Fagina.  297 
Falarica,  231 
Falces  murales,  281 
Falcifer,  91 
Falcula,  261 


Falsi  crimen,  260 
Falsu tn,  239 
Fa  I  x,  261 
Fama,  118 
Familia,  285,  288 
Famillie  jus,  258 
Familiares.  129 
Fanatici,  240 
Fanum,  236,  210 
Far.  Farina,  261 
Fasces,  232,  218 
Fasciffi,  299 
Fascinatio,  21 
Fascinum,  119,  210 
Fascinus,  119 
Fasti  Annales,  241 

Consulares,  211 

dies,  241 

Kalendares,  211 
Fastigium  291 
Fauna,  130 
Faunalia,  241,212 
Fauni,  130 
Fauuus,  130 
Febris,  120 
Fehrua,  61,  100 
Feliruariiis,  61 
Feliruatio,  211 
Februns,  100 
Feciales.  232,234 
Femoralia,  299 
Fenestra?,  290 
Feralia,  241 
Ferentarii,  276 
Feretrius,  95 
Ferelruiii,  302 
Feria3.  211 

Feriaa  Latins,  11,  211 
Feronia,  120 
Ferrea?  maims,  282 
Ferula,  260 
Festi  dies,  211 
FestUjII)  niercatoruni, 

109,  212 
Filiulie,  275 
Fictile,  263,  297 
FidMS,  122 
Fides  Grsca,  164 
Fidicines,  2.(6 
Figlina,  263 
Figulus,  263 
Fiscinas  corbes,  295 
Fiscus,  261 
Flabellifer,  239 
Flagellis,  26(1 
Flagellum,101,260,266 
Flamines,  232,  235,298 
Flaminise,  236 
Flaminica.  235 
Flaminii,  236 
Flammeum  liiteum,287 
Flora,  120,  212 
Floralia,  120,  212.  216 
Flu'mina  inferorum,  25 
Foculi,  291 
Focus.  291 
Fueiieratoe  civitates, 

258 
Fienisectores,  289 
Fcenum,  264 
Fierius,  267 
Foutinilia,  212 
Fora.  17 

Foramina,  282,  290 
Forda,  212 
Fordicidia,  212 
Forfex  275 

Fori,  212 
Forms,  263 
Fortuna,  118,  303 
Fortuna  Fnrtis,  242 

virilis,  212 
Forum,  17,259,  302 
For  us,  295 


Fossa,  280 
Fran u m,  266 
Fratres  Arvales,  232, 

236 
Fraus,  122 
Frisridarium,  293 
Fritillus,  295 
Friimentarii,  277 
Fucus,  299 
Fulcra,  291,  294 
Fulguratores,  234 
Fullo.  264 
Fullonica,  204 
Fuiloniiim,  264 
Fumariutn,  296 
Funambuli,  244 
Funditores,  276 
Funes,  260.  282 
Funtis   indictivum, 

piiblicuni,  300 
Furias,  128 
Furina,  128 
Furinalia,  128,  242 
Fuscina,  244 
Fustuarium,  275 

G. 

Gaia,  93.  112 
Galea,  274 
Galericulum,  299 
Galerus,  233.  271 
Galli,  91.232,  236 
G  illiciniuiii,  60 
Gallinarii,  289 
Gillinariuiii,292 
Gallus,  233 
Ganymedes,  96 
Gausape,  293 
Gemonis,  260 
Genethliaci,  210 
Genii.  129 

Genio  indulgere,  129 
(Jons,  285 
(ions  togata,  297 
GentilitTa,  288 
Gladiatores,  244 
Gladius,  274 
Gladius  el  hasta,  219 
Glaucus,  98 
Globus,  275 
Gradivus  Mars,  105 
Gradus,  247 
rjratiEE,  127 
(;  relies,  213 
Grus,  281 

Gubernaculum,  2S2 
Gubernator,  282 
(Justus,  Gustatio,  294 
Guttus,  232 

H 

Haliense,  266 
Hades.  99 
Hsreditas,  268 
Halcyoneus,  125 
Hamadryades,  126 
llarioli,  210 
Harpagones,  282 
llarpocrates,  124 
llaruspices,  232,  233, 

237 
Haruspicina,  231 
Hasta  pura,  274 

sanguinea,  234 

velitaris,  271 

venire  sub,  268 
llastoe,  274 
Hi  i  ui,  271,  274,  276, 

278 
llobilomades,  61 
Hebe,  96 
Hecate,  101,  102 
lleli.ea,  186 
Ileliastae,  181 


Heliconiades,  126 
Helius,  100.  114 
Hemina,  268 
Heraclidae,  188 
Hercules,  134 
Herms,  109 
Hermanubis,  i24 
Hermes,  108 
Hesperides,  134 
Hilaria.  91,236.  241 
Hippocrene,  127,  131 
Hippocrenides,  126 
Hippodroini,  18 
Hippolytus,  98 
Hippona,  120 
Histriones,  300 
Hocage,237 
Holocaustum,  238 
Honor,  122 
Honorati,  249 
Hora;,  U7, 127,  240 
flora   hiberna,  brevist 

sima,  240 
Hordeiim,  264 
Horologium,  60 
Hortator,  282 
Hortus,  292 
Horns,  122,  124 
Hospes,  295 
Hostias,  237 
Hydra,  131 
Hv,lr.iulis.217 
Hvgeia,  117,  118 
Hyperion,  114, 124 
Hypogaea,  303 

I. 

la  pet  ns,  124 
lasininuiii,  299 
Idsa,  93 
Idalia,  106 
Ignis,  113 

!gi inia,  251,  260 

llitbyia,  96,  102 
lllustres,  256 
Imagines,  302 
Iminol  ire,  237 
Impedimenta,  277 
Imperator,  257 
Imperium,  283 
Impluvium,  290,  291 
Inanes  tumuli,  302 
Inaugural io,  238 
Inaures.  299 
(ncubatio,  166 
Indigetes,  87 
Inducula,  244 
Indusiuiii,  297 
Infaniia,  260 
Inferis,304 
Infundibulum,  264 
Ingenui,  285 
Ino,  125 
Insigne,  282 
Insula,  298 
Insulae.  291 
Intercedere,  250 
[ntercisi  dies,  241 
Interdictus,  260 
[nterrex,  251 
lnterula,298 
[nuns,  1 16 
Inventor,  95 
lnvidia,  122 
Iris,  96,  115 
Irpex,  264 
Isia,  123 
Isis,  122 
Ilia  in  partes,  256 


Jactus  Veneris,  29J 
Jaculatores,  276 
Jauua,  93,  290,  291 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


315 


Janu.irtuo.  61 
Janus,  18,93,  267 
Janus  ttifrons,  267 
Judices  ;issi-ssores,259 
.Indicia.  259 
Juga,  96 
Jugarii,239 
Jtigerum,  268 
Jugiiin,  261,  266 
Julii,  235 
Junius,  61 

Julio,   96 

Caprotina,  212 
Moneta,  212 

Sospita.  2 11 

Junonalia,  or  Junonia, 
96 

Junones,  96 

Jupiter,  ill  ;  Termina- 
lis,  119;  Latiaris, 
284;  Interims.  1110; 
Maimactes,  212 

Jura  provinciarum, 
praefecturaruin, 
&c.  258 

Juramentum,  239 

Jurare  cnnceptis  ver- 
bis. 239 

Juris  interpreter,  250 

Jus  JEIianitm,261 
civ iiatis,  &c.  258 
Flavianum.  261 
honorarium,  249 

261 
hospitii  295 
imaginum,  251 
Latii   or  Laiinita- 

tis,  258 
militia?,  258,  271 
Papirianum,  261, 
Pontificium,  241 
Quiritiuin.  258,286 

Jitsjiirandmn,  239 

Jutuma,  120 

Juvenales,  246 

K. 

Kalendae,  61,  240 
Kaleiidarium,  241 
Kinura,  217 


Labaruni,  272 

Lahvrinthus,  43 
Lacerna,  298 
Lachesis,  128 
Lacliryma?,  302 
Lacrymales,  303 
Lacus,  19,296 
Lana,  233,235,298 
Lancea?.  274 
Lances,  232,  294 
I.anilicinm,  264 
Lanista,  244 
Lapis  Albanus,  303 

specularis,  290 
Lapithae,  131 
Larjuearia,  290 
Lararium,  129 
Lares,  129.  291 
I. ans  Prsstiles,  242 
Larvae,  129 
I.aterciilus,  278 
Lateres  ccictiles,  263 
Latialis,  95 
Laticlavia,  256,298 
Latomia?,  40 
Latona,  116 
Latus  clavus,  256 
Laudatio,  302 
Lavatin    Matria    Deo- 

rum,  211 
Laverna,  120 
Lecti,  291 


Lectica,  300 
Lecticarii,  289 
Lectisteniia,  234,  239 
Lectisterniator,  289 
Leqtua  feralis,  300 
Lectus  su ius,    me- 

dius.  imus,  293 
Legali,  252,278 
Legem  accipere,  jube- 

re,  abrogare,   &c, 

261 
Leges  agrariBe,&c.,201 

Curia  tae,  &c,  261 
.egifera,  170 
gilimus,288 
mnius,  107 
emures,  129 
tnuiia,  242 
Lethum,  130 
Leucanthes,  '-'I 
Lex  annalis,  248 

Alinia,  201 

Furia,261 

Julia.  286 

Poppaea,  286 

Porcia,  260,  283 
Liha,  238 
Libellus,  244 
Liber,  109 
Liberalia,  241 
Libertatis  jus,  258 
Liberti,  Libertini,  2S5 
Liberlina,  106 
Libitinarius,  300 
Libra,  266,  270 
Libia?,  266 
Librarii,  277,  2S9 
Lihri  Elephantini,  18 
Libs,  L28 
Libiirnicae,  283 
Liclores,  248,252 
Lign,  264 

Ligula,  232,  268, 298 
Limbus,  298 
Linguis  favete,  237 
Liiiuin,  264 
Litare.  224 
Litui,  272.  274 
Lituus,   232,  233,    274, 
Livae,  277 

Locus  cnnsularis,  293 
Lora,260;subjugia,266 
Lorica,  274 
Lucaria,  2 II 
Lucerna?,  291 
Luci,  18,230 
Lucina,  or  Lucinia,  96, 

102 
Lucta,  213 

Lucius  publicus,  304 
Ludi,  19 

Lucii  Apcdlinares,    101, 
212,  216 

capitolini,  216 

circenses,  98,   101, 
212.  243 

florales,  216 

funebres,  304 

gladiatnrii,  244 

magni,  242,  243 

megalenses,  216 

plebeii,  242,246 

scenici,  246 

seculares,  102,243 

vntivi,  246 
Lnilii,  300 
Ludus,  214 
Ludus  Magnus,  &c.,U9 

I'rojoe,  213 
Luna,  101,  114 
Lunaiici,  210 
Luna  pairicia,  299 
Lunata  acies.  2s2 

pellis,  299 


Lupercalia,  116,235,241 
Luperci,  232.  235 
Lupercus,  110.  235 

Lustra is.  239 

Lustrica,  232 
Lustrum,  62,  239 
Lusus  naturae,  110 
Lyaeus,  109 
LycteuB,  116 
Lychnuchus,  291 
Lycius,  101 
Lj  dius  lapis,  266 
Lyinpliati,  240 

M. 
Mactare,  237 
Maenalius,  116 
Maeniana,  217 
Magister  auctionum, 
233 

cnllegii,  233 

convivii,  295 

equiium,  251,  284 

miliiiae,  284 

navis,  282 

officiorum,250,284 

pedilum,  284 

publicanorum,  262 

publicus,  234 
Magistrates,  251 
Maimactes,  212 
Mains,  61 
Majestalis  crimen,  252, 

259 
Mala,  294 
Malleoli,  281 
.Malleus.  232,  291 
Walus,282 
Mamurius,  235 
Manceps  portuum,  262 
Mancipalio,  268 
Mancipia,  2s5 
Mandata,  261 
.Manes,  129,304 
Mangones,  289 
Mania,  129 
Manicae,  260 
Manicula,  -i64 
Manipulus,  272 
Mansio,  278 
Mantilia.  294 
Manuinissio,  288,289 
Manna  ferreae,  282 
Mappa,  294 
Marculi,  291 
Margarita?,  268 
Margines,  15 
Marina,  106 
Marra,  264 
Mars,  105 
Mamales,  246 
Marlins.  61 
Materfamilias,  287 
Mathematici,  240 
Matralia,  242 
Matriinonium,  286 
Mausoleum,  20,48, 114, 

223 
Media  Nox,  60 
Medicainina,  299 
Medici,  2S9 
Mediirinalia,  242 
Medusa,  104,  130 
Megaera,  128 
Megalenses,  246 
Meealesia,  91,  241 
Mebercle,  239 
Mellona,  120 
Melpomene-.  127 
Mensse,  291,  294 
Mensani,  263 
Mensa  sacra,  230 
Mensis  intercalaris,  61 
Mephitis,  12,  120 


Mercatnres,  263 
Mercatorum  i-  mm, 

1119 

Mercuriiis,  108 

Meia?,  213 

Met  a  I  cues,  277 

Meti>pium,298 

Mil  lies  leves,  271 

Militia;  jus,  258,  271 

Milliare 

Milliariuin  anriMiui,  13 

Millies,  &c,  267 

Minerva,  104 

Minium,  299 
Ministri,  236 
Mirmillones,  244 
Miscellanei  dei,  87 
Missio,  2)1 
Mnemosyne,  121, 126 

Modius,  268,  2-2 

Mcila.  maniiaria,  asi- 
naria,  Sec,  264 

Mcda  salsa,  237 

Moles  Hadnani,  20 

Molybdis,  282 

Momus,  119 

Moneta,  96,242,267 

Monilia,  299 

Mnnnpoditim,  291,294 

Minis  Palatums, &c, 11 

Montintenta,  302 

Morpheus,  130 

Mors,  139,  269 

Mortar ,  264 

Mulciber,  107 

M  ilcta,  260 

Muliones,  289 

Mullei,  299 

Mttnera,  244,302 

Munia  pacts  el  belli, 253 

Municipia,  258 

Mu rex,  297 

Murrha,  or  Murrhi- 
niiin,2ti3,  297 

Musculi,281    , 

Music  i,  105 

Mttstuni,  296 

Mulilatio,  295 

Mystagogi,  236 

Mythi,  83 

N. 
Naenia,  138 
N tenia?,  300 
Naiades,  126 
Napaea?,  126 
Nardinum,  299 
Natalitia  vota,238 
Naturalis,  288 
Naumaclti83,  19,  243 
Naumathiarii,  213 
Nautea,  282 
Navarchus,283 
Naves  onerariae,  Ion 

ga?,  rostrata?,  &c. 

282 
Navis  prsetoria,  262 
Netasti,24l 
Negdia  lores,  263 
Nemesis,  117 
Neptunalia,  93,242 
Nereides,  98,  126 
Nereus,  98 
Nervus,  260 
Neryx,  15 
Nexus,  267 
Niol.e,  102 
Nobiles,254 
Nobilitas  liomana,  2.- 
Nonten,  285 
Noniius,  101 
Nona?,  61 
Nola  censoria,  251 

interior,  9l*~ 


316 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


Notae  interior,  29G 
Nolarii,  252 
Notus,  116,  123 
November,  til 
Novi  homilies,  254 
.V-\,  115 

Nubentis  utensijia, 287 
Nunierus  legitimus,256 
Nummiilarii,  2t;~ 
Nummus,  267 
N'ummus  inoduL  max- 

iini.  266 
Kundinae,  til.  241 
N  Mima'  justie,.  286 
Nupiialis,  96 
Nuptial  is  i  oena,287 
Nutriiii,  289 
Nyclelius,  109 
NymphsBa,  19 
Nyuipliaeum,  126 

O. 
Obices,  291 
Obolus,  100 
Obsecratiunes,  237 
Occa,  264 
Occator,  120 
Occatores,  289 
Occidens,  128 
Oceanus,  98,  124 
Ocres,  244,  250,  274 
Oetavae.  262 
October,  til 
Ocypeta,  128 
Odea.  19.  32,  33 
Odrysins,  105 
Oesipuin,  299 
Olitoritiiii,  17 
Oils  extares,  232 
Onager,  281 
Opalia,  212 
Opeconsiva,  212 
Opigena,  96 
Opiliones,  289 
Ops.  93 
Oppidnm.  225 
Optimus  Maximus,  95 
Optio,  272 
Optiones,  276 
Opus  incertuin.  248 
Orationes   priiicipum, 

261 
Orbis,  278 
Orchestra,  '2  if) 
Orcus,  100 
Ordines,  271 
Ordinibus  compressis, 

276 
Onlu  equester,  254 

plebeins,  253 
Oreades,  I2ti 
Orion,  125 
Oscines,  233 
( iscophoria,  103 
Osiris,  122 
Ossilegium,  302 
Ostiarium,  262 
Ostiarius,  2-9 
Ostium,  290 
Otus,  125 
Ov;..  294 
Ovatio  284 
Ovile,  257 

P. 
Pabulum,  120 
Psedagogi,  288,  289 
Paenula,  298 
Palatums,  Hi 
Palaiium,  10,20 
E'ales,  120 
Palii;.i,  120,  212 
Palla,  2!  18 
Palladium,  94,  101,  1J2 


Fallantias,  114 

Pallas,  105 

Palliati,  297 

Palmus,268 

Palnd  amentum,  298 

Par   116 

Panselolium,  193 

Panathensea,  104,  171 

Pancratium,  173 

Pandora,  107 

Panes,  130 

Panificium,  263 

Pantheon,  17 

Paphia,  106 

Paralus,  42 

Parcae,  128 

Pares,  impares,  tibiae, 
247 

Parilia,  120 

Parma,  244,274 

Parnassides,  126 

Parricidii,  '260 

Pissus,  268 

Patareus,  101 

Patella,  232 

Patellarii.  129 

Patera.  96,  300 

Paterae,  232 

Pater  fiduciarius,  238 
pairatns,  234 

Patres  conscripti,  256 
minorum  gentium. 
253 
Patricii,  253 
Patrinae,  291 
Patronus,  259 
Patulcius,  93 
Pavimenta  tessalata, 

290 
Pax,  122,211 
Pecudes,  266 
Peoulatus,  252,260 
Peculium  castrense, 

274 
Pecunia.  266 
Pedes,  282 
Pediea,  260 
Pediles,  278 
Pegasus,  26, 131 
Pelopidse,  130 
Pelops,  136 
Peloria,  91 
Penates,  129 
Perduellionis,  260 
Peregrini,258 
Peresrrini  dii,  87 
Periasci,  189 
Peripetasmata,  291      » 
Peristrnmata,  291 
Perones,298 
PerpetiiiB  quaesliones, 

259 
Perpol,  239 
Perseus,  133 
Perticai,  264 
Pes,  268 
Pessinuntia,  93 
Petasus,  ins,  298 
Peiauristae,  244 
Petitio,  259 
Petitor,  259 
Petraeus,  98 
Plialarae,  275 
Phantasus,  130 
Phaseli,  283 
Phengites,  '290 
Phials'.,  297 
Phobetor,  130 
PhoBbe,  102,  117,  124 
Phorcus,  98 
Phylarchi,  181 
Phyx,  32 
Piaculum,  -239 
Pierides,  120 


Pierus,  126 

Pietas,  122 

Pila,  274 

Pilentum,  266 

Pileus,29\298 

Pilumnufr,   120 

Pilus  primus,  272 

Pinacotheca,  291 

Pinarii,  232,235 

Piraeus,  31 

Piscarium,  17 

Piscatores,  289 

Piscatorii  Ludi,  246 

Piscina  mirabilis,  292 

Pistores,  263 

Pistrilla,  264 

Pistrinum,  264 

Pistuin,264 

Plagii,  260 

Plaustra,266 

Plebeii  jEdiles,  249 

Plebiscita,  250,257,  261 

Plebs,  253 

Pleiades,  108 

Plutei,  281 

Pluto,  99 

Plutus,  113 

Pluvius  or  Pluvialis,  95 
Pnyx,  32 

Poiillator,  289 
Pocula  fagina,  vitrea, 

&.C,  297 
Pndium,  217,248 

Pcecile,31,  36 

Po3nsB,  260 

Pol,  239 

Polias  Minerva,  29, 101 

Pol  ice  in    premebant, 

vertehant,  244 
Pollinctores,  300 
Poius,  116 
Polyhymnia,  127 
Pomona,  119,  120 
Pompa  circensis,  213 
Pons   Milvius,   JElius, 

&c  ,  16 
Ponies,  257 
Pontic  uli,  257 
Ponti'ex  Maximus,  232 
Pontiffs,  232 
Pops,  932,  236 
Popina,  soe  Caupona. 
Popular!  \,  217 
Populonis,  96 
Populum  exfare,  234 
Populus,  253 
Porta  praeto  ia,  decu- 

mana,  Set..,  "SO 
Porta    CariLsnhdis, 
&c  ,  15 
salutaris,  1'8 
Portenla,233 
Porticos  milliaria* 
Portisculus,  282 
Portoriiim,  261 
Portumnalia,  242 
Portumnus,  125 
Postcenium,  246 
Postridiani,  211 
Potamides,  126 
Potitii,  232,  235 
Praetinctiones,  2*7 
Praecones,  252 
Praedes,  259,262 
Praedia,  rustica,  ui.a- 

na, 268 
Praef.-cti.  277 
Praet'ecturae.  258 
Praefectus  ^Egypti  285 
annonae,  251,261 
classis,  281 
niornui,  251 
prsetorio,  284,235 
urbis   251,  285 


Praefericula,  232,  2jS 
Piaeflcae,  300 
Praejjustator,  289 
Praemia  minora,  275 
Praenomen,  2b5 
Presides,  285 
Praestigiatores,  244 
Praesul,  235 
Praetor,  219,  259 
Praetorium,  278 
Prandium,  293 
Praia.  264 
Precationes,  236 
Precum  arbitri,  250 
Prelum,  290 
Priapus,  119 
1'rimitiae,  238 
Principes,  271,275,27e 

278 
Principia,  278 
Proconsul,  252,  2S5 
Procurator,  244 
Procurator    Ceesaris 

252 
Prodigia,  233 
Prodigiatores,  234 
Profesti,  241 
Projicere  in  profluen« 

turn,  260 
Proinagister,  262 
Propraetor,  252 
Propjlaea,  29 
ProqusBstor,  252 
Prora,  282 
Proreta,  282 
Proscenium,  216 
I'roscriptio,  268 
Proserpina,  106 
Proteus,  98 
Provincial,  258 
Prvtaneuin,  184 
Psvlli,  56 
Publicani,  262 
Publicum,  2ti2 
Pugilatus,  243 
Puiniae  simulacra,  304 
Pullarius,  233 
Pulli,  233 
Piilinentarius,  289 
Pulpitum,  247 
Pulvinar,  294 
Pulvinaria,  237,  266 
Piilvinns,  293 
Punctum  (omne  tulit), 

270 
Puppis,  282 
Pineal,  17 
Pnticiilae,  303 
Pylae  Caspiae,  46 
Pylotis,  105 
Pyra,  302 
Pyramis  Cestii,  20 
Pyrakmon,  107 
Pythius,  101 
Pyxis  or  Pyxidula,  30C 

Q. 
"Uadrans,    266,  29c 
C«.u£lrantal,  296 
Quae  igiE,  206 
Quadrmenaria,  272 
ftuadiir,  <nes,  282 
Umesiioris,  259 
Quaestioi.e,    259 
Quaestor  s"cri  palat  J 

250,  285 
Quaestores,  2^ 
Quaestorium,  27a 
Quartarius,  208 
Uuaternio,  295 
Quinarius,  267 
Quincunx,  205,  2>» 
Quindecemviri.  23* 

240 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


317 


Quingenaria,  272 
Quinquatria,  10 1,  171, 
241,242 

Quinquennia,  238 
Quinqueviri,  252 
Quintans  via,  2-0 
Quintiliani,  235 

Quintilis.  61 
Qiiuinalia,  241 
(-tuirinales,  235 
Quirinus  Mars,  105 
Quiriles,  11,  16 
Quiriiium  jus,  258 

R. 

Rallutn.  264 

Rastrum,  264 

Rectoe  via1,  275 

Rector,  282 

Recuperatores,  259 

Regia,  233,  234 

Regina  Sacrorum,  234 
Viarum,  16 

Relegatus.  260 

Religio,  229 

Religione  solvere,  238 

Religiosi  dies,  241 

Remancipatin,  '2-7 

Remi,  Remiges,  282 

Repetundarum   cri- 
men, 252,  260 

Repository,  294 

Repntia,  287 

Repudium,  287 

Rescripta,  261 

Res    Mancipi,    Nee 
Mancipi,  268 
privatae,  268 

Respuhlica,  ne  quid 
detrimenti  capiat, 
251,  257 

Retiani.  214 

Reus,  259 

Rex  convivii,  295 
sacrificulus,  231 
sacrorum,  232,  231 

Rhamnensis,  252 

Khamnusia,  117 

lcnea,  91 

Rheda,  266 

Rich.  Ricinitim,298 

Rohigalia,  212 

Rogatin,  259 

Rngus,  302 

Roma, 119 

Romaica,216 

Rorarii,  276 

Rosa,  Sub,  206 

Rosaceum,  299 

Rostra,  17.2.-2,302 

Rudentes,  282 

Rudera,  15 

Runcatores  299 

Riincina,  120 


Saburra,  282 
Sacella,  230 
Sacertodes,  236 
Sacra  gentilitia,  288 
Sacramentum,  270,  271 
Sacrificia,  237 
Sacrorum  jus,  258 
Sagitarii,  276 
Sagum.  298 
Salarium,  262 
Saligenita,  106 
Salii.  105,  232,235,  211 
Saline,  262 
Saltus,  213 
Salus,  1 18 
Sambuca,  217 
Sandaplla,  300 
Sandfpilarii,  300 


Sapa,  296 
Sarcitis,  277 
Sarcophagus,  302 
Sarculum,  264 
Sarracum,  266 
S;itis<lare,259 
Satnr,  91 

Saturnalia,  91,  212 
Saturnia,  91 
Saturnus,  91 
Saxo  Tarpeio  dejicere, 

260 
Scabella,  299 
Seals,  247,260,280 
Scalmus,  262 
Scena,  216 
Scholae.  2-4 
Scias,  36 
Scissor,  289 
Scorpio,  281 
Scribse,  252.  277 
Scriptura,  262 
Scutica,  260 
Scutum,  214,274 
Scylla,  132 
Scyphi,  297 
Secespitae,  232 
Sectio,  268 

Securi  percutere,  260 
Securis,  232,  218,264 
Secutores,  '244 
Sedilia,  282 
Segelia,  Seia,  120 
SelPtti.  -7 
Sella,  218.291 
Sella  cimilis,  235,  250, 
25  4 

portatoria,  254 
Sembella,  267 
Sementina,  211 
Semis,  266 
Semones,  87 
Senacula,  18 
Senatus  auctoritas,256 

cousultum,256, 261 
Senio,  295 
Sentina,  2-2 
Septa,  257 
Septunx,  266 
Serae,  291 
Serapea,  123 
Serapis,  123 
Septemviri,  234 
Se|iticullis,  15,  225 
Sepulchrum,  302 
Seres,  298 
Se.-ra,  27G 
Servi  terra?,  290 
Servitutes  prsedinrum, 

268 
Servitus,  260,  268 
Servus  admissionalis, 

cubicularius,   &.C., 

289 
Sestertius,  2n7 
Sestertium,  267 
Seva,232 
Sexcenaria,  272 
Sextans,  266 
Sexlarius,  268 
Srxtilis,  61 
Sicae,  196 
Sicarii,  196 
Sicarios,  crimen  inter, 

260 
Sigma,  291,  294 
Signa,  233.272 
Signiferi,  272 
Sileni,  130 
Silenus,  110 
Siticernium,  304 
Siinpuluin,  232 
Sinister,  233 
Sirennusa?,  126 


Sistrum,  119,  218 
Sitella,  257 
Smegmata,  299 
Sminthee,  42 
Smintheus,  42,  101 
Socci,  299 
Societas,  262 
Socii,  277 
Sodales,  Titii,  232,  236 

Augustales,  236 
Sodalitates,  235 
Sol,  111 
Solaria,  240 
Solarium,  60,291 
Solese,  299 
Solennia,  237 
Solidtrs,  267 
Soianus,  130 
Soracte,  120 

Soranus,100 

Sors,  267 

Sortes,  210 
Snrtilegi,  210 
Sortilio,  2.".7 
Sospita,  96 
Spathse,  274 
Specillum,  263 
Spectacula,  243 
Specula,  290,299 
Specularia,  290 
SpeB,  122 

Sphaerisierium,  293 
Spina  circi.  242,243 
Spoliarium,  21a 
Spondae,  294 
S|ionsalia.  286 
Sponsio,  286 
Sponsor,  95 
Sportula,  295 
Spurius,  288 
Stadium,  18,  32,  268 
Stapise,  266 
Stata,  237 
Stater  Daricus,  213 
Statio,  280 
Stator,  95 
Statumen,  15 
Statumina,  282 
Stega,  2s2 
Sterculiuus,    Stercu- 

tius,  91,  120 
Steropes,  107 
Stheno,  130 
Stibadium,  294 
Stipendio  privari,275 
Stipendium,  230,  274 
Stipulatio,  2*6 
Stiva,  264 
8  tola,  298 
Stragula,294,  291 
Strangulate,  260 
Strategi,  196 
Strenae,  24) 
Strenua,  120 
Strigiles,  293,  303 
Stroppi,  282 
Structor,  289, 295 
Strymonius,  105 
Suarium,  17 
Subcenlurio,272 
Subdivale,  290 
Sllbitarii,  271 
Subligaculum,  244 
Subsignani,  272 
Subsolanus,  128         t 
Subucula,  297 
Succina,  297 
Slides,  280,  281 
Suffragii  jus,  258 
Suggestus,  17,  247 
Suile,  292 
Summanus,    100,    129, 

242 
Suovetaurilia,  105,239 


Supplicationes,  237,283 
Supplii  i..,2.!7 
Symbola,  280,  299 

T. 
Tabells,  257 
legitimes,  286 

Tal nn,29l 

Tabula   nuclioDaria, 
268 
lnsr.riri,  295 

prnscripti 

Tabul  e  duodecim,  261 

VOII\    I 

Tabularia,  17 
Tabularium,  17,  256 
Tiediger,  289 
Taenia,  282 
Talaria,  108 
Talenluin,  -267 
Tali,  240.  2"5 
Talin,  260 
Tantalides,  136 
Tartarus,  99 
Tatiensis,  -^>2 
Tegnlse,  291 
Telesphnrus,  118 
Tellus.  93,  112 
Tetno,  264,  266 
Tempestas,  242 
Templa,  230,  233 
Tepidariuiu,  293 
Terebra,  261 
Tergemina,  102 
Terminalia,  119,241 
Terminus,  119 
Ternio,  295 
Terpsichore,  127 
Terunciu8,  207 
Tesselatum,  290 
Tessera,  280,  295 
Tesserae,  295 
Tesserarii,  280 
Testa,  296 
Testa  menti  jus,  258 
Testamentn,  268 
Test  udo,  278,  2s0,  201 
Tethys,  121 
Texirina.  264 
Thalia,  127 
Theatra,  18 
Themis,  117,124 
Thensa,  206 
Theriotrophium,  293 
Thermae,  19,290 
Theseus,  60,  134 
Thesmophora,  27 
Thesmothetae,  181 
Thetis,  98 
Thorax,  274 
Thraces,244 
Thriambus,  109 
Thurarium,  232 
Thuribulum,  232 
Thurius,  105 
TliM.ibrseus,  101 
Thyoneus,  109 
Thyrsiger,  109 
Thyrsus,  110 
Tibia?, dextrae,  si  flistrsi 

119,  239 
Tibialia,  299 
Tibicines,  236,  300 
Tinctoria,  264 
rinctura,  264 
Tintintiabula,266,291 

Tisiphc 128 

Titaea,  91,  112 
Titaniiles,  91,  117 
Titu'i,  289 
Tituliis.3.02 
Toga,  218,297 

Candida,  248 

fusa,  297 


318 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


Toga,  praetexta,  233, 
234,  235,  249,  250 
284,  297 

pulla,  297 

virilis,  297,  299 
r<igati,297 
Tollere  infantem,  287 
Tomentum,  294 
Tonsores,  289 
Topiarii,  292 
Tnrcular,  296 
Torcularium,  296 
Toreumata,  297 
Torques     aurea?,    275, 

299,  300 
Torus,  291 
Trabea,  233.  281 
Tragularii,  276 
Traha,  264,2156 
Tralatitia,  249 
Tra  list ra,  282 
Transvectio,  256 
Triarii,    271,  272,  275, 

276,  278 
Tribula,  264,  266 
Tribunal,  17.249,257,278 
Tribuni  inilitmii,  251 

plebis,  250 
Tribns,  urbanae,  rusti- 

cae,  252 
Tributa,  261 
Tributacomitia,  257,261 
Tricennaria,  272 
Triclinium.  291,293,304 
Triibns,  244 
Triens,  266 
Trieterica,  109 
Triformis,  102 
Triga,  266 
Trigonon,  217 
Trinundinum,  261 
Tripes,  294 
Tiiplex  acies,  275 
Tripodes,  232 
Tripudium,  233 
Triremes,  282 
Trilicum,  264 
Triton,  98,  125 
Tritonia,  104 
Triumpbalis  lex,  283 
Triiimphus,  283,  284 
Triiiuiviri,  252,  267 
Trivia,  102 
Tropsa,  19,  199 
Trutiiia,  2f  6 


Tuba?,  232.239,  272 
Tubiiines,'  236,  274 
Tubilustrium,  241,  242 
Tullianuin,  260 
Tunica,  297 

angusticlavia,  256, 
298 

laticlavia,  256,  298 

recta,  287 
Tumultuarii,  271 
Tumultus,  7,  271 
Tumulus,  302 
Tiirn.se,  272,  277 
Turricula,295 
Tunis,  278,  281 
Tutela,  282 
Tympana,  266 
Tympanum,  119,218 
Typbceus,  or  Typhon, 

122,  125,  132 

U. 

TIdones,  299 
ITItimum,  257 

Ultor,  105 
Unciae,  266 
Unctuarium.  293 
Unguenta,  299 
Unio,  295 
Unxia,96 
Uragus,  272,  277 
Urania,  106,  127. 
Uranus.  91,  113 
Urbs,  225 
Urceus,  232 
Urna,  268 

feralis,  302 
Urna?  lacbrymales,  303 
Usinum',  299 
Ustrina,  Ustrinum,  303 
Usucapio.  268,  286 
Usura,  267 
Usurpatio,  287 
Usus,  268,286 
Utensilia,287 
litres,  296 
Uxor,  287 
Uxorium,  262 


Vacatio  honorata,  271, 

275 
Vacuna,  120 
Vades,  259 
Vagina,  232 


Valetudinarium,  280 
Vallonia,  120 
Vallum,  280 
Vasa  inurrhina,  263, 
297 

sacra,  232 

Bculpta,  297 

unguentaria,  303 
Vates,  16 
Vaticanus,  16 
Vaticinatores,  240 
Vectigalia,  261 
Vedius,  95 
Vehse,  266 
Vejovis,  95 
Vela,  282 

Velites,  271,274,  276 
Venalitiarii,  289 
Venatio,  243 
Veneficii  crimen,  260 
Veneralia,  241 
Venti,  128 
Ventoruin  Ara,  116 
Ventus  textilis,  298 
Venus.  105,  295 

Genetris,  242 

Marina,  125 
Verbera,  260 
Veritas,  285 
Verticordia,  106 
Vertumnus,  119 
Vespera,  60 
Vespillones,  300 
Vesta,  18,93,230,242 
Vestales,  113,  232,236 
Vestalia,  241,  242 
Vestes    Coae,    Sericae, 

298 
Vestiarii,  289 
Vestis  stragula,  266, 

291 
Vestibulum,290,  300 
Veto,  250 
Vexillarii,  272 
Vexillationes,  285 
Vex  ilium,  272,275 
Vexillum    purpureum, 

282 
Via  Qnintana,  280 

Sacra,  Appia,  &c, 
15 
Viae,  15,  16 
Viales,  129 
Viatores,  250 
Vicarii,  285 


Vicennalia,  238 
Vicesima,  262 
Vici,  17 
Viclimae,  237 
Victimarii,  236 
Victor,  95 
Victoria,  120 
Victrix,  106 
Vicus  alhus,  &c,  17 
Vigiles,  280 
Vigilia;,  59,  240,  280 
Villa   urbana,  rustics. 

&c,  292 
Villicus,  292,  289 
Villicus  ampliiiheatri 

247 
Vinalia,  242 
Vinaria  cella,  296 
Vmcula,  260,  299 
Vindemiatores,289 
Vindicatio,  259 
Vindicia,  289 
Vineae.  198,  280 
Vinum  Falernum,  Cae- 

cubuni,  &c,  296 
Virgo,  117,  118 

maxima,  236 
Virgis,260 
Viri  epulares,  234 
Virtus,  122 
Vis  publicae,  260 
Visce  ratio,  304 
Vitisator,  91 
Vitrea,  263 
Vitrea  specularia,  29C 

Vitr ,263 

Vitta,  232,  299 
Viva  voce,  268 
Vivarium,  292 
Volones,  271 
Volusia,  120 
Vomer,  264 
Vota,  238 
Voli  reus,  238 
Vntivi  ludi,246 
Vulcanalia,  107,  242 
Vulcanus,  107,  108 
Vulpiuui  combustio, 

112 
Vulsella,  263 
Vulturius,  101 


Zepliyrus,  116, 128 
Zona.  266 


GEOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 


Abana,  50 
Mulera,  21 
Absvnthi.  or  Apsynthi, 

•21 
Abydos,  \tl,  47 
\byla,  9,  57 
Abyssinia,  55 
Acarnama,  24,  26 
Ace,  or  Aco,  50 
Acliaia.  34 
Acharnae,  28 
Achelous,  21,26,41 
Acheron,  25 
Acidalia  (Count),  27 
Aciris,  13 
Acradina,  40 

Acritas  Prom.  33 

Acro-Ceraunla,  24 

Acro-Ceraunii,  Mon- 
ies, 21,22.24 

Acro-Corinlhus,  34 

Acte,  28 

Actiuni,  26 

Actinni  Prom.  25.  26 

Adraiiiytiiuin,  47 

Adrianopolis,  21 

Adrumelum,  57 

Afinlis,  55 

Mn,  46,  135 

JEdui,  6 

jEgaiies  or  ^Egates,  41 

aSgteum  Mare,  21 

JEge,  34 

.dEgina',  34,  42 

JEgissa  or  ^Egissus,  8 

vEgium,  34 

iEgos  Potamos,  21 

JSgtlsa,  41 

.Egypti  torrens,  53 

JEgyptus,  53 

JElanites  sinus,  53 

jEnone,  42 

/Enos,  21 

/•'.nils.  7 

iEolise  Insnlae,  41 

.Ecdis  or  jEolia,  47 

yKstuarium  Itunae,  40 

/Ethiopia,  55 

A2thria,«2 

/Etna, 41 

/Etolia,  26 

Africa,  53 

Inferior,  57 
Propria,  56 

Aganippe,  27 

Agathyrsi,  5 

Agrigentum,  41 

Agylla,  10 

Alahanda,48 

Alani,  46 

Alba  Longa,  11,  225 

Albania,  48 

Albania?  Pylw,  46 

Albanus  Lacus,  1 1 

Albis,  6 

Albulns  Lacus,  11 
Albiirnus,  13 
Aleria,  40 
Alesia,  6 

Alexandria,  48,  54 
Alfenia?,  12 
Milium,  11 


Allemanni,  5 

Alh.-i,  11 

Allobroges,  6 

Alos,  24 

Alpes,  Graiae,  &c,  7 

Alpheus,  34 

Ahis,  34 

Amanus,  48 

Amardus,  44 

Amasia,  47 

Ambracia,  25 

Ambracius  Sinus,  21 

Amida,  46 

Amisus,  47 

Amiternum,  11 

Amphipolis,  22 

Amphissa,  26 

Ainpiiryssus,  24 

Ampsagus,  57 

Amsanctus,  12 

Amyclae,  36 

Anactoriiim,  26 

Anaiuiirium,  49 

Ana plie,  42 

Anapus,  40 

Anas,  9 

Anchesmus,  25,28 

Anemia,  10 

Ancyra,  48 

Andros,  42 

Angli,  5 

Anio,  10,  II 

Antbela,  27 

Anticyra,  27 

Anti-Libanus,  50 

Anliochia,  4b,  50 
in  Pisuha,48 
in  Syria,  50 

Antirrhiuni,  25 

Annum,  11 

Anxur,  1 1 

Aous,  24 

Apainea,  48 

on  Rhyndacus,  47 
on  Marsyas,  48 
on  Oronles,  50 

Apheiae,  24 

Apia,  34 

Apollonia,20,  22,  56 

Apulia,  12 

Aqua;  Sexiis,  6 

Aquileia,  9 

Aquinum,  11 

Aquiiani,  6 

Aqnitania,  6 

Arabia,  53 

Arabicus  Sinus,  53 

Arachosia,  44 

Aractlms,  25 

Aracvntlius,  26 

Aragus,  46 

Arar,  7 

Ararat,  44,  46 

Araxes,  or  Phasis,  46 

Araves,  44 

Arbela,  53 

Arbili  Monies,  44 

Arcadia,  34 

Arcati  Regio,  43 

Ardea,  11 

Arduenna  Sylva,  7 

Aretbon,25 

Arevaci,  8 


Argoeus  Mons,  48 

Argia,  34 

Argos,  in  Argolis,  34 

Ainphilochius,  26 
Aria,  44,46 
Aria  P. Ins,  41 
Arimathea,  51 
Ariminum,  10 
Armenia,  46 
Armorica,  6 
Arnus,  10 
Arpi,  12 
Arpinum,  11 
Arsacidae,  44 
A  rsiime,  5'i,  54,  56 
Arsissa  Pains,  46 
Artabrum  Prom.  9 
Artacoana,  16 
Anaxata,  46 
Artemisium,  42 
Arzi,  46 
Ascra,  27 
Asculum,  10,  12 
Asia,  43 
Asia  Minor,  46 
Asinarius,  41 
Aspendus,  48 
Asplialtiles  Lacus    51, 

52 
Assyria,  53 
Astabnras,  55 
Atalanta,  27 
Aternum,  13 
Athenaeum  Prom.  12 
Athesis,  10 
At  bos,  22 
Alum  in,  13 

Atlanticus  Oceanus,  57 
Atlantis,  57 
Atlas,  57 
Atropalene,  44 
Alropatia,  44 
Attica,  2B 
Autidus,  12,  13 
Augusta  Emerita,  9 

Taurinorum,  9 

Vindelicorum,  7 
Augustodunum,  6 
Aulis,  27,  42 
Aurea  Chersonesus,  3, 

43 
Ausonia,  9 
Auxume,  55 
Aventinus,  &c.,  15 
Avernus  Lacus,  12 
Axius,  22 

B. 

Babylonia,  52 
Bactra,  46 
Bactriana,  46 
Bstica,  8,  9 
Bfctis,  9 
Bagdat,  52 
Bagradas,  57 
Baiae,  12 

Baleares  Instils,  40 
Barce,  56 
Barium,  13 
Balanites  Mons,  54 
Basilicata,  13 
Bastarnicae  Alpes,  8 
Basluli,  9 


Batavi,  6 
Bebrycia,  47 
Belgae,  6 
Belgica,  7 
Benacus,  10 
Beneventum,  12 
Beroea,  50 
Berenice,  53,  54,  56 
Berylus,  50 
Bethel,  51 

Bethesda  (pool),  51 
Bethlehem,  51 
Bethsaida,  50 
Bethsan,  51 
Bibracte,  6 
Bilbilis.8 
Bithynia,  47 
Boeotia,  27 
Boii,  10 
Boium,  26 
Bononia,  10 
Boryslhencs,  5,  6 
Bosphorus,  6,  20,21 
Bozra,  52 
Bradauus,  13 
Brauron,  28 
Brigaiites,  :<8 
Briga minus  Lacus,  t 
Britannia,  38 
Brivates  Portus,  6 
Brixia,  9 

Brundusium,  13,  16 
Bruttia-tellus,  13 
Bruilii,  13 
Brnttium,  13 
Hura,  34 
Buthrotiim,  25 
Biixentum,  13 
Byrsa,  56 
Byzantium,  20 

C. 

Cabira,48 
i  ladonea,  27 
Caere,  10 

Caesarea,  7,  51,  57 
C'aesarea  Augusta,  9 

ad  Argaeum,  48 

Philippi,  50 
Caieta,  11 
Calabria,  13,  14 
Calahria-cilra,  13 
Calagurris,  8 
Calaris,  40 
Calauria,  42 
Calle,  8 

Callipolis,  13,21 
Calor  (fl.),  12 
Calpas,  47 
Calpe,  9,  57 
Calycadnus,  48 
Calydon,  26 
Cainbunii  Montcs,  21 

22,  24 
Cainerinuni,  10 
Camicus,  41 
Campania,  11 
Camyrus,  42 
Cana,  47 
Canes,  50 
Canaria,  57 
Cannae.  13 

31* 


320 


GEOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


Canopicum  Ostium, 

&c,  54 
Cantabri,  9 
Canlii,  38 
Canusium,  13 
Capernaum,  50 
Caphareus,  42 
Capitolinus,  Ate.  16 
Cappadocia,  48 
Caprea,  40 
Capsa,  57 
Capua,  11 
Oarambis,  47 
Oaranibiicis,  3 
Cardia,  2] 
Carduchi,  53 
Caiductii  Montes,  46 
Caria,  48 
Carmania,  44 
Carmel,  50 
Cami,  9 
Carpates,  8 
CarpathuB,  42 
Carpliia,  -26 
Carrhae,  52 
Carteia,  9 
Carthago,  56 
Carthago  Nova,  8 
Carystus,  42 
Casia  Regio,  3,  43 
Casilinmn,  1 1 

Caspian  Pyla?,  46 

Caspium  Mare,  6,  44 

Cassandria,  22 

Cassiterides,  38,40 

Castalia,27 

Castrum  Minervae,  13 

Catabathmus,  54 

Catti,  5 

('aucasus,  46 

Caudinse  Furculae,  12 

( 'aiiiliiiin,  12 

('anion,  15 

Cayster,  47 

Cebenna,  7 

Cecropia,  28 

Cells,  6 

Celtiberi,  R 

Celtica,  6 

Celticum,  rJ 

Cenchreae,  34 

Cenomanni,  9 

Centum  Cellae,  10 

Ceos,  42 

Oephalenia,  41 

Cephissus,  26,  27,  28 

Ceramicus,28,  32 

Cerasus,  47 

( lerbalus,  13 

Certa,  57 

Chabens,  43 

Chseronea,  27 

Chalcedon,  47 

Chalcidice,  '22 

Chalci8,22,  26,  42 

Chaldaea,  52 

Chalybes,  47 

Chalybon,  50 

(  haunia,  'it,  25 

Charran,  52 

i  lharybdis,  13 

Chelnnites,  33 

Chersonesus    Cimbri 
ca,  5 
Aurea,3,  43 
Taurica,  5 
Thraciae,  20 

Cherusci,  5 

Chimera,  48 

Chios,  42 

Choaepes,  44 

Chrysoceras,  20 
ChryBopolis,  47 
Cli-ysorrluias,  50 


Cichyrus,  25 
Cicones,  21 
Cilicia,  48 
Cimbri,  5 
Cimmericus  Bospho- 

rus,  6,  46 
Cimmerii,  46 
Cimmerium,  12 
Circeii,  11 
Cirrha,  27 

Cisalpina  Gallia,  6,  9 
Cispadann,  9 
Cissa,  21 
Cithaeron,26,  28 
Citium,  53 
Clanius,  12 
Clazomenae,  47 
Clusium,  10 
CI y pea,  57 
Cnemis,  27 
C nid us,  48 
Cocytus,  25 
Codanua  Sinus,  6 
Coele-Syria,  or 

Cnelo-Syria,  50 
Coelius,  16 
Colchis,  46 
Coll  is  horlulnrum,  16 
Colonia  Patricia,  9 
Colophon,  47 
Colossae,  48 
Comagene,  50 
Comana,  48 
Comaria,  43 
Comata,  7 

C plutum,  8 

Comuin,  10 
Cnnsentia,  13 
Constantinopolis,  20 
Copais  I.acus,  27 

Coptos,  54 

Coracesium,  48 
Coras,  26 

Corcyra,  41 

Corduha,  9 

Corfinium,  10 

Corinthia,  34 

Corinthiacus  Sinus,2] 
25 

Corinthus,  34 

Corioli,  11 

Coronea,  27 

Corsica,  40 

Corycus,  47 

Cos,  42 

Cosetani,  8 

Cotiaris,  3,  43 

Cottiae,  7 

Cragns,  48 

('rallies,  15 

Crernasle,  24 

Cremera,  11 

Cremna,  48 

Cremona,  9 

Creta,  43 

Creusa,27 

Crimisus,  41 

Crissa,27 

Crissaeus  Sinus,  25 

Criu-Metopon,  5,  47 

Cronium,  34 

Crotona,  13 

Crustumerium,  11 

Ctesiphon,  46 

Cumae,  12 

Cunaxa,  52 

Cures,  11 

Curetes,  43 

Curia,  7 

Custulo,  9 

Cyclades,  42 

Cyclnus,  48 

Cydonia,  43 

Cyllene  Mons,34 


Cynocephali,  124 
Cynos,  27 
Cynos  Cephale,  24 
Cynthus  Mons,  42 
Cyprus,  53 
Cyrenaica,  56 
Cyrene,  56 
Cyrnos,  40 
Cyropolis,46 
Cyrus,  44,  46 
Cythera, 41 
Cythus,  42 
Cylinium,  26 
Cyzicus,  47 

D. 

Daci,  8 
Dacia,  8 
Dactyli,  43 
Dalmatia,  8 
Damascus,  50 
Danapris,  5 
Danubius,  7 
Daphne,  50 
Dardania,  8 
Daunia,  12 
Decapolis,  51 
Decelia,28 
Delium,  27 
Delos,  42 
Delphi,  27 
Delphinum,  28 
Delta,  54 
Demetrias,  24 
Derbe,  48 
Deserta  Libya?,  57 
Dindymus,  48 
Dioclea,  8 
Diospolis,  51,  54 
Dirce  Mons,  28 
Dodona,95 
Dolonei,  21 
Dorion,  24 
Doris,  26 
Doriscus,  21 
Drangiana,  44 
Drepanum,  41 
Drilo,  22 

Dromus  Achillei,  6 
Dryopes,  26 
Dulichium,  41 
Dnranius,  7 
Durius,  8,  9 
Dyme,  34 
Dyrrachium,  22 

F.bal,  51 
Eboracum,  38 
Ebusus,  40 
Echatana,  44 
Echinades,  41 
Edessa,  22,  52 
Edetani,  8 
Edonis,  22 
Egnatia,  13 
Eion,21 
Elataea,27 
Elaver,  7 
Elea,  13,  47 
Elephantine,  54 
Eleusis,  28 
Eleutheropolis,  51 
Elis,  34 
Elymais,  44 
Elymander,  44 
Emathia,  22 
Emesa,  50 
Emmaus,  5.1 
Ephesus,  47 
Ephyra,  25,  34 
Epidainnus,  22 
EpidauruB,  8,34 
EpipoiEe,  40 


Epirus,  21,  24 
Equotuticum,  12 
Eretria,  42 
Eridanus,  9,  10 
Erigon,  22 
Erineum,  26 
Eiymanthus  Mons,  34 
Erythras,  47 
Erythraeuin  Mare,  44 
Erytopolis,  36 
Etruria,  10 
Euboea,  42 
Evenus,  26 
Euganei,  9 
Eupatoria,  47 
Euphrates,  48 
Euripus,  25,27,  42 
Europa,  4 
Eurotas,  36 
Eurymedon,  48 
Euxinus,  5,  21 
Exploratio  ad  Mer- 

ri  u  m,  57 
Ezion-Geber,  53 

F. 

Falerii,  10 

Falisci,  10 

Fidense,  11 

Flanaticus  Sinus,  7 

Flavia  Caesariensis,  4C 

Florentia,  10 

FormiEe,  11 

FortunaiaB  Insulae,  3, 57 

Forum  Julii,  6 

Fossa  Trajani,  54 

Fretum  Fossae,  40 
Gaditanum,  or 
Herculeum,  9 
Siculu.m,  40 

Frisii,  5 

Fucinus  Lacus,  10 

G. 

Gabara,  50 
Gabii,  11 
Gadara,  50,  52 
Gades,  9 
Gaetulia,  57 
Galatia,6,  7,48 
Galesus,  13 
Galilaea,  50 
Gallia,  6 

Gallorum  Portus,  8 
Gamala,  52 
Ganges,  43 
Gangeticus  Sinus,  43 
(Jangra,  48 
Garamantes,  57 
Garganus,  12 
Gargarus,  47 
Garumna,  0,  7 
Gaugamela.  53 
Gaulon,  52 
Gaulos,  41 
Gaza,  44,  52 
Gedrosia,  44 
Geloni,  5 
Genua,  10 
Gera,  52 
Geraestus,  42 
Geranii  Montes,  29 
Gerizim,  51 
Germania,5,  6 

Inferior,  7 

Superior,  7 
Germanicus    Oceani. 

cus,  6 
Getae,  8 
Glaucus,  river,  48 

Sinus,  48 
Glycys  I, linen,  25 
Gnossus,  43 


GEOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


321 


Gohajum  Prom.  6 
Go  on  phi,  24 
Gounus,  24 
Gordium,  48 
Gortynia,  43 
Goshen,  54 
Graecia,  20,  21 
Graecia  Propria,  25 
Granicus,  47 
Grunientum,  13 
Gyarus,  42 
Gyrtona.  21 
Gytheum,  36,38 

H. 

Hadriaticum  Mare,  21 

Hadrunientuin   or 
Adruinetum,  57 

Haenms,  8,  20,21,22 

Halcyoneum  Mare,  25 

Halesus  (river),  47 

Haliacmoti,  22 

Halicarnassus,  48 

Halonnesus,  42 

Halys,  47 

Hamaxobii,  5 

Hebrus,  21 

Hebrides,  or  Ebudae,  10 

Hecatompylns,  44.  51 

Helena,  42 

Helice,  34 

Helicon,  26,27 

Helissus,  34 

Hellas,  21,25 

Hellespontus,  21 

Heliopolis,  50,  55 

Helorus,  41 

Helos,  36 

Helvetii,  6 

Hephaestia,  42 

Heptanomia,  54 

HepUpylos,  27 

Heraclea,  13,21,  17 

Herculaneuin,  12 

Herculis  Coluinuae,  9, 

57 

Leburni  Portus,  10 

Monoeci  Pnrtua,  10 

Promontorium,  15 

Hercynia  Sylva,  5,  8 

Herdotiia,  12 

Hermiones.  5 

Herinon,  50 

Hermundurii,  5 

Hermus,  47 
(  Heroopolis,  54 

Heroopolites  Sin.  53 

Heruli,  5 

Hesperia,  8,  9 

Hesperides,  56 

Hesperidum,  Insulae,  4, 
57 

Hesperis,  56 

Hexapolis,  26 

Mibernia,  40 

Hierapolis,  50 

Hier<>solyina,51 

Himera  (town),  41 

Hiniera  (river),  41 

Hippo,  13 

Hippo  Regius,  57 

Hippocrene,  26,  27 

Hirpini,  12 

Hispalis,  9 

Hiapania,  8 

Histria,  10 

Horeb,  53 

1 1  v<l  rii^n  inn,  13 

Hymettus,  26,  28 

Hypanis,  6 

Hypata,  21 

Hyperborei,  3 

Flyrcania,  44 

Hvrcanium  Mare,  46 


I. 

Iberia,  8,  46 
Iberus,  9 
[caria,  12 
Iceni,  38 
lchniisa,  40 
Iconium,  48 
[da,  43,  4fi 
Idumea,  52,  53 
Ierne  or  Hibernia,  40 
Ilerda,  8 
Ilergetes,  8 
riissus,  28 
Ilium,  46 
Illvricum,  7,  8,21 
llva,  10 

Imaus  Mons,  3,  43 
Imbarus  Mons,  44 
Imbrus,  12 
Inachus,  34 
India,  43 
Indus,  13 
Insubres,  9 
Insula  ante  Tapro- 

banam,  4 

Hesperidum,  4 
Iolchoa,  24 
Ionia,  47 

Ionium  Mare,  21,  25 
los,  42 
Iris,  17 
Isaitr.-E,  48 
Isauria,  48 
Ismenus,  27 
tssus,  48 

Ister  (Danube),  7,  8 
Istria,  S,  10 
Isurium,  38 
Itahyrius,  51 
ilalia,  9 
Italica,  9 
Ithaca,  41 
Ithoiue,36 


Jabadii  Insula,  3,  53 
Janiculum,  16 
Japygia,  12 
Japygium  Prom.  13 
Jaxartes,  46 
Jezreel,  50 
Joppa, 51 
Jordan,  52 
Jotapata,  50 
Judsea,  50 
.1  til  is  Alpes,  7 
Junonis  Promont.  9 


K. 


Kibora, 8 


Lacinium,  15 
Laconia,  36 
Laconicua  Sin.  36 
Ladon,  34 
Lagaria,  13 
Lamia,  24 
Lampsacus,  47 
Laodicea,  48 
Lapithae,  24 
Larisaa,  24 
I.arius,  10 
Latium,  11 
LatoimSB,  40 
Laurentum,  11 
Lauriua  Mons,  26 
Laua,  13 
Laus  Sinus,  13 
Lavinium,  11 
Lebed&a,  27 
Lechaeuiii,  34 
I,elege».  47 
Leleg'k.  186 


Lemnniis  Lacus,  6 
Lemania  Porlus,  38 
Lemnos,  42 
Lemovices,  6 
Leontes,  50 
Leontium,  41 
Leptia  Magna,  56 
Lesbos,  42 
Lesaua,  21 
Lethe,  25 
Leucadia,  41 
Leucas,  25,20, 41 
Leucate,  26,  41 
Leucopetra,  13,  41 
Leuctra,  27 
Libanus,  50 
I.iIihi  nia,  7,  8 
Libya,  55,  57 
Liliyssa,  17 
Liger,  6,  7 
Ligures,  10 
Ligtiaticus  Sinus,  10 
Ligustides,  7 
Lilaeuni,  26 
Lilybaeum,  40,  41 
Lindus,  42 
Lingonea,  10 
I.ipara,  II 
Liris,  10,  11 
Liternum,  12 
Locri    Epicnemidii, 
Opuntii,  Ozolae, 
26,27 
Locria,  26 
Londinum,  38 
Longnbardi,  5 
Lotophagi,  56 
Lucania,  13 
Luceria,  12 
Lucrinus  Lacus,  12 
Lugdunensis,  6 
Lugdunum,  6 

I a,  10 

Luna?  Montes,  4,  54 
Luaitania,  8,  9 
Lutetia,  6 
Lycaonia,  48 
Lyraeus  Mons,  36 
Lychnidua,  22 
Lycia,  18 
Lvcus,  47,  48 
Lydda,  51 
Lydia,  47 
Lvdias,  22 
I/prnessus,  47 
Lysimacbia,  21 
Lystra,  48 

M. 

Macedonia,  21 

Macoraba,or  Mecca,  53 

Macra,  10 

Madytos,  21 

Maeander,  47 

Maenalus  Mons,  36 

Mreonia,  47 

Maeotia  Pains,  3,  6 

Magna  Graecia,  11 

Magnesia,  24,  48 

Magnum    Promonto- 
rium, 43 

Magnus  Sinus,  43 

Makrinoros,  26 

Malea,  33,  36 

Maleventum,  12 

Malia,  24 

Maliacus  Sinus,  21,24, 
25 

Mandubii,  6 

Mantinea,  31 

Maniua.  9 

Maracanda,  46 

Marathon,  28 

Marcianopolis,  S 


Marcomanni,  5 
Mardii.  41 
Mardus,  44 
Mareotis,  54 
Mariana,  40 
Mai  itimae  Alpes,  7 
Marmarica,  56 
Marrubium,  lo 
Marsi,  10 
Marsyas,  18 
Masiua  Mnna,  46 
Maasaesyii,  57 
Massilia,  Be,  6,  7 
Massyli,  57 
Matinorum  opp'u  um, 

10 

Mauritania,  57 

Maxima    Caesariensia 
40 

Mazaca,  18 

Meatae,  :<* 

Media,  41 

Mediolanum,  6,  9 

Megalopolis,  34,  47 

Megara,  28 

Megaris,  28 

Melania  Sinus,  21 

Mels.8,  20,  21 

Melibcea,  24 

Melite,  41 

M. -los,  42 

Melpus,  13 

Memphis,  54 

Menapii,  7 

Menuihiaa,  4 

Mercurii  Promonto- 
rium, 57 

Meroe,  55 

Meaembria,  20 

Mesopotamia,  52 

Meaaana,  )  1 

Meaaapia,  13 

Measene,  36 

Messenia,  36 

Messeniacua  Sinus,  36 

Meatus,   i    q.    Meatus 
20,  21 

Metaponlum,  13 

Metaurua,  10 

Methone,  22,  36 

Methymna,  42 

Miletiis,  17 

Mimas,  47 

Mincius,  10 

Mmturnae,  11 

Miaenum,  12 

Mitylene,  42 

Mceris,  54 

Mojsia,  8 

Moloaaia,  24.25 

Mona  Cssaria,  4o 
Taciti,  40 

Munda,9 

Munychia,  33 

Muri  Veteres,  8 

Murina,  12 

Musaetia,  28 

Mutina,  10 

Mycale,  47 

MycetiB,  34 

Myconua,  42 

Mynahormtia,  54 

Myrtoum  Mare,  25,  2f 

Mj  'sia,  17 

N. 
Naissus,  8 
Mapata,  55 
Mar,  III 

Narbo  Ma.  this,  6,  7 
Marbonensis,  6,  7 
Narisci,  5 
Naryx,  27 
Manioc  bus,  41 


322 


GEOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


Naupactns,  26 
Nau pi ia.  34 
Naxos,  42 
Nazareth,  50 
Neaethes,  15 
Neapolis,  12,  40,  51 
Nemausii8,  6 
Nemea,  34 
Neritus,  41 
Nervii," 
Neryx,  15 
NeslMs,i.  q.Nessus,20, 

21 
Nicsea,  10,  47     ' 
Nicomedia,  47 
Nicopolis,  8,26,48 
N  iger,  57 
Nigrita?.  57 
Nilus,  54 
Ninus,  52 
Niphates,  46 
Nisaea,  27,  44 
Nisibis,52 
Nisyrus,  98 
Nola,  12 

Nnnacris  Mons,  36 
Noricre  Allies,  7 
Noricmii,  7 
Noli  Cornu,  4 
Novus,  48 
N  ubia,  55 
Numantia,  8 
Numidia,  57 
NynipliKiiiii,  22 

O. 

Oil  sis.  55,  56 
Ocha,  42 
Ochus,  44 
Oilessns,  8 
CEa,  56 
CEbalia,  188 
rEchalia,  36 
tEnotria,  9 
CEta,21,  24 
(Mentis,  34 
Olisippo,  9 
Olympia,  34 
Olympus,  24,  40,  47 
Ofvnlhns,  22 
Oiiilii.  54 
Oncius  Mons,  26 
Onion,  51 
Opuntii,  27 

Opuntins  Sinus,  25,  27 
Opus,  27 

Orbelus  Mons,  22 

Orcadea,  40 

Orchomenus,  27,  34 

Orestis,24 

Oreus,  42 

Oricutn,  24 

Orontes,  44,  50 

Oropus,  28 

Orospeda,  8 

Orouros,  50 

Orlygia,  40 

Ossa,  24 

Ostia,  11 

Otlirys  Mons,  24 

OXUS,  14,  46 

Oxyrynchus,  54 

P. 

Pachynum,  or 
Pachynus,  40 
Pactolus   17 
Padus,  9,  K) 
Paediim,  11 
Peeonia,  22 
Prestanus  Sinus,  13 
Pa'sluin,  13 
Pagasa 
Pagas<PUS  Sinus,  24 


Paloestina.  50 
Pallene,  22 
Paluivra,  50 
Paniphylia,  48 
Pancisus.  36 
Pandosia,  13 
Paniraeus  Mons,  21 
Pannonia,  7 
Panormus,  41 
Pantieapaeum,  5 
Paphlagonia,  47 
Paphos,  53 
Parisii,6 
Parma,  10 
Parnassus,  26,  27 
Parnes,  26,  28 
Paropamisus,  44 
Paros,  42 
Parrhasii,  34 
Parrhasius,36 
Parllienias  (river),  47 
Parthenius,  36 
Parthenope,  12 
Part hia,  44 

Parueti  Monies,  43,  44 
Pasargada,  44 
Passaro,  25 
Patara,  48 
Patavium,  9 
Patnios,  42 
Patrae,34 

Pausilypus,  12 
Pelasgi,  24 
Pelasgia,  34 
Pelasgicus  Sinus,  24 

Pelasgiotis,  24 

Peli»ni,  10 

Pelion.  24 

Pella,  22 

Pellene,  34 

Peloponnesus,  21 

Pelorum,  or  Pelorus,40 

Peneus,  24,  34 

Penninae,  7 

Pentapolis,  56 

Penlelicus,  26,  28 

Peraea,  52 

Perga,  48 

Pergamus,  46,  47 

Perinlhus,  21 

Persepolis,  44 

Persia,  43 

Persicus  Sinus,  44,  53 

Persis,  44 

Perusia,  10 

Pesaurum,  10 

Pessinus,  48,  94 

Pelilia,  13 

Peira,  53 

Phaeacia,  41 

Phalacrum  Prom.  41 

Phalerum,  33 

Fharae,  34 

Pharos,  54 

Pharsalia,  24 

Pharsalus.  21 

Phasis,  46 

Plierae,  24 

Phigalia,  34 

Pliilaenorum  Ara3,56 

Philippi,22 

Phili9tea,  52 

Phiegethon,  25 

Phlegra,22 

Phlegraei-campi,  12 

Phocaea,  6 
Phocis,  26,27 
Phoenicia,  50 
Phrygia  Major,  48 
Minor,  46 

Phylace,  24 

Phyle,  or  Pilule,  28 
Picenum,  10,  12 

Pictones,6 


Pieria.  22 
Piinpla,  27 
Pincius, 16 
Pindus,  21,24,  25,  26 
Pindus  (fl.)  26 
Pindus  (town),  26 
Pirseus,  33 
Pisa.  10,34 
Pisidia,  48 
Pistoria,  10 
Placentia,  10 
Plataea,  27 
Platanistas,  38 
Platanius,  27 
Plemmvrium,  40 
Plistus,  27 
Plotae,  41 
l'ceni,  9 

Polytimetus,  46 
Pompeii,  12 

Pons  MV\\,  40 

Pontus,  8,  47 

Porphvra?,41 

Posidonia,  13 

Potidaea,  22 

Praeneste,  11 

Prasum  Prom.  4 

Priene,  47 

Prochyta,  40 

Proconnesus,  53 

Propontis,  21,  47 

Prusa,  47 

Psylli.  56 

Ptolemais,  or  Aco,  50 

Ptolemais,  56 

Puteolanus  Sinus,  12 

Puteoli,  12 

Pvdna,  22 

Pylos,  36 

Pyxus,  13 

CI. 

Quadi,  5 

Quirinalis  Mons,  16 
Quiriuin,  16 

R. 

Ragae,  44 
Ragusa,  8 
Ravenna,  10 
Reale,  11 

Regillus  Lacus,  11 
Rha,  5 

Rhaeteuin,  47 
Rhaetia,  7 
Rhamnus,  28 
Rhedones,  6 
Rhegium,  13 
Rhenus,  6,7 
R hium,  25 
Rhium  Prom.  33 
Rhodanus,  7 
Rhodope,  21,22 
Rhodus,  42 
Rhvndacus,  47 
Rhype,  34 
Riduna.  7 
Roma,  15,  119 
Rubeas,  3 
Rubicon,  10 
Rubricatus,  57 
Ruderp,  13 
Rutuli,  11 
Rutupiae,  38 


Saliasi,  53 
Sabatus,  12 
Sabini,  10 
Sabrata,  56 

Sacae,  46 
Sacer  Mons,  11 
Sacrum  Prom.  9,  48 
Sagunlum,  8 


Sais,  54 
Salamis,  42,  53 
Salapia,  12 
Salernum,  12 
Salice,  3 
SalinydessuS;  20 
Salona,  8 
Salves,  6 
Samaria.  51 
Same,  41 
Saninis,  12 
Samnites,  12 
Samnium,  12 
Samoa,  42 

Sa sata,  50 

Samotliracia,  42 
Sangarius,  48 
Santones,  6 
Santonum  Portus,  6 
Saplirae,  5 
Sardinia,  40 
Sardis,  47 
Sarmatia,  5,  46 
Samia,  7 
Sarnua,  12 
Saronicus    Sinus,    21 

25,28 
Saturnia,  9,  91 
Satyrorum  Insula1,  3 
Promontorium,  3 
Sauromatae,  5 
Savus,  8 
Saxones,  5 
Scamander,  46 
Scanda,  41 
Scandinavia,  5 
Scheria,  41 
Sciathos,  42 
Scopelos,  42 
Scordisci,  8 
Scoiussa,  24 
Scylacium,  15 
Scylla,  13 
Scyllaeum,  13,  33 
Scyros,  42 
Scythia,  43 
Sebaste,  48,  51 
Sebethus,  12 
Segedunum,  40 
Segovia,  8 
Seausiani,  6 

Seir,  52 

Seleucia,  48,  52 

Seleucis,  50 

Selinus,  41,  48 

Sellasia,  36 

Belymbria,  21 

Senna  Gallica,  10 

Senones,  10 

Senus,  3,  43 

Se|)ias,  24 

Sephoris,  50 

Sequana,  6,  7 

Sequani,  6  ( 

Sera,  3,  43 

Serica,  43 

Seriphus,  42 

Serus,  43 

Sestos,  21 

Sicambri,  5 

Sicilia,  40 

Sicyon,  34 

Sicyonia,  34 

Sidon,  50 

Sigeeum,  47 

Silarus,  11,  13 

Siloam,  52 

Siluref.  38 

Simaethus,  41 

Simois,  46 

Sinae,3,  43 

Sinai,  53 

Sine.'iicus  Sinus,  S3 

Singidunum,  8 


GEOGRAPHICAL    IXDEX. 


323 


Si  nope,  47 
Binuessa,  II 
Sion,  or  Zion,  51 
Biphnua,  42 
Sipontum,  12 
Sipylus,  Mt.  47 
Birbonia  Pains,  53 
Sii  mjiiiii.  7 
8iznpiilis,  20 
Smyrna,  47 
Socamia,  44 
Bogdiana,  46 
Boli,  18,53 
Bolymi,  48 
Soracte  Moris,  10 
Spalatro,  8 
Sparta,  36 
Sparli,  36 
Spauta  Lacus,  44 
Sphacteria,  41 
Sphagiae,  41 
Spoleiium,  10 
Sporadea,  42 
Siahia;,  12 
Stagira,  22 
Strechades,  7 
Stratus,  26 
Stratonicea,  48 
Strongyle,  41 
Strophadea,  11 

Btrymon,  20,  21 
Slrymonicus  Sinus, 

21,22 
Stymphaei,  21.  22 
Styinphalus,  34 
Btymphe,  25 
Styx,  25,  36 
Surssu  Pometia,  11 
Suevi,  5 
Bulmo,  10 
Sunium,  25.  28 
Surreiitiniiui  Prom.  12 
Surrentum,  12,  126 
Susa,  44 
Susianna,  44 
Sybaris,  13,  15 
Sybaris  (fl.),  13 
Syene,  54 
Syracuse,  40 
Syrennusre,  126 
Syria,  48 
Syriae  Pylae,  48 
Byrtica  Regio,  56 
Byrlis,  55,  56 


T»bor,  51 


T. 


Tabraca,  57 
Taenarum,  33,  36 
Tagua,  9 
Tanagra,  27 
Tanagrii8orTenagrus, 

13 

Tanaia,  5.  6 
Tanaia  Emporium,  6 
Tamassus,  53 
Taphiassu8,  26 
Taprobane,  3,  53 
Tarbelli,  6 

Tarentinue  Sinus,  16 
Tarentum,  13 
Tarraco,  8 
Tarraconensis.  8 
Tarsus,  48 
Tartessus,  9 
Tauri,  5 
Taurini,  9 

Taurus  Mons,  46,  48 
Tavium,  48 
Taygetus.  36 
Teaiiutn,  11,  12 
Tegea.  34 
Telinessus,  48 
Tempe,  24 
Tenedos,  42 
Tenos,  42 
Tentyra,  54 
Tens",  47 
Tergesle,  10 
Termessus,  48 
Terina.  13 
Terinaeus  Sinus,  13 
Telrapolia,  26,  41 
Teutonea,  5 
Thapaacus,  50 
Thapsua,  57 
Thasua,2l,  42 
TheliEB,  24,  27,  54 
Tbebais,  51 
Thebarma,  44 
Themiscyra,  47 
Theodosia,  5 
Thera,  42 
Therapne,  36 
Thermae,  22 
Thermaicus  Sinus,  22 
Thennodon,  47 
Thermopylae,  21,  25,  27 
Thermus,  26 
Th.'spise,  27 
Theaprotia,  24,25 
Thessalia,  21,  22 
Thessalonica,22 
Thracia,  20 


Thraciae  Chersonesus, 

20 

Thracius  Boapborus, 

47 
Thrasymene  Lacus,  10 
Thronium,  27 
Thule,  3,  40 
Thurium,  13 
Ttlyamis,  25 
Thyalira,  47 
Tbymbra,47 
Tb'vnae,  3,  43 
Thy  n i,  20 
Thynia,  20 
Tiberias,  50,52 
Tiberia,  10,11,119 
Tibur,  11 
Ticinum,  9 
Ticinua,  9, 10 
Tigranocerta,  46 
Tigris.  44,  46 
Timolus,  47 
Tingis,  57 
Tingitana,  57 
Tirynthus,  34 
Togata  (iallia,  9 
Toletum,  8 
■pomarus,  25 
T'lui,  8 

T'ironaicus  Sinus,  22 
Torrena  Egypti,  53 
Trachis,  24 
Trajanopolis,  21 
Transalpina  Gallia,  6 
Transpadana,  9 
Trapezua,  47 
Treveri,  7 
Trichoma  Lacus,  26 
Tricola,  41 
Tridentum,  7,  9 
Trinarria,  40 
Trinobantes,  3S 
Tripolitana,  56 
Triquelra,  40 
Tritsca,  34 
Trilonis  Lacus,  56 
Trixicum,  12 
Troas,  46 
Trocmi,  48 
Troezene,  34 
Troglodyte?, 55 
Troj.i  or  Ilium,  46 
Tuneta  or  Tunes,  57 
Turris  Stratonices,  151 
Tusculum,  11 
Tvana,  48 
Tycha,  40 


Tyr*.^,  6 
Tyrrheni,  10 
Tyrrhenum  Mare,  13 
Tyrua,  50 

Tysdrus,  56 

U. 

Uhii,7 
Uliarius,  7 
Umbria,  10 
Uria,  12 
Urius  sinus,  12 
Dtica,  57 
Uxantia  Insula,  7 
Dxellodunum,  6 

V. 
Vaga,  57 
Valentia,  13,40 
Vascones,8 
Vectia,  40 
Veii,  10 
Vejentes,  11 
Velia,  13 
Venafrum,  11 
Veneris  Portus,  54 

Veueti,  9 

Venusia,  13 
Verbanua  Lacus,  10 
Vergellus,  13 
Verona,  9 
Vesuvius,  12 
Viadrua,  u 
Vibo,  13 
Vindelicia,  7 
Vindobona,  7 
Vistula,  6 
Vogeaua,  7 
Volcae.  6 
Volsci,  11 
Volsinii,  10 
Vulcatia,  42 
Vultur,  13 
Vultumus,  12 

X. 

Xanthus,  25,  46,  48 


Zacyntbus,  41 
Zagrns,s44 
Zama,  57 
Zariaapa,  46    # 
Zephyrium,  15 
Zion,51 
Zoar,  52 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Abraham,  69 

Abraxas.  124 

Absalom's  Pillar,  223 

Ahsynthians,  21 

Ausyrtus,  135 

Academy  of  Inscriptions,  17 

Achaia. constitution  and  league 
of,  75,  193 

Actions  or  soils  at  law,  166 

Actium,  battle  of,  71,77 

Actors,  theatrical,  176 

Admetus,  101 

Adonai,  106 

Adonis,  story  of,  106;  festival 
of,  169 

Adoption  among  Romans,  288 

Adoration,  origin  of  the  word, 
237 

Adrastia,  117 

Adultery,  punished  bv  Greeks, 
220;  bv  Romans,  260 

^Eacus,  100 

/Ecastor,  136 

SMepnl,  136 

/Ediles,  Roman,  249 

ffietes,  135 

aigis  of  Minerva,  101 

.-Elms  Potomos,  battle  of,  74 

JElurus.  124 

-Eolus,  116 

iEsculapius,  oracles  of,  166, 117 

iEtolia,  confederacy  of,  193 

Agamemnon,  137 

Ale,  respect  paid  to,  159 

Aglaia,  107 

Agriculture,  among  the  Greeks, 
158,  212;  among  the  Ro- 
mans, 264 

Ajax,  137 

Alabaster,  221 

Alaric,  master  of  Rome,  79,225 

Alban  mount,  283 

Alcesl#!  134 

Alcmseon,  136 

Alexander,  his  coffin,  221 

Aloides,  100 

Altars,  Grecian.  MS,  160;  Ro- 
man, 230;  Roman,  in  Eng- 
land, 230 

Amazons,  131 

America,  whether  known  to 
the  ancients,  57 

Amnion,  95,  165 

Amor,  or  Cupid,  106 

Amphiaraus,  temple  of,  28 

Amphictyon,  133 

Amphictynnic  Council,  183 

Ampliion,  102,  136 

Amphitheatres,  Roman,  216 

Amusements,  of  Greeks,  159, 
207,  214;  of  Romans,  242, 
217,  295 

Andromeda,  133 

Angels,  ministry  of,  a  source 
of  ancient  table,  84;  fallen, 
129 

Annual  Register,  or  Calendar 
at  Rome,  241 

Anointing,  158,209,210 

Antreus    131 

An  terns,  106 

kntimachus,  Greek  poet,  136 
321 


Antiochus  the  Great,  70 

Antipater,  177 

Antiquaries,  Society  of,  17 

Antiquities,  classical,  utility  of, 
143,  227 

Antony  and  Cleopatra,  77 

Anubis,  Egyptian  god,  124 

Apis,  123;  supposed  a  symbol 
of  Joseph,  124 

Apollo,  100;  Belvidere,  101; 
temples  of,  18,  101  ;  oracle 
of,  165 

Apollouius,  Rhodius,  150 

Apotheosis,  of  heroes,  133;  Ro- 
man emperors,  122,  137,304 

Apparel,  common,  157;  milita- 
ry, 154 

Aqueducts,  Roman,  19;  at  Spo- 
lelium,  10 

Arachne,  104 

Ararat,  Mt.,  ascended  by  Par- 
rot, 46 

Arbela,  battle  of,  70 

Arbitrators,  at  Athens,  186;  at 
Rome,  259 

Arches,  triumphal,  10,  19 

Archimedes,  tomb  of,  223 

Architecture  of  Greek  houses, 
158.210 

Archons,  151,  176,  177,  180 

Arcturus,  risins;  of  mentioned 
by  llesiod,  65 

Areopagus,  32,  177,  184 

Argonauts,  135;  sphere  made 
for  them,  by  Chiron,  64; 
pictures  of,  &c,  98 

Argos,  oracular  shrine  at,  dis- 
covered by  Clarke,  164; 
constitution  of,  193 

Ar«us,  ION 

Ariadne,  109,  135 

Armies,  Grecian,  153;  Roman, 
271  ;  attendants  of  Roman, 
277 

Armor,  ancient,  153,  194,  274 

Arsaces,  71 

Arsacidse,  71 

Artisans,  Roman,  263 

Arts,  magical,  240  ;  the  mecha- 
nical R. une.  263,  264 

Ashes  of  the  dead,  221 

Ashtaroth  or  Astarte,  106 

Assemblies,  of  the   Romans  or 

C itia,  257;  Greeks,  183, 

190 

Assyrian  empire,  69 

Astreea,  117 

Astrologers,  210 

Asylum,  privileges  of,  162 

Atel,  5 

Athens,  origin  of  name,  104; 
Citizens  of,  178  ;  govern- 
ment of,  151,  177  ;  political 
history,  72,  112,  151,  177; 
topography  of,  28,  178; 
magistrates  of,  180;  re- 
venues and  expenditures, 
181,  182;  senate  and  as- 
semblies, 183,  184 

Athletics,  Creek  system  of,  175 

Allanlides,  111,  131 

Atlas,  133,  131 

Atmosphere  personified,  94 


Atridae,  136 

Attila,  leader  of  the  Huns,  79 

Alys,  93 

Auction,  268 

Augurs,  Roman,  233 

Augustulus,  79 

Augustus,  master  of  Egypt,  71 

Aurora,  114 

Auspices,  233 

Auxiliary   troops   of   Romans, 

277 
Avatars    or    incarnations    of 

Vishnu,  95 

B. 

Babel,  builders  of,  125 

Babylon,  founding  of,  69;  wal/l 
of,  52,  69,  114;  commerce 
of,  212 

Bacchus,  109;  festivals  of,  169; 
cave  of,  33 

Bachelors,  tax  on,  262,  286 

Balbec,  ruins  of,  50 

Ball, ornament  worn  by  Roman 
youth,  299;  playing  with, 
216 

Banishment,  187,  191,260 

Hankers  at  Rome,  17,263 

Banquets,  evening,  295;  of 
Greeks,  157 

Bathing,  among  Greeks,  158, 
208;  anions;  Romans,  293 

Baths,  construction  of,  209 

Battering-ram,  281 

Battle.  Greek  order  of,  154, 
197;  manner  of  commenc- 
ing, 197,  198  ;  Roman  order 
of,  275,  278;  at  sea,  282; 
Hesiod's  of  the  Titans,Ho- 
tner's  of  the  Gods,  125 

(leaks  of  ships,  202 

Beatification  of  saints,  origin 
of,  137 

Bellerophon,  131,  133 

Bellona,  105,  120  ;  temple  of,  49 

Belzoni,  his  entrance  of  a  pyra- 
mid, 123 

Beneventum,  battle  of,  76 

Besieging,  art  of,  among  the 
(Jreeks,   198;   Romans,  280 

Betrothing  before  nuptials, 220 

Birds,  divination  by,  167 

Births,  godiiess  over,  96 

Bissextile  year,  62 

BcBotia,  constitution  of,  Sec.  192 

Boeotian  intellect,  28 

Boundaries  of  land,  Roman, 
II 'I 

Boxing,  173.  213 

Brachma,  Hindoo  deity,  93,  95 

Brass,  material  for  ancient 
arms  and  tools,  151 

Bread,  inventor  and  god  of 
kneading,  120  ;  baking  of 
263 

Breast-pin  found  at  Pompeii 
300 

Brennus,  sack  of  Rome  by,  76 

Briareus,  125 

Bricks,  Roman,  263 

Brule.  Greek,  220;  Roman,  2s7 

Bridges  over  the  Tiber,  16;  ol 
Xerxes  and  Darius,  200 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


325 


Brizn.  goddess  over  the  inter 
pretation  of  dreams,  161 

Brokers,  Roman,  20:t 

Broth,  Spartan  black,  191 

Brums  .-ind  Cassius,  77 

Bubastis,  124 

Bnrial-plai  es,  149,  222,  302,  303 

Burial-rites,  importance  n( 
among  ilie  ancients,  223 

Burning  of  corpses,  149,  221, 
300,  302;  of  Widows,  1 19 

C. 

Cabiri,  mysteries  of,  13G 

Cabirian  temple,  22 

Cams.  107,  134 

Cadmus,  133 

Caduceus  of  .Mercurv,  108 

Caculus,  107 

Calendar,  Roman, 61,241;  Gre- 
gorian, 62 

Calends,  01,240 

Calliope,  127 

Canibyses,  conqueror  of  Esvpt, 
71" 

Oa  mill  us,  captor  of  Veii,  70 

Camp,  Grecian,  154,  107;  Ro- 
man,  278;  discipline  nf,280 

Campagna  di  Roma,  20 

Canal  of  Claudius,  10,  11 

Carinas,  battle  of,  77 

Cannpiis,  121 

Capaneus,  136 

Capital  l rials,  Roman, 259 

<  !apitol,  Roman,  17 

i';,  litoliuus,  the  bill,  16 

■Japtives,  treatment  of,  154, 
155.  199 

Carriages,  Roman,  266 

Carthaainians,  History,  71,  72 

Caspian  gate  or  pass,  46 

Cassander,  177 

Castagnas,  21 

Castalia,  127 

Casianets,2l8 

Castor  and  Pollux,  135 

Cataci  mhs,  55,  221 

Catiline,  conspiracy  of.  77 

Cavalry,  Greek,  21,  191,  197; 
Roman,  270,276 

Cecrnps,  133 

Celestials,  or  celestial  gods,  87 

Cemetery,  oricin  of  term.  2-i3 

Cenotaphs,  222,  302 

Census,  R an,  239 

Censors,  Human,  250 

t  lentaurs,  21.  131 

Centiinani,  113 

Centumvirate,  259 

( tenturial  or  Secular  games, 243 

Centuries,  division  of  Romans 
into,  252  ;  voting  liy,  257 

Cephalus,  I  l"i 

Cerberus,  37.  100,  132,221 

Ceremonies  of  ancient  wor- 
ship, 147,  148;  nuptial,  159, 
20,  287 

Ceres.  110;  temple  and  statue 
of.  found  by  Dr.  Clarke, 
112;  festivals  of,  109 

Cester  or  Chester,  towns 
Whose   names    end   in,   2b0 

Cestui-,  pyramid  of,  223 

CestllS,  ■_'irdle  of  Venus,  106 

Chaeronea,  battle  of,  74 
Chairs,  212  ;  of  state,  254 
Chance,  personified,  119 
Chants,  funeral,  221 
Chariots,  race  in,  172;  Grecian. 

15X;  Roman,  266 
Charming  or  fascinating,  the 

pow  i  r  of,  240 
Charon,  100,  221 
Charts,  chronological,  66 


Charybdis,  132 

Chase,  158;  goddess  of,  101 

Cherry-trees,  whence  brought, 

47 
Children,  treatment  of  among 

Greeks,     159;     at    Sparta, 

189;   legitimate,  &c,  220; 

among  liotiians,  286,  287 
Chil  Miliar,  or  palace  of  forty 

columns.  44 
Chimaera,  131 
Chimneys,  210,291 
Chi, ins,  120 
Choraglc  tripods,  33 
Chorus,  of  Greek  tragedy.  170  ; 

part  of  the  Spartan  Forum, 

30 
Christ,  year  of  his  birth,  64, 65 
Christianity,   influence   of    on 

literature  and  society,  287 
Christians,  how    put   to   death 

by     Romans,    261  ;    their 

tombs,  303 
Chronology,  classical,  te:    59; 

systems  of,  60;  brie       ut- 

line  of.  67 
Churches  called  Basil icee,  IS 
Cicero,  his  table,  ib7 
Circensian  games,  242 
Cities,  principal  Greek,  141 
l  lilizenship,  Roman,  258 
Civil  affairs  of  Greeks,  150,176; 

of  Romans,  248 
Classes  of  citizens  at  Athens, 

177;   Sparta,    188;    Rome, 

253,  286 
Classic  authors,  origin  of  the 

phrase,  253 
Client  and  patron,  254 
Climates,  ancient  division   of 

earth  into,  4 
Clio,  127 
Clisthenes,  177 
Clocks,  60,  210 
Coan  vestments,  298 
Ccelus,  113 
Coffins,  302,  303 
Cohorts,  272,  277,284 
Coins,  Greek,  213 ;  Roman,  266  ; 

their  use  in  chronology,  65 
Coliseum,  19 
Collatinus,  227 
Colleges  or   orders   of  Roman 

priests,   232;    of  artisans, 

263 
Colonies,  from  Greece,  72,  73, 

1  12;  of  Rome,  258 
Colossal  statues,  42 
Column  of  Duillius,  284 ;  of  the 

twisted  serpent,  105 
Combats,    single,     in    ancient 

war,  156 
Commerce,  of  Greeks,  152,  212; 

of  Romans, 263;  of  Baby- 
lon, 212 
Coiniis,  119 
( loncord,  18 
Concubinage    among    Greeks, 

220 
Consecration,  of  Rom  in  empe- 
rors, 137,  304;  of  leu  |>,i  -, 

&c,  238 
Constantine    the     Great,    his 

leian,  78;  his  imp.  stand- 
ard, 272;  his  military  sys- 
tem, 284 
Constantinople,  situation    and 
topography,  20;   tripod  in 

its  hip i"  •.  105 

Consular  army,  271,  277 
I  Consuls,  Roman,  2  IS 

i  Conveyance,  modes  of,  266 
j  Copper,  used  before  iron,  154 
I  Corinth,   constitution   of,  192; 


isthmus  of,  34  ;  capture  of, 
71.75,77 

Corn,  distribution  of  at  Rome, 
261 

Coronis,  117 

Corpses,  burning  of.  221,  300 

Cosmetics,  210,  296 

Cosmogony  of  the  Greeks,  146 

Costume,  Grecian,  157,  208; 
Roman,  297 

( lottage  of  Romulus,  17 

Cotton,  use  of,  209 

Couches,  for  reclining  at  table, 
206,291,293,297  ;  for  sleep- 
ing, 290 

Country-seats  of  Romans.  291 

Courts,  at  Alliens,  150,  1>5;  at 
Sparta,    191  ;  at   Koine,  259 

Covenants,  manner  of  confirm- 
ing, 164 

Covenants  or  leagues,  164 

Cow,  symbol  of  Isis,  122 

Crassus,  wealth  of,  267 

Crete,  early  constitution,  &c, 
151,  192;  Labyrinth  of,  43 

Creusa,  1M5 

Crimes  ai  Home,  2.'<9 

Crjshna,  Hindoo  deity,  95,  101 

Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  70 

Crowns,  150,  175,  275 

Crusaders,  at  Constantinople, 
79 

Cunaxa,  battle  of,  70,  74 

Cupid,  106 

Curtain,  of  the  ancient  theatre, 
246;  embroidered,  148,  218 

Curtian  1-ake,  17 

Curule,  officers,  254;  chairs, 254 

Cushites,  125 

Cyhele  or  Rhea,  93  ;  priests  of, 
236 

Cycles  of  the  ancients,  62 

Cyclopean  architecture,  41,  107 

Cyclops,  107,  124 

Cymbals,  217 

Cynocephalus,  124 

Gyrene,  remains  of,  5o 

Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  70 

Cyrus  the  younger.  70;  expe- 
dition of,  70,  74,  palate  of, 
114;  tomb  of,  223 

D. 

Dacian  mines,  8,  262,  tablets, 
272 

Daedalus,  labyrinth  built  'iy,  43 

Daemons,  129 

Danaides,  100 

Danaus,  133 

Dancing,  at  feasts,  159,  207,  216 

Daphne,  101 

Darius,  70 

Dates  of  ancient  events,  how 
ascertained,  63;  helps  in 
remembering,  67 

David,  reign  of,  69 

Days,  reckoning  and  division 
of,  &c,  59,  240  ;  origin  of 
the  names  of,  62;  Roman 
manner  of  spending  day, 
292 

Death,  as  a  god,  130;  punish- 
ment of,  how  inflicted  by 
Greeks,  187,  191  ;  by  Ro- 
mans, 260 

Decemvirs,  76,  251 

Dedication  of  Roman  temples 
238 

Deification  of  heroes,  137;  of 
emperors,  137,  304 

Deities,  classes  of  ancient,  87, 
138;  peculiar  to  Romans 
119 

Dejanira,  134 


32G 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Delphi,  Apnllo's  temple  at,  101 ; 
oracle  nf,  165 

Deluge,  of  Deucalion,  24;  tra- 
ditions of  universal,  84, 106 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  177 

Demi  gods,  87,  132,  149 

Deucalion,  21,  133 

Dial,  60,  210 

Diana,  101  ;  temple  of,  at  Ephe- 
sus,  114;  Bubastis,  124 

Dice,  playing  with.  295 

Dictator,  Rinnan,  75,  251 

Dictionaries,  mythological,  89 

1)i,|.i.7-2 

Dighton  rock,  figure, &c, found 
near  it,  153 

Diocletian,  his  persecution  and 
massacer  of  Christians,  78 

Diogenes,  Laertius,  sold  as  a 
slave,  160;  the  Cynic,  his 
tomb,  223 

Diotnedes,  137;  villa  of,  296 

Dionysia,  169 

Dionysius  the  tyrant,  prison 
of,  40 

Dioscuri,  135 

Dimes,  at  funerals,  221 

Disa,  goddess  of  Germans,  122 

Discipline,  military,  199;  of 
Roman  cm  nips,  280 

Diseases  deified,  120 

Dishes  at  a  Roman  supper,  294 

Divination,  art  of  among  the 
Greeks,  149,  164,  166;  Ro- 
mans, 240 

Divinity,  Greek  and  Roman 
idea  of,  87 

Divisions  of  lime,  59 

Divorces,  Roman,  287 

Dudona,  oracle  of,  23,  165 

Dogs  of  Molossis,  25 

Domestic  affairs  of  Greeks,  157, 
204:  of  Rnmans,  285 

Dominical  letter,  63 

Dowry  in  marriage,  220 

Draco,  his  laws,  earliest  writ- 
ten in  Greece,  177 

Dramatic  exhibitions,  among 
Greeks,  175;  Romans,  246 

Dreams,  on  interpretation  of, 
167,240;  god  of,  130 

Dress  of  Greeks,  157,  208  ;  Ro- 
mans, 297 

Drinking  cups,  204,  207,  297 

Druidical  temple,  148 

Druids,  237 

Drum,  217 

Dryads,  126 

Dryope,  116 

Dwellings,  Roman,  290;  Gre- 
cian, 210 

Dyeing,  art  of,  264 

E. 

Ear-rings,  Roman,  299 

Earth  personified,  93,  112 

Earthenware,  263 

Eating,  Roman  customs  in,  203 

Eclipses  in  ancient  limes,  64, 
197 

Edict,  of  Praetor,  249 

Education  among  the  Greeks, 
159;  Romans,  288 

Egeria  and  Noma,  229 

Egypt,  productiveness  of,  261  ; 
'"  deities  of,  122;  Geography 
of,  53  ;  Chronology  of,  66, 
71 ;  works  on,  71 

Egyptian  gods,  122;  customs 
of  burial,  100 

El  Wah.  site  of  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter, 56 

Elections  at  Rome,  25" 

I  ephants  used  in  war,  194 


Eleusinian  mysteries,  112,  169 

Eleven,  the  Athenian  magis- 
trates, 181 

Elysium,  99 

Emancipation  of  sons,  287, 288; 
of  slaves,  289 

Embalming  the  dead,  221 

Emperors  deified,  122,  137,304; 
Roman,  their  reign,  78 

Empire,  Roman  power  of,  249; 
military  system  of,  270; 
changes  in,  284  ;  extent  of, 
226  ;  division  of,  285  ;  East- 
ern, 79 

Employments,  under  guardian 
deities,  120;  of 'Greeks, 
158;  of  Romans,  262 

Empresses,  on  Roman  coins,  96 

Engines,  military,  198,  280 

Entrails  of  victims,  as  prognos- 
tics, 234 

Epaminondas,  74 

Ephesus,  Diana's  temple  at,  114 

Ephori,  151,  190,  191 

Epidaurus,  medical  springs  at, 
117 

Epirotes,  25 

Equites  or  knights  of  Rome, 254 

Eras  and  Epochs,  65 

Erato,  127 

Erebus,  100 

Erigone,  117 

Erysicthon,  112 

Essarhaddon, 69 

Eteocles  and  Polynices,  136 

Etruscans,  their  religious  usa- 
ges, 229 

Eulogies  over  the  dead,  222, 302 

Euryale,  130 

Euterpe,  127 

Evil  eye,  superstition  respect- 
ing, 240 

Evolutions,  military,  197 

Exercises  of  Roman  camp,  280 

Exhalations  of  Pontine  marsh- 
es, 1! 

Expenses,  public,  at  Athens, 
182,  224;  at  Rome,  236,  262 

Expiation  among  the  Rinnans, 
239 

Exposing  of  children,  by  Ro- 
mans, 287 


Fahii,  race  of,  11 

Fables,  mythological,  sources 
of,  84 

Falconer,  shipwreck  described 
by,  23 

Fallen  spirits,  129 

Fame,  goddess  of,  118 

Families,  Roman,  286 

Family  habitations,  from  Ves- 
ta, 113 

Fanatic,  origin  of  the  term, 
210 

Fascination,  240 

Fasting  among  ancients,  171 

Fate,  controlling  the  gods,  88 

Fates,  127 

Father,  of  mankind,  according 
to  Greeks,  124  ;  power  of 
the  Roman,  over  his  chil- 
dren^? 

Fauns,  130 

Faunus,  grove  and  oracle  of,  II 

Feast  of  the  gods,  234 

Feasts,  social,  of  Greeks,  158, 
206;  of  Romans,  294 

Feet,  covering  for,  208,  298 

Females,  stale  of  in  Greece, 
159,  218;  obligations  of,  to 
Christianity,  287 

Feronia,  120 


Festivals,  Greek,  If 8;  Roman 

241 
Field  of  Truth,  99. 
Fire,  the  vestal,  113 
Fishing  among  Greeks,  158 
Fish-pond  of  Hortensius,  292 
Fleece,  Golden,  of  Colchis,  135 
Fleet,  Grecian,   200,  203;   Ro- 
man, 282 
Flesh-brushes,  or  strigiles,  291 
Flight   of  birds,  ominous,  149 

233 
Flood,  in  time  of  Deucalion,  24 
Flora, 120 

Flowers,  goddess  of,  120 
Food,  of  Greeks,  157,  204;  Ro 

mans,  293,  291 
Foot,  means  of  determining  thfi 

Roman,  268 
Fortune,  goddess  of,  118 
Forums,  at  Rome,  17;  Athens, 

32 
Fountain  of  the  sun,  56 
Fowling,  among  Greeks,  158 
Foxes,  burning  of,  in   worship 

of  Ceres,  112 
Franciade,  66 
Free    men    and    freedmen,   at 

Rome,  285 
French  Republic,  era  of,  65 
Fret-work,  290 
Fulling  of  cloth,  264 
Funeral     ceremonies,     Greek, 

149,221,  222;  Roman,  300; 

songs,  221  ;    eulogies,  222, 

302;  pile,  149,302 
Funeral   orations   of    Pericles 

and  Demosthenes,  222 
Furies,  99,  128 

Furnaces  in  Roman  houses,  291 
Furniture  of  houses,  212, 2y0 

G. 

Gabriel,  stone  of,  53 

Galley,  the  Athenian,  sacred, 42 

Gallevs,  or  war-ships,  200,  282 

Gamblers  of  Pompeii,  294 

Games  of  the  Greeks,  172,  173; 
Olympic,  &c,  173  ;  social, 
207;  Romans,  242;  in  ho- 
nor of  the  dead,  222,304 

Ganymedes,  96 

Gardening,  god  and  goddess  of, 
119;  of  i  he  Romans,  292 

Garlands,  175.  275 

Gates  of  Rome,  16 

Gauls,  Rome  burnt  by,  225; 
history  of,  7 

Gelon,  of  Syracuse,  72 

Gemini,  135 

Gems,  illustrative  of  Mytholo- 
gy, 86 

Genius  and  Genii,  128 

Genseric,  leader  of  Vandals,  79 

Geography,  knowledge  of  the 
Greeks  in,  3;  epitome  of 
classical,  3 

Geryon,  131 

Giants,  121,  125,  133 

Gladiators,  Roman,  244,  304 

Glass,  how  far  used  bv  Ro- 
mans, 263,  290 

Gnomon,  60 

Gods,  Greek  and  Roman,  num- 
ber of,  85;  classes  of,  87; 
their  residence,  &c,  87; 
food,  &c.  88;  genealogy, 90; 
Egyptian  admitted  among 
the  Romans,  122 

Golden  age,  91,  93  ;  number,  6? 

Gorgons,  130 

Goths,  Rome  taken  by,  79,  225 

Government,  changes  in  torn 
of  Grecian,  72, 141, 151,176 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


327 


178,  191;  of  Roman,  75, 
248;  by  Romans  over  con- 
quered nations,  258 

Sracchi,  the  two,  77 

Graces,  127 

Graici,  and  other  names  of  an- 
cient Greeks.  141 

Grain,  k i ml s  of,  26|;  distribu- 
tion of  at  Home,  361 

Grapes,  varieties  of,  295 

Grecian  cities,  141 

Greece,  first  inhabitants,  bar- 
barnus.  111,  150  ;  colonies 
in,  142;  causes  of  culture 
and  improvement,  141,  143; 
periods  in  the  progress  of 
refinement,  145  ;  extent  of, 
20,  21,  111  ;  outline  of  the 
chronology  of,  72;  form  of 
government  in,  141,  142, 
151,  177 

Greek  antiquities,  utility  of, 
143;  writers  on,  144 

Greek  emperors,  79 

Greeks  in  southern  Italy,  13 

Gregorian  calendar,  62 

Griffon,  132 

Grinding,  method  of,  158,  159, 
264 

Groves,  sacred,  18,  162,  230 

Guest-chambers,  293 

Gyges.  ring  of,  99 

Gymnastic  art,  175 

II. 

Habits,  domestic,  of  Romans. 
292 

Hades,  99, 221;  gates  of,  99,  223 

Hair,  modes  of  dressing,  208, 
299 

Ilallirrhotins,  105 

Hamadryads,  126 

Harmodins  and  Aristogiton,  177 

Harmonia,  107 

Harpies,  41,  128 

Harpocrntes,  124 

Harps.  217 

Harrowing,  god  of,  120 

Head,  coverings  for.  208,  298 

Health,  drinking  of,  207,  295  ; 
goddess  of,  117,  118 

Heathenism,  moral  influence 
of  among  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, 86 

Hebe,  96 

Hecate,  101 

Hecatomb,  147 

Hecatompvlos,  71 

Hector,  137 

Heirs,  at  Athens,  220 

Helen,  137 

Helicon,  126 

Heliogahalns,  298 

Heliotrope,  60 

Helius,  114 

Hell,  rivers  of,  99 

Helmet,  153,274;  of  Pluto,  99 

Helots,  189 

Hephaestion,  friend  of  Alexan- 
der, 222 

Heralds,  150,  197,  234 

Hercules,  131;  story  of  ex- 
plained, 134 

Henna?,    hu^ts   or    statues    so 

called,  109.119 
Hermanubis,  124 
Hermes,  108  ;  Trismegistns,  108 
Heroes,  worship  of.  &c.  132,149 
Heroic  age,  72,  132;   manners 

of,  159 
Heruli,  Rome  taken  by,  78 
Hesperides,  131 
Hierarchy  of   Romish  church, 
233 

25 


Hieromancy,  107 

Hills  of  Rome,  16 

lli|i|iias  and  Hipparchus,  177 

Hippocrene,  127,  131 

llippodamia,  131,  136 

Hippomerinn,  136 

History  of  principal  ancient 
states.  69;  illustrated  by 
coins.  65  :  sacred,  as  related 
lo  pagan  mythology,  84 

Horsemanship,  156.  194,  276 

Horsemen  or  knights,  270,  276 

Horse,  Neptune  patron  of,  98 

Horse-race,  172 

Morses,  fur  chariots  and  for 
carrying  burdens,  266 

Hortensins,  his  villas,  292 

Horns,  100,  122,  124 

Hosoitalitv.  Grecian,  158,  179, 
207;  Roman,  295 

Hours,  goddesses  of,  127  ;  of  the 
day,  60.  2 '9 

Household  gods,  129 

Household,  Roman,  288,  2-9 

Houses.  Grecian,  158,  210;  Ro- 
man. 290 

Hunting,  fishing,  &c,  158 

Hurdles.  280 

Hyacinthus,  101 

Hydra,  131 

Hydraulic  organ,  217,  247 

Hygeia,  117 

Hyinenaeus,  107 

Hyperion,  114,  124 

I 
Iacchus,  170 

Ibis,  122 

Ictimuli,  mines  of,  262 

Idas,  135 

Ides,  61,210 

Idolatry,  origin  of,  83,  81 

Idomeneus,  137 

Ignis,  113 

Ilithyia,  96, 102 

Ilium  or  Troy,  46 

lllyrians,  8 

Images  in  temples,  146,  160.230 

Imperial  government,  Roman, 
219 

Implements  of  agriculture,  Ro- 
man, 264 

Imprisonment  at  Rome,  260 

Inachus,  133 

Indian  mythology,  its  resem- 
blance lo  Creek,  si'i 

Indiction,  cvcle  of.  63 

Industry,  art  of,  212,  263 

Inferior  gods.  113 

Infernal  regions,  entrance  to, 
12,36;  rivers,  25 

Inheritances  at  Athens,  220 

Inns,  158,  20S 

Inscriptions,  on  altars,  230  ;  on 
tombs,  &C.222;  use  of,  in 
chronology,  65 

Institute,  Royal,  of  France,  17 

Instruments,  agricultural,  264  ; 
sacrificial,  232  ;  musical, 
216,217,272 

Intelligence  and  wisdom  per- 
sonified, 104 

Intelligence,  means  of  convey- 
ing   among    Greeks,    199; 
Romans,  15 
Interest,  rate  of  at  Rome.  267 
Intermarriages  at  Rome,  254 
Inuns,  116 
In,  105,  122 
Ipsus,  battle  of,  70,  74 
Iris,  goddess   of  the  rainbow, 

96.  115 
Isa,  Hindoo  deity,  122 
Isiac  Table,  123 


Isis,  Egyptian  goddess,  102,122 
table  of,  123;  temple  of, 
discovered  at  Pompeii,  123 

Isncrates,  tomb  of,  223 

Isthmian  games,  9-,  175 

halo-Grecian  -tales.  15 

Italy,  geography  of,  9 

lxion,  96,  Km 

.1. 

Janus,  a  Roman  god.  if.,  93 

Japhet,  similar  tn  Japetus,  124 

Jason  and  Medea.  135 

Javelin,  hurling  of,  172 

Jeroboam.  69 

Jerusalem,  topography  of,  51, 
52;  destruction  of,  70 

Jewish  history  ami  chronolo- 
gy, outline  of,  69,  "11 

Jobates,  131 

Joseph,  s f  Jacob,  124 

Joshua .  69 

Journals  and  Periodicals  illus- 
trating classical  literature, 
17 

Judges  in  Hades,  100 

Judicial  proceedings,  Greek, 
185;  H an,  259 

Juggernaut,  testival  of,  <tc.  11C 

Jugglers  and  rope-dancers,  244 

Julian,  the  Apostate,  7*;  pe- 
riod, 63 

Jnnia,  sister  of  Brutus,  302 

Juno,  96 

Jupiter,  94;  Ammon.  95,  165; 
temples  of.  17  ;  statue  of  in 
Oh  mpia,  1 14  ;  Pluvius  or 
Pluvialts,  95 

Justice,  courts  of,  150,184,259; 
goddess  of,  117 

K. 
Kaaba  at  Mecca,  53 

Kalends,  see  Calends. 

Keys,  ancient,  212 

King,  Arrhon,  181  ;  Roman 
priest  so  called,  234 

Kings,  powerof  ilie  early  Gre- 
cian, 150,  189;  the  Sal- 
tan, 189;  the  Roman,  226 
234,  248;  ensigns  of,  21-; 
kissing  the  feet,  210 

Knights,  Roman,  254 

I,. 

Labyrinth,  Egyptian,  54,  55; 
Cretan,  43,'  135 

Lacedaetnon,  see  Sparta. 

Lachrymatories,  303 

Lamps,  ancient,  291 

Language,  early  Latin,  similar 
to  Latin  now  used  in  Wal- 
lachia,  8 

Lantern  of  Demosthenes,  33 

Lapithae,24,  131 

Lares  and  Penates,  129 

Laticlave.  298 

I.atona.  116 

Lawgivers,  of  Athens.  188 

Laws  of  Greece,  early,  151  ,  of 
Athens.  188;  Sparta  and 
Crete,  191 ;  1( 261 

Lawsuits.  Athenian.  186;  Spar- 
tan, 191  ;  Roman,  259 

Lawyers,  Roman.  262 

Leaping,  game  of  Creeks,  172; 
of  Romans.  243 

Legion,  the  Roman,  270.  271, 
272;  Thundering,  238; 
number  of  legions,  234 

Legitimation,  Roman,  288 

Leonidas,  bis  tomb,  38 

Letters,  used  to  represent  num- 
bers, 213,  '267 


328 

Levying,  Roman  sy«tem  of, 271 
Libations,  147,  163," -238 
Licentiousness  of  the  Greeks, 
2-20 

Lictors,248,  250 

Life,  private,  of  Greeks,  204; 
Romans,  285 

Light  troops,  194,  276 

Loretto,  chapel  of.  10 

Lots,  used  fur  learning  the  fu- 
ture, 167,  240  ;  in  choosing 
magistrates,  180 

Lucifer,  11 4 

Lucina,  102 

Lucretia,  outrage  upon,  75,227 

Lucullus,  his  villa,  12 

Luna,  114 

Lunar  cycle,  62 

Lupercus,  1 16 

Lustrations,  147,  239 

Luxury  of  Romans,  227,  267 

Lycia,  Greek  tombs  in,  223 

Lycurgus,  Spartan  lawgiver, 
73,151 

Lydian  history,  70 

Lynceus,  135 

Lyncus,  112 

Lyre, 216,217;  invention  of,  108 

Lysander,  177 

M. 

Maccabees,  69 

Machaon,  117 

Midlines,  used  in  war,  281 

Magical  arts,  167,  210 

Magistrates    at    Athens,    180; 

Sparta,  190;  Rome  251 
Magnesia,  battle  of,  70 
Mai  a,  108 

Makrinnros,  pass  of,  26 
Mamertine  prison,  260 
Manes,  129 

Maniples  in  Roman  army,  272 
Manners,  general,  of  Romans, 

292 
Mantlets,  280 

Manumission  of  slaves,  289 
Marching,  Roman  order  of,  278 
Marines. -202,  282 
Marius,  77 

Market  davs  at  Rome,  241 
Markets,  17,32 
Marriages,  Greek,  159,218 

Roman,  286 
Mars,  105;  priests  of,  235 
Marsyas  and  Apollo,  101 
Martial    rewards  and   punish- 
ments, 199,  275 
Masks,  ancient.  176,  217 
.Mausoleum,  sepulchre  of  Mau- 

solus.  114,223 
Meals,    Spartan,     public,    190, 
191  ;      Grecian     generally, 
157,  204,  206  ;  Roman,  293 
Measures  and    Weights,   Gre- 
cian, 214;  Roman,  268 
Mechanical  trades  at  Rome,  263 
Medea,  135 
Mediterranean,  navigation  of, 

152 
Medusa,  104.  130 
Melicertes,  125 
Melpomene,  127 
Memuon,  sounding  statue  of, 

115 
Memory,  systems  of  artificial, 

07,68 
Mendes,  116 
Meneiaus,  137 
Menes,  Egyptian  king,  71 
Merchants,    festival     of,    242; 

Roman,  263 
Mercury,  108 
Wrrmaid,  126 


GENERAL    INDEX. 

Mesmerism,  a  supposition  con- 
cerning, 166 
Metals,  used  by  Vulcan,  107 
Metamorphoses, fables  respect- 
ing, 85 
Metempsychosis,  84 
Methodicschool  in  medicine, 137 
Metics,  or   resident   aliens    at 

Athens,  178 
Metis,  wife  of  Jupiter,  94 
Melon,  his  cycle,  62 
Midas,  gift  of  Bacchus  to,  109 
Milestones,  Roman,  16 
Military  atfairs,  of  Greeks,  152, 

193;  of  Romans,  270 
Milk  in  libations,  147 
Mills,  for  grain,  264 
Milo,  catacombs  of,  221 
Miltiades,  21,73 
Minerva,  101;  festival  of,  171 ; 

temples  of,  29,  37 
Mines,  22,  26,38,262 
Minos,  100,  131,  133 
Minotaur,  131,  134 
Mint,  at  Athens,  213;  at  Rome, 

267 
Mirrors,  ancient,  209 
Mithras,  100,  134 
Mizraim,  grandson  of  Noah,  71 
Mnemosyne,  124,  126 
Mnevis,  123 
Moeris,  lake  of,  54 
Moloch,  91 
Motnus,  119 
Money,  of  the  Greeks,  212,213; 

t lie  Romans,  206,  267,  275 
Months  of  Greeks  and  Romans, 

60,  61 ;  personified,  127 
Monuments   to  the  dead,  221, 

302 
Morals  and  manners  in  Greece 

and  Rome,  227 
Morea,  34 
Morpheus,  130 
Mosaic  rloors,  290 
Mosque  at  Cordova,  9 
Mother  of  gods,  93 
Mourning    for   the   dead,    300, 

302,  304 
Mules,  use  of,  by  Romans,  266 
Mummies,  55,  221 
Municipal  towns,  Roman,  258 
Murraor  Murrhinum,  vases  of, 

263 
Musaeus,  150 
Muses,    126;     on    the    ring    of 

Pvrrhns,  127 
Music',  in  Greek  education,  159, 
accompaniment     of     ban- 
quets, 2 1 6,  and  of  sacrifices, 
238  ;  science  of,  216 
Musical    instruments,  216;    in 

Roman  army,  272 
Myriologues,  221 
Mysteries,  of  Cabiri,  136;  Eleu- 

sinian,  112,  169 
Mythic  poetry,  88 
Mythical  personages  connected 

with  the  gods,  124 
Mythographers,  Greek,  88 ;  Ro- 
man, 88 
Mythology,  83;  utility  of  a 
knowledge  of,  80;  resem- 
blance between  classical 
and  oriental,  86,  94,  95; 
differences  between  Greek 
and  Roman,  87 

N. 
Nail,  ceremony  of  fixing  in  the 

temple  of  Jupiter, 242 
Names,   of  Romans,  285;    of 

towns   in   England  ending 

in  cester,  280 


Naval  affairs   of  Greeks,  154 
200,212;  of  Romans,  282 

Naval  battle,  203, 282 

Navigation  of  Greeks,  152 

Nemean  games,  174 

Nemesis,  117 

Neptune,  98 

Nereids,  98 

Nero,  his  tyranny,  78;  burning 
of  Rome,  225 

Nessus,  the  centaur,  134 

Nestor,  137 

Netha,  Egyptian  deity,  104 

Nets,  for  fishing,  158 

New  Testament,  literary  im- 
portance of,  242 ;  Apocry- 
phal, 243 

Newton's  Chronology,  64,  66 

New-year's  presents  at  Rome, 
241 

Nicias,  64 

Night,  goddess  of,  101,115,  117 

Nimrod,  69 

Ninias,  69 

Niohe,  102,  117,136 

Nobility,  Roman,  254 

Nones,  61,240 

Notation,  Greek,  213;  Roman, 
267 

Nox,  100,  115 

Noma,  his  influence  at  Rome, 
75,  226,  229 

Numbers,  designated  by  let- 
ters, Grecian,  213;  Roman, 
267 

Nuptial  celebrations,  159,  220 
287 

Nymphs,  126 

O. 

Oases,  Egyptian,  55 
Oaths,  of  Greeks,  163;   of  Ro- 
mans,   239;      Roman    sol- 
diers, 270 
Obelisks,  19,55 
Ocean,  98 

Octavins  or  Augustus,  77 
Odea,  19,  32 
Odin,  105 

Odoacer,  leader  of  the  Heruli, 
79 

CEnomaiis  and  Pelops,  136 

Offences,  penal,  at  Rome,  259 

Offerings  to  the  gods,  148,  149 
238 

Official  robe  of  magistrates,  297 

Ogyires,  133 

Ointments  of  the  ancients,  158, 
210;  299 

Old  and  new  style,  62 

Olympic  games,  173 

Olympus,  residence  of  the  gods, 
88 

Omens.  149,  168,  233 

Ompliale,  134 

Oplitodrome,  172 

Ops  or  Rhea,  93 

Oracles,  149,  164, 166;  Sibyline, 
210;  of  Apollo,  101 

Organ,  musical  instrument, 
217,  247 

Orion,  114,  125 

Ornaments,  architectural,  290; 
personal  of  Romans,  299 

Orthos,  131 

Osiris,  110,  122 

Ostia,  salt-works  at,  262 

Ostracism,  187 

Otus  and  Ephialtes,  105 

Ovation,  284 

Ox,  symbol  of  Osiris,  122| 
bones  found  in  the  1'gyp 
tian  pyramid,  123 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


329 


p. 

Pederasty.  220 

Pagan  fables,  coincidence  of 
with  scripture,  84 

Paganism  and  Popery,  137 

Painting,  ancient,  remains  of, 
5ti 

Palace,  origin  of  the  word,  16 

Pataemon,  125 

Palladium,  104,  113 

Palm,  token  of  victory.  243 

Pan,  116;  priests  of,  235 

Paiiathenaic  vases,  172 

Panathenoea,  171 

Pandora,  107 

Panic,  origin  of  the  word,  116 

Pantheon.  17 

Parents,  respec;  to,  159 

Parga,  fate  of,  25 

Parks  of  the  Romans,  292 

Parnassus,  127 

Paros,  Chronicle  of,  65 

Parthenon,  104 

Parthenopaeus,  136 

Parthian  history, 70 

Patricians  and  plebeians,  243 

Patroclus,  funeral  of,  222 

Patrons  and  clients,  254,  295 

Patilns  yEmiliiis,  and  the  Epi- 
rotes,  25 

Peace,  temple  of.  18;  temple 
of  Janus  in  time  of,  18,  93 

Pegasus,  131,  133 

Pelias.  135 

Pelopidae,  136 

Pelopidas  of  Thebes,  74 

Peloponnesian  war,  74 

Pelops,  133,  136 

Peperino,  stone  so  called,  303 

Pericles,  statesman.  &c.  73 

Perjury,  at  Rome,  239 

Persecution  of  Christians,  78, 
261 

Persephone,  or  Proserpine,  99 

Persepolis,  ruins  of,  44 

Perseus,  133 

Persian  Chronology,  outline  of, 
70;  kings,  their  residences, 
44 

Personification  of  various  ob- 
jects, 119 

Peseinus,  origin  of  the  name,  94 

Petalism,  187 

Petrified  city,  56 

Phaeton,  101 

Phalanx,  Grecian,  196 

Phial  of  tears,  303 

Philip  of  Macedon,  73 

Phil ippi,  site  of,  22 ;  battle  of,  77 

Philopcemen,  75 

Philosophy,  Christian,  210 

Phlegon,  eclipse  named  by,  64 

Phlegyas,  LOO 

Phocian,  or  Sacred  War,  74 

Phocians,  27 

Phoebus,  10i> 

Phoenician  history,  70 

Phoroneus.  133 

Physicians.  Roman,  262 

Picus,  king  of  Latins,  130 

Pierus,  126 

Pile,  or  Pyre, funeral,  149,  302 

Pillars,  or  columns,  19 

Pipe,  of  Pan.  &c,  216,  217 

Pirithous,  135 

Pisistratus,  73,  177 

"lavs  of  the  Greeks,  172;  Ro- 
mans, 243,295 

Plebeians  and  Patricians  at 
Hume,  75,  253 

Pleiades,  the  constellation,  108 

Pleione,  105 

Plow,  Grecian,  212;  Roman, 
264 


Pluto,  98 

Plums,  118 

Podalirius,  117 

Poetry,  mythic,  88 

Poets,  influence  on  religion  of 
Greeks,  1  16 

Polemarch  at  Athens,  181 

Pollux  and  Castor,  18,  135 

Polydectes,  133 

Polydorus,  136 

Polygamy,  not  allowed  by  the 
"Creeks,  220 

Polyhymnia,  127 

Polj  lines,  136 

Pomona,  119 

Pompeii,  implements,  &c,  dis- 
interred at,  291,  292,  294, 
300 

Pompey,  70,  77 

Pompey's  Pillar,  55 

Pomptine  or  Pontine  marshes, 
11 

Pontiffs,  Roman,  232 

Poor,  at  Alliens,  how  support- 
ed, 183 

Populace,  Roman,  253 

Population  of  Rome,  225 

Populousness  of  ancient  na- 
tions, 178,  225 

Porticos,  19,  31,  36,38 

Portuninns,  125 

Posthumius,  II 

Posts,  on  Roman  roads,  15 

Pottery,  Roman,  263 

Pound,  Roman,  or  libra,  270 

Pracriti,  Hindoo  goddess, 94 

Prredial  servitudes,  vir.^ 

Praefects,  251,  285 

Praetorian  soldiers,  284 

Praelors,  Roman,  249 

Praetus,  131 

Prayers,  of  Greeks,  147;  of 
Romans,  237 

Precession  of  the  equinoxes,  a 
means  of  senium  dates,  64 

Priam,  kingdom  of,  70 

Priapus,  119 

Priesls  and  priestesses,  Greek, 
147,162;  imposture  of,  164; 
Roman,  232,  235;  classes 
of  them  made  by  later 
writers,  235 

Prison  of  slate,  at  Rome,  260; 
Sparta,  187,  191  ;  Athens 
and  other  places,  187 

Prizes,  in  the  funeral  games, 
222,  304 

Procession  at  the  Circensian 
games.  2 13;  triumphal,283  ; 
funeral,  302 

Proconsuls,  252 

Procris,  1 15 

Professions,  at  Rome,  262 

Property,  among  Romans.  268  ; 
basis  of  division  into  class- 
es, 253 

Propraetors,  252 

Prnqnasstors,  252 

Proserpine,  99,  112 

Provinces,  Roman,  226,  258 

Provincial  magistrates  of  Ro- 
mans, 252.  258 

Prytanes,  at  Athens,  184 

Psamineticus,  71 

Psyche  and  Cupid,  story  of, 
107 

Ptolemies,  dynasty  of,  71 

Publicans  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 262 

Pulpit,  origin  of  (he  word,  247 

Punic  language,  40  ;  wars,  72 

Punishments,  Athenian,  186, 
199;  Spartan,  191  ;  Roman, 
260  ;  of  Roman  soldiers,  275 


Purifications,  Greek,  147,  163; 

Roman,  239 
Purple  dye,  iis  costliness,  297 
Pygmies,  125 

Pyra Is,  55,  123 

Pyrrha,  133 
Pyrrhus,  In  Italy,  76 
Pythian  games,  101,  174 
Pytho,  101 


Quaestors,  Roman,  250 
Queen  of  gods,  96 
Quinquatria,  104 
Quirites,  rights  of,  258 
Quoit,  or  Discus,  173,  243 

R. 

Race,  Grecian,  172;  Roman, 
243 

Races  or  families  at  Rome,  286 

Rainbow  personified,  96,  115 

Raising  a  child,  287 

Rama,  Hindoo  deity,  110 

Ras  Sem,  the  petrified  city,  56 

Religion  of  the  Greeks,  1  15, 
160;  expenses  of,  182;  the 
Romans,  229 

Repasts,  of  Greeks,  157,  204; 
Romans,  293 

Residems  at  Athens,  178 

Revenue  of  Athens,  181  ;  of 
Rome,  261 

Review-innster,  or  Armilus- 
triiitn,  242 

Rewards  of  Athens,  187  ;  Simr- 
ta,  191  ;  of  Roman  soldiers, 
274  ;  Roman  generals,  283 

Rhadamanthus,  100 

Rhea,  93 

Rhodes,  Greek  letters  at,  34 

Riches,  god  of,  118 

Hiding  on  horseback,  156,266 

Rights  of  citizens  and  subjects 
of  Rome,  25S 

Ring,  badge  of  knighthood,  256; 
of  Gvges,  99 

Rings,  299 

Rites,  of  marriage,  220,  287; 
religious,  147,  148,237 

Rivers  called  inftrnal,99 

Roads,  Roman,  15 

Roman  antiquities,  227 

Romans,  their  empire,  75,  226; 
most  brilliant  era,  227 

Rome,  goddess  of,  119;  foun- 
dation of.  225  ;  govern- 
ment of,  218,  219;  extent 
of  empire,  226  ;  luxury  and 
decline,  227  ;  classes  or  di- 
vision ol  the  people,  252; 
population,  225;  topogra- 
phy, 16 ;  chronology  of,  75 

Romulus  and  Remus,  225 

Rope-dancers,  244 

Rotunda  or  Pantheon,  17 

Rowers,  their  benches  in  the 
ancient  galley,  202 

Runners  among  the  Greeks,  l<i9 

Running,  one  of  the  games,  172 

Rural  deities,  120 

S. 

Sacer,  Mt.  76 

Sackbut,  217 

Sacred  or  Phocian  War, 74,  165 

Sacrifices,  human,  91;  of  the 
Creeks.  1  17,  118,  163;  Ro- 
mans, 232,  237;  origin  of. 
148 

Saddles  and  stirrups,  266 

Saguntum,  siege  of,  76 

Salamat  or  Meinnon,  statue  of. 
115 


330 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Salaries,  at  Rome,  262 

Sale  by  auction,  268 

t<  a  I  i  c  priests,  235 

Suit,  token  of  friendship,  207 

Salt-works,  Roman,  262 

Salus,  goddess  of  health,  118 

Samuel,  6  I 

Sardanapalus,  69 

Ha.'dis,  burning  of,  73 

Sardonic  laugh,  40 

Saturn,  91 

Satvrs,  130 

Scaling  ladders,  28J) 

Scepters,  2  iv 

Schiva,  Hindoo  deity,  110 

Scipio,  conqueror  of  Carthage, 
77 

Scironian  rocks,  28 

Scriptures,  Sacred,  attested  in 
Pagan  fictions,  84 

Scylla  and  Charybdis,  132 

Scythian  guards  at  Athens,  32 

Sea  -fight,  203,  2S2  ;  moc  k.  2  13 

Seasons  personified,  61,  127 

Sealur,  Gentian  deity,  91 

Sertorian  i\  ar,  8 

Se|eucidae,  70 

Self-devotion,  239 

Semele,  109 

Semiramis,  69 

Senate,  Athenian,  184;  Spar- 
tan, 190;  Roman,  256 

Septuagint,  chronology  of,  66 

Sepulchers,  Greek,  222;  of 
early  Christians,  223;  Ro- 
man in  England,  303 

Serapis,  123 

Serfs,  in  Italy,  290 

Serpent,  in  fables  respecting 
Apollo,  and  Crishna,  101; 
emblem  of  health,  117 

Servitudes,  268 

Sesostris,  71 

Sesterce,  value  of,  267 

Seven  wondersofthe  world, 114 

Sewers  of  Rome,  19 

Shield,  the  sacred,  235 

Shields,  ancient;  15:t,  191,  271; 
of  Hercules  and  Achilles, 
153 

Ships,  Grecian  154,  200;  Ro- 
man, 282 

Shipwreck,   prt-ctice   of  those 

SIII'VH  MIL'-  238 

Shoes,  208,  298  ;  of  horses,  260 
Shows  or  spectacles  at  Rome, 

213 
Sibyls,  books  of,  240 
Sieges,    manner    of,    198,   280; 

celebrated,  282 
Signals  of  battle,  198 
Signs,  in  the  heavens,  &.C.  167 

Silence,  god  of,  121 

Silenl,  130 

Silenus,  curious   image  of,  at 

l'aros,  110 
Silk,  known  to   the   ancients, 

2119,  298 
Singing  at  feasts,  207 

Sirens.  125,  126 

Sistrtirn,  218 

Sisyphus,  1110 

sua.  Hindoo  deity,  95 

Slaves,  in  Greece,  159, 178,  180; 
at  Sparta,  189;  Rome,  285, 
289  ;  patron  goddess  of  the 
freed.  12(1,  290  ;  trade  in, 
263  ;  republic  of,  in  Sicily, 41 

Sleep,  god  of,  130 

Sneezing,  ominous,  149 

Sobriquet  or  burlesque  name, 
286 

Social  entertainments,  214,  295; 
war  in  Italy,  77 


Socrates,  his  trial,  &c.  74 

Sofa-bed,  212 

Sol,  114;  statue  )f,  at  Rhodes, 
114 

Solar  cycle,  63 

Soldiers,  classe  t  of  Grecian, 
193;  of  Roman,  271,  272; 
load  carried  by  Roman, 
274,  280 

Solomon,  reisn  of,  69 

Solon,  his  influence  on  Athens, 
177 

Somnambulism,  in  ancient 
times,  166 

Soul,  state  of,  after  death,  95; 
weighing  of,  by  Egyptians, 
100 

Spain,  mines  of,  262 

Sparta,  under  Lycnrgus,  142; 
rival  of  Athens,  142; 
changes  in  government, 
151;  system  of  education, 
189;  magistrates  of,  189; 
public  meals,  190;  consti- 
tution, 188.  190;  topogra- 
phy, 36 

Spectacles  or  shows,  Roman, 
213 

Sphere  of  Chiron,  64 

Sphinx,  132 

Spirits, departed, 99;  fallen,  129 

Spoils  "I"  war,  how  divided, 
151,   199 

Spoletto.  aqueduct  at,  10 

Spurs,  266 

Stage,  actors  on  Greek,  176; 
parts  of  Roman,  247 

Staircases,  291 

Standards,  military,  Grecian, 
198;   Roman,  272 

Statues,  found  at  Pompeii,  29S 

Stheno,  130 

Stirrups,  266 

Stonehenge,  1 18 

Storms,  goddesses  of,  128 

Strangers,  treatment  of  by  the 
Greeks,  207 

Stucco-painting,  290 

Styx.  99 

Sulfates,  bravery  of,  25 

Sun,  the  Fountain  of,  56;  sta- 
tue of  at  Rhodes,  42 

Sun-dial,  60 

Sun-god,  93;  worship,  114 

Superior  gods,  91 

Suppers  i if  (lie  Romans,  294 

Supplicants,  147 

Surgical  instruments,  of  Ro- 
mans, 263 

Swearing,  among  the  Romans, 
239 

Swimming  amongthe  ancients, 
293 

Swords,  196.974;  ofNoricum,7 

Sybarites,  13,  15 

Syenite,  54 

Sylla,  a  ml  Marius,  77 ;  conque- 
ror of  Athens,  177 

Syracuse,  constitution  of,  192; 
topography  of,  40 

Syria,  kingdom  of,  70 

Syrinx,  116 

Svtlies,  chariots  armed  with, 
194 


Table,  of  Isis,  123;  genealogi- 
cal, of  mythology,  90  ;  an- 
cient fur  eating.  '206,  291- 

Table-;  and  charts,  66 

Tables,  twelve,  261 

Talent,  value  of,  213 

Tammiiz,  Syrian  deity,  106 

Tantalus,  100,  136 


Tapestry,  ancient,  218 

Tarentines,  15 

Tarpeian  rock,  16,260 

Tarquin,  expulsion  of,  75,  22J 

Tartarus,  99 

Taxes  at  Rome,  261 ;  Athens 
lsl 

Teachers  at  Rome,  262 

Tears,  preservation  of,  303 

Telesphorus,  118 

Temples,  ancient,  148;  Gre- 
cian, 146,  148.  160;  in  lime 
of  Homer,  118;  Roman,  18, 
230;  dedication  of,  &c 
238;  at  Athens,  178;  of 
Jupiter  Amnion,  95;  of 
Isis,  123;  Janus,  18;  June 
Lacinia,  15;  Solomon's, 
52,  69 

Tents,  of  Greek  soldiers,  154 

Terminus,  119 

Terpsichore,  127 

Terra  cotta,  263 

Thalia,  127 

Theatre,  performances  in,  176; 
of  Romans,  246  ;  of  Greeks, 
175 

Theban  war,  heroes  of,  136 

Thebes,  constitution  of,  192; 
supremacy  of,  74 

Themis,  94,  117 

Themistocles,  his  eminence  in 
state,  73 

Theogony,  Greek,  87,  146 

Theomancy,  167 

Thersander,  136 

Theseus,  134 

Thessaly,  24' 

Thrace,  20,  21,  145 

Thracians,  widows,  149 

Thrasybulus,  177 

Thrasyllus,  monument  of,  33 

Threshing  floor, 264 

Thyestes,  136 

Thymbra,  battle  of,  70 

Thyoue,  109 

Thyrsus,  of  Bacchus,  110 

Time,  personified.  91 

Titanides,  91, 124' 

Titans,  124 

Tithonus,  114 

Titus,  conqueror,  70 

Titvns,  111(1 

Toilet,  Grecian,  209;  Roman, 
299,  390 

Tomb,  of  Cyrus,  &c,  223;  Ro- 
man at  Pompeii,  303;  at 
Cyrene,  66;  of  Virgil,  12 

Tombs  of  early  Christians,  303 

Topography,  of  Rome,  16;  of 
Alliens,  28;  Sparta,  36 

Totila,Rome  laid  waste  by, 225 

Towers,  ancient,  281 

Towns,  with  names  ending  in 
center,  2S0 

Trade,  at  Rome,  263;  in  slaves, 
289 

Traditions  of  mythology,  83 

Translucent  stone,  290 

Treasury,  Athenian,  182;  Ro- 
man, 261 

Treaties,  157,234 

Trees,  cultivated  by  Romans, 
264 

Trial,  of  persons  accused,  185 
259 

Tribes,  of  Athens,  177,  178; 
Sparta,  188;   Rome,  252 

Tribunes,  Roman, 76,  250,  251 

Trident,  98 

Tripods,  consecrated  to  Apollo 
149,  165;  street  of,  33 

Triptolemils,  110 

Triremes,  202 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


3:$1 


TrisniBgistus,  108 

Tritons,  125 

Triumph  of  Roman  generals, 
28a 

Triumvirate,  77, 252,  267 

Trojan  history,  70;   war,  70,  72 

Trophies,  19,  149,  199 

Trophonius,  oracle  of,  166 

Trumpets,  217 

Tubal-Cain,  107 

Tunnel  of  Pausilypua,  12 

Tusks  of  the  Calyitonian  boar, 
26 

Twelve  Tables,  laws  of,  261 

Tydeus,  136 

Typhon,  125,  132 

Tyranny,  Roman,  over  pro- 
vinces, 258 

Tyrants,  the  thirty,  74,  177 

Tyre,  capture  of,  by  Alexan- 
der, 70 

U. 

Ulysses,  137 

Urania,  127 

Uranus,  113 

Urns,  for  voting,  184;  for  de- 
positing the  ashes  of  the 
dead,  221,  303 

Utensils,  ancient,  found  at 
Pompeii,  291,  300;  repre- 
sented on  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, 232 


Valor,  18 

Valley  of  Moffeta,  12 
Valmic,  Hindoo  poet,  110 
Vases,   Panathenaic,  172;  sa- 
crificial, 232;  Egyptian,  124 
Veils,  208,209 

Venus,  105;    places  sacred   to 
her,  106;  temple  of,  at  Hie- 
rapolis,    106;    at    Paphos, 
53;  Anadyomene,  106 
Vertumnus.  119 
Vessels,  for  holding  wine,  296, 
297;  of  war,  200,  282;  sa- 
crificial, 232 
Vesta,  93,  113 
Vestal  virgins,  113,236 
Vices,  deified,  122 
Victims,  in  sacrifice,  237 
Victorv,   goddess   of,   120;  re- 
wards of,  199,  204 


Vigils,  or  watches  of  Romans, 
59 

Villas,  or  country  seats  of  Ro- 
mans, 12.291 

Violet,  robe  of  office,  297 

Violin,  ancient,  217 

Virgo,  117 

Vishnu,  Hindoo  deity,  95 

Virtues,  deified,  122 

Voting,  Athenian  mode  (.f,  183, 
184;  Roman,  256,  257 

Vows,  238 

Vulcan,  107 

Vulcanalia,  107 

W. 

Wages  of  Roman  soldiers,  274 

Walls,  Roman  in  England,  40 

Wand  of  Apollo  or  Mercury,  108 

War,  heroes  of  the  Theban, 
136;  of  the  Trojan,  136; 
affairs  of,  among  Greeks, 
153,  193;  Romans,  270: 
declaration  of,  197,  234  ; 
the  Social, 77;  the  Sacred, 
165;  the  Sertorian,  8;  of 
Troy,  Bryant's  view  of  it, 
137 

War-chariots,  193 

War-engines,  260 

War -sal  leys,  200,  282 

Wards  or  boroughs  of  Attica, 
178 

Watches,  divisions  of  the  night, 
60,  240,  280 

Watch-word,  280 

Water-clock,  60 

Wealth,  instances  of  Roman, 
267;  god  of,  118 

Weapons  or  arms,  of  the  an- 
cients, 153,  194,  274 

Weeding,  goddess  of,  120 

Week,  known  to  Egyptians,  61 

Weights  and  measures,  Greek, 
214;  Roman,  266 

Well  of  Syene,  54 

Widows,  burning  of  at  fune- 
rals, 149 

Wife  of  the  Rex  Sacrorum,  and 
of  the  Flamen  Dialis,  234, 
235 

Wilfs,  221 

Wind-instruments  of  music, 
217 

Wind,  woven,  209 


Windows,  of  Roman  houses, 
290 

Winds,  as  gods,  128;  temple 
of,  31,  60 

Wine-cellars,  291,  296 

Wines,  of  Greeks,  204  ;  of  Ro- 
mans, 295;  history  of,  204, 
297 

Winter-quarters,  of  Roman 
soldiers,  280 

Witnesses  in  courts,  239 

Women,  condition  and  em- 
ployments of  among  tin: 
Greek*?  158,  218;  Romans 
287 

Wonders  of  the  world,  seven. 
114 

World,  as  known  to  the  an- 
cients  3 

Worship,  Greek  religious,  148; 
Roman,  237 

Wrestling,  173,  243 

Writers,  on  mythology,  88, 
89;  on  Greek  antiquities, 
144,  140;  Roman  antiqui- 
ties, 227, 228 ;  Roman  mili- 
tary affairs,  270;  ancient 
weights  and  tneasures,270 ; 
chronology,  6li ;  on  horo- 
logy, 60  ;  topography  of 
Rome,  16;  topography  of 
Athens,  33;  of  Sparta,  38; 
ll'.yzantium,  20;  Babylon 
and  Nineveh,  53;  Jerusa- 
lem, 52. — See  also  refer- 
ences under  specific  sub- 
jects ;  e.  g.  for  writers  on 
Jewish  history,  see  Jewish 
history,  in  this  Index. 

*  X. 

Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  70 

Y. 

Year,  division  of  by  the  an- 
cients, 62 

Yero  or  Jero,  117 

Young,  time  of  burying  among 
the  Greeks,  221 

Youth,  goddess  of,  96 


Zama,  battle  of,  72,  77 
Zodiac  of  Denderah,  54 
Zones  4 


THE   END. 


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